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Module 1
Basics of Networking
1.2 Network Types
Computer networks are classified according to various parameters: 1) Type of connection, 2)
physical topology, and 3) reach of the network. These classifications are helpful in deciding
the requirements of a network setup and provide insights into the appropriate selection of a
network type for the setup.
1.2.1 Connection types
Depending on the way a host communicates with other hosts, computer networks are of two
types—(Figure 1.1): Point-to-point and Point-to-multipoint.
(i) Point-to-point: Point-to-point connections are used to establish direct connections
between two hosts. Day-to-day systems such as a remote control for an air conditioner
or television is a point to point connection, where the connection has the whole
channel dedicated to it only. These networks were designed to work over duplex links
and are functional for both synchronous as well as asynchronous systems. Regarding
computer networks, point to point connections find usage for specific purposes such
as in optical networks.
(ii) Point-to-multipoint: In a point-to-multipoint connection, more than two hosts share
the same link. This type of configuration is similar to the one-to-many connection
type. Point-to-multipoint connections find popular use in wireless networks and IP
telephony. The channel is shared between the various hosts, either spatially or
temporally. One common scheme of spatial sharing of the channel is frequency
division multiple access (FDMA). Temporal sharing of channels include approaches
such as time division multiple access (TDMA). Each of the spectral and temporal
sharing approaches has various schemes and protocols for channel sharing in point-to-
multipoint networks. Point-tomultipoint connections find popular use in present-day
networks, especially while enabling communication between a massive number of
connected devices.

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1.2.2 Physical topology

Depending on the physical manner in which communication paths between the hosts are
connected, computer networks can have the following four broad topologies— (Figure 1.2):
Star, Mesh, Bus, and Ring.
(i) Star: In a star topology, every host has a point-to-point link to a central controller or hub.
The hosts cannot communicate with one another directly; they can only do so through the
central hub. The hub acts as the network traffic exchange. For large-scale systems, the hub,
essentially, has to be a powerful server to handle all the simultaneous traffic flowing through
it. However, as there are fewer links (only one link per host), this topology is cheaper and
easier to set up. The main advantages of the star topology are easy installation and the ease of
fault identification within the network. If the central hub remains uncompromised, link
failures between a host and the hub do not have a big effect on the network, except for the
host that is affected. However, the main disadvantage of this topology is the danger of a
single point of failure. If the hub fails, the whole network fails.
(ii) Mesh: In a mesh topology, every host is connected to every other host using a dedicated
link (in a point-to-point manner). This implies that for n hosts in a mesh, there are a total of
n(n−1)/2 dedicated full duplex links between the hosts. This massive number of links makes
the mesh topology expensive. However, it offers certain specific advantages over other
topologies. The first significant advantage is the robustness and resilience of the system.
Even if a link is down or broken, the network is still fully functional as there remain other
pathways for the traffic to flow through. The second advantage is the security and privacy of
the traffic as the data is only seen by the intended recipients and not by all members of the
network. The third advantage is the reduced data load on a single host, as every host in this
network takes care of its traffic load. However, owing to the complexities in forming physical
connections between devices and the cost of establishing these links, mesh networks are used
very selectively, such as in backbone networks.
(iii) Bus: A bus topology follows the point-to-multipoint connection. A backbone cable or
bus serves as the primary traffic pathway between the hosts. The hosts are connected to the
main bus employing drop lines or taps. The main advantage of this topology is the ease of
installation. However, there is a restriction on the length of the bus and the number of hosts
that can be simultaneously connected to the bus due to signal loss over the extended bus. The
bus topology has a simple cabling procedure in which a single bus (backbone cable) can be
used for an organization. Multiple drop lines and taps can be used to connect various hosts to
the bus, making installation very easy and cheap. However, the main drawback of this
topology is the difficulty in fault localization within the network.
(iv) Ring: A ring topology works on the principle of a point-to-point connection. Here, each
host is configured to have a dedicated point-to-point connection with its two immediate
neighbouring hosts on either side of it through repeaters at each host. The repetition of this
system forms a ring. The repeaters at each host capture the incoming signal intended for other
hosts, regenerates the bit stream, and passes it onto the next repeater. Fault identification and
set up of the ring topology is quite simple and straightforward. However, the main
disadvantage of this system is the high probability of a single point of failure. If even one
repeater fails, the whole network goes down.

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(c) Bus topology (d) Ring Topology

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1.2.3 Network reachability

Computer networks are divided into four broad categories based on network reachability:
personal area networks, local area networks, wide area networks, and metropolitan area
networks.
(i) Personal Area Networks (PAN): PANs, as the name suggests, are mostly restricted to
individual usage. A good example of PANs may be connected wireless headphones, wireless
speakers, laptops, smartphones, wireless keyboards, wireless mouse, and printers within a
house. Generally, PANs are wireless networks, which make use of low-range and low-power
technologies such as Bluetooth. The reachability of PANs lies in the range of a few
centimeters to a few meters.
(ii) Local Area Networks (LAN): A LAN is a collection of hosts linked to a single network
through wired or wireless connections. However, LANs are restricted to buildings,
organizations, or campuses. Typically, a few leased lines connected to the Internet provide
web access to the whole organization or a campus; the lines are further redistributed to
multiple hosts within the LAN enabling hosts. The hosts are much more in number than the
actual direct lines to the Internet to access the web from within the organization. This also
allows the organization to define various access control policies for web access within its
hierarchy. Typically, the present-day data access rates within the LANs range from 100 Mbps
to 1000 Mbps, with very high fault-tolerance levels. Commonly used network components in
a LAN are servers, hubs, routers, switches, terminals, and computers.
(iii) Metropolitan Area Networks (MAN): The reachability of a MAN lies between that of a
LAN and a WAN. Typically, MANs connect various organizations or buildings within a
given geographic location or city. An excellent example of a MAN is an Internet service
provider (ISP) supplying Internet connectivity to various organizations within a city. As
MANs are costly, they may not be owned by individuals or even single organizations.
Typical networking devices/components in MANs are modems and cables. MANs tend to
have moderate fault tolerance levels.
(iv) Wide Area Networks (WAN): WANs typically connect diverse geographic locations.
However, they are restricted within the boundaries of a state or country. The data rate of
WANs is in the order of a fraction of LAN’s data rate. Typically, WANs connecting two
LANs or MANs may use public switched telephone networks (PSTNs) or satellite-based
links. Due to the long transmission ranges, WANs tend to have more errors and noise during
transmission and are very costly to maintain. The fault tolerance of WANs are also generally
low.
1.3 Layered Network Models
The intercommunication between hosts in any computer network, be it a large-scale or a
small-scale one, is built upon the premise of various task-specific layers. Two of the most
commonly accepted and used traditional layered network models are the open systems
interconnection developed by the International Organization of Standardization (ISO-OSI)
reference model and the Internet protocol suite.

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1.3.1 OSI Model

The ISO-OSI model is a conceptual framework that partitions any networked communication
device into seven layers of abstraction, each performing distinct tasks based on the
underlying technology and internal structure of the hosts. These seven layers, from bottom-
up, are as follows: 1) Physical layer, 2) Data link layer, 3) Network layer, 4) Transport layer,
5) Session layer, 6) Presentation layer, and 7) Application layer. The major highlights of each
of these layers are explained in this section.
(i) Physical Layer: This is a media layer and is also referred to as layer 1 of the OSI model.
The physical layer is responsible for taking care of the electrical and mechanical operations
of the host at the actual physical level. These operations include or deal with issues relating to
signal generation, signal transfer, voltages, the layout of cables, physical port layout, line
impedances, and signal loss. This layer is responsible for the topological layout of the
network (star, mesh, bus, or ring), communication mode (simplex, duplex, full duplex), and
bit rate control operations. The protocol data unit associated with this layer is referred to as a
symbol.
(ii) Data Link Layer: This is a media layer and layer 2 of the OSI model. The data link layer
is mainly concerned with the establishment and termination of the connection between two
hosts, and the detection and correction of errors during communication between two or more
connected hosts. IEEE 802 divides the OSI layer 2 further into two sub-layers [2]: Medium
access control (MAC) and logical link control (LLC). MAC is responsible for access control
and permissions for connecting networked devices; whereas LLC is mainly tasked with error
checking, flow control, and frame synchronization. The protocol data unit associated with
this layer is referred to as a frame.
(iii) Network Layer: This layer is a media layer and layer 3 of the OSI model. It provides a
means of routing data to various hosts connected to different networks through logical paths
called virtual circuits. These logical paths may pass through other intermediate hosts (nodes)
before reaching the actual destination host. The primary tasks of this layer include
addressing, sequencing of packets, congestion control, error handling, and Internetworking.
The protocol data unit associated with this layer is referred to as a packet.

(iv) Transport Layer: This is layer 4 of the OSI model and is a host layer. The transport layer
is tasked with end-to-end error recovery and flow control to achieve a transparent transfer of
data between hosts. This layer is responsible for keeping track of acknowledgments during
variable-length data transfer between hosts. In case of loss of data, or when no
acknowledgment is received, the transport layer ensures that the particular erroneous data
segment is re-sent to the receiving host. The protocol data unit associated with this layer is
referred to as a segment or datagram.
(v) Session Layer: This is the OSI model’s layer 5 and is a host layer. It is responsible for
establishing, controlling, and terminating of communication between networked hosts. The
session layer sees full utilization during operations such as remote procedure calls and remote
sessions. The protocol data unit associated with this layer is referred to as data.

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(vi) Presentation Layer: This layer is a host layer and layer 6 of the OSI model. It is mainly
responsible for data format conversions and encryption tasks such that the syntactic
compatibility of the data is maintained across the network, for which it is also referred to as
the syntax layer. The protocol data unit associated with this layer is referred to as data.
(vii) Application Layer: This is layer 6 of the OSI model and is a host layer. It is directly
accessible by an end-user through software APIs (application program interfaces) and
terminals. Applications such as file transfers, FTP (file transfer protocol), e-mails, and other
such operations are initiated from this layer. The application layer deals with user
authentication, identification of communication hosts, quality of service, and privacy. The
protocol data unit associated with this layer is referred to as data.

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1.3.2 Internet Protocol Suite

The Internet protocol suite is yet another conceptual framework that provides levels of
abstraction for ease of understanding and development of communication and networked
systems on the Internet. However, the Internet protocol suite predates the OSI model and
provides only four levels of abstraction: 1) Link layer, 2) Internet layer, 3) transport layer,
and 4) application layer. This collection of protocols is commonly referred to as the TCP/IP
protocol suite as the foundation technologies of this suite are transmission control protocol
(TCP) and Internet protocol (IP) [3], [4], [6]. The TCP/IP protocol suite comprises the
following four layers:
(i) Link Layer: The first and base layer of the TCP/IP protocol suite is also known as
the network interface layer. This layer is synonymous with the collective physical
and data link layer of the OSI model. It enables the transmission of TCP/IP
packets over the physical medium. According to its design principles, the link
layer is independent of the medium in use, frame format, and network access,
enabling it to be used with a wide range of technologies such as the Ethernet,
wireless LAN, and the asynchronous transfer mode (ATM).
(ii) Internet Layer: Layer 2 of the TCP/IP protocol suite is somewhat synonymous to
the network layer of the OSI model. It is responsible for addressing, address
translation, data packaging, data disassembly and assembly, routing, and packet
delivery tracking operations. Some core protocols associated with this layer are

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address resolution protocol (ARP), Internet protocol (IP), Internet control message
protocol (ICMP), and Internet group management protocol (IGMP). Traditionally,
this layer was built upon IPv4, which is gradually shifting to IPv6, enabling the
accommodation of a much more significant number of addresses and security
measures.

(iii) Transport Layer: Layer 3 of the TCP/IP protocol suite is functionally synonymous
with the transport layer of the OSI model. This layer is tasked with the functions
of error control, flow control, congestion control, segmentation, and addressing in
an end-to-end manner; it is also independent of the underlying network.
Transmission control protocol (TCP) and user datagram protocol (UDP) are the
core protocols upon which this layer is built, which in turn enables it to have the
choice of providing connection-oriented or connectionless services between two
or more hosts or networked devices.

(iv) Application Layer: The functionalities of the application layer, layer 4, of the
TCP/IP protocol suite are synonymous with the collective functionalities of the
OSI model’s session, presentation, and application layers. This layer enables an
end-user to access the services of the underlying layers and defines the protocols
for the transfer of data. Hypertext transfer protocol (HTTP), file transfer protocol
(FTP), simple mail transfer protocol (SMTP), domain name system (DNS),
routing information protocol (RIP), and simple network management protocol
(SNMP) are some of the core protocols associated with this layer.

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Emergence of IoT

4.1 Introduction

Typically, IoT systems can be characterized by the following features:

• Associated architectures, which are also efficient and scalable.
• No ambiguity in naming and addressing.
• Massive number of constrained devices, sleeping nodes, mobile devices, and non-IP devices.
• Intermittent and often unstable connectivity.

4.2 Evolution of IoT

The IoT, as we see it today, is a result of a series of technological paradigm shifts over a
few decades. The technologies that laid the foundation of connected systems by achieving
easy integration to daily lives, popular public acceptance, and massive benefits by using
connected solutions can be considered as the founding solutions for the development of IoT.
Figure 4.6 shows the sequence of technological advancements for shaping the IoT as it is
today. These sequence of technical developments toward the emergence of IoT are
described in brief:

• ATM: ATMs or automated teller machines are cash distribution machines, which are
linked to a user’s bank account. ATMs dispense cash upon verification of the identity of a
user and their account through a specially coded card. The central concept behind ATMs
was the availability of financial transactions even when banks were closed beyond their
regular work hours. These ATMs were ubiquitous money dispensers. The first ATM
became operational and connected online for the first time in 1974.
• Web: World Wide Web is a global information sharing and communication platform. The
Web became operational for the first time in 1991. Since then, it has been massively
responsible for the many revolutions in the field of computing and communication.
• Smart Meters: The earliest smart meter was a power meter, which became operational in
early 2000. These power meters were capable of communicating remotely with the power
grid. They enabled remote monitoring of subscribers’ power usage and eased the process of
billing and power allocation from grids.
• Digital Locks: Digital locks can be considered as one of the earlier attempts at connected
home-automation systems. Present-day digital locks are so robust that smartphones can be
used to control them. Operations such as locking and unlocking doors, changing key codes,
including new members in the access lists, can be easily performed, and that too remotely
using smartphones.
• Connected Healthcare: Here, healthcare devices connect to hospitals, doctors, and relatives
to alert them of medical emergencies and take preventive measures. The devices may be

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simple wearable appliances, monitoring just the heart rate and pulse of the wearer, as well
as regular medical devices and monitors in hospitals. The connected nature of these systems
makes the availability of medical records and test results much faster, cheaper, and
convenient for both patients as well as hospital authorities.
• Connected Vehicles: Connected vehicles may communicate to the Internet or with other
vehicles, or even with sensors and actuators contained within it. These vehicles self-
diagnose themselves and alert owners about system failures.
• Smart Cities: This is a city-wide implementation of smart sensing, monitoring, and
actuation systems. The city-wide infrastructure communicating amongst themselves enables
unified and synchronized operations and information dissemination. Some of the facilities
which may benefit are parking, transportation, and others.
• Smart Dust: These are microscopic computers. Smaller than a grain of sand each, they can
be used in numerous beneficial ways, where regular computers cannot operate. For
example, smart dust can be sprayed to measure chemicals in the soil or even to diagnose
problems in the human body.
• Smart Factories: These factories can monitor plant processes, assembly lines, distribution
lines, and manage factory floors all on their own. The reduction in mishaps due to human
errors in judgment or unoptimized processes is drastically reduced.
• UAVs: UAVs or unmanned aerial vehicles have emerged as robust publicdomain solutions
tasked with applications ranging from agriculture, surveys, surveillance, deliveries, stock
maintenance, asset management, and other tasks.

(i) M2M: The M2M or the machine-to-machine paradigm signifies a system of

connected machines and devices, which can talk amongst themselves without human
intervention. The communication between the machines can be for updates on
machine status (stocks, health, power status, and others), collaborative task
completion, overall knowledge of the systems and the environment, and others.
(ii) CPS: The CPS or the cyber physical system paradigm insinuates a closed control
loop—from sensing, processing, and finally to actuation—using a feedback

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mechanism. CPS helps in maintaining the state of an environment through the

feedback control loop, which ensures that until the desired state is attained, the
system keeps on actuating and sensing. Humans have a simple supervisory role in
CPS-based systems; most of the ground-level operations are automated.
(iii) IoE: The IoE paradigm is mainly concerned with minimizing and even reversing the
ill-effects of the permeation of Internet-based technologies on the environment [3].
The major focus areas of this paradigm include smart and sustainable farming,
sustainable and energy-efficient habitats, enhancing the energy efficiency of systems
and processes, and others. In brief, we can safely assume that any aspect of IoT that
concerns and affects the environment, falls under the purview of IoE.
(iv) Industry 4.0: Industry 4.0 is commonly referred to as the fourth industrial revolution
pertaining to digitization in the manufacturing industry. The previous revolutions
chronologically dealt with mechanization, mass production, and the industrial
revolution, respectively. This paradigm strongly puts forward the concept of smart
factories, where machines talk to one another without much human involvement
based on a framework of CPS and IoT. The digitization and connectedness in
Industry 4.0 translate to better resource and workforce management, optimization of
production time and resources, and better upkeep and lifetimes of industrial systems.
(v) IoP: IoP is a new technological movement on the Internet which aims to decentralize
online social interactions, payments, transactions, and other tasks while maintaining
confidentiality and privacy of its user’s data. A famous site for IoP states that as the
introduction of the Bitcoin has severely limited the power of banks and
governments, the acceptance of IoP will limit the power of corporations,
governments, and their spy agencies.

4.2.1 IoT versus M2M

M2M or the machine-to-machine paradigm refers to communications and
interactions between various machines and devices. These interactions can be
enabled through a cloud computing infrastructure, a server, or simply a local
network hub. M2M collects data from machinery and sensors, while also enabling
device management and device interaction. Telecommunication services providers
introduced the term M2M, and technically emphasized on machine interactions via
one or more communication networks (e.g., 3G, 4G, 5G, satellite, public networks).
M2M is part of the IoT and is considered as one of its sub-domains, as shown in
Figure 4.7. M2M standards occupy a core place in the IoT landscape. However, in
terms of operational and functional scope, IoT is vaster than M2M and comprises a
broader range of interactions such as the interactions between devices/things, things,
and people, things and applications, and people with applications; M2M enables the
amalgamation of workflows comprising such interactions within IoT. Internet
connectivity is central to the IoT theme but is not necessarily focused on the use of
telecom networks.
4.2.2 IoT versus CPS
Cyber physical systems (CPS) encompasses sensing, control, actuation, and
feedback as a complete package. In other words, a digital twin is attached to a CPS-
based system. As mentioned earlier, a digital twin is a virtual system–model

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relation, in which the system signifies a physical system or equipment or a piece of

machinery, while the model represents the mathematical model or representation of
the physical system’s behavior or operation. Many a time, a digital twin is used
parallel to a physical system, especially in CPS as it allows for the comparison of the
physical system’s output, performance, and health. Based on feedback from the
digital twin, a physical system can be easily given corrective directions/commands
to obtain desirable outputs. In contrast, the IoT paradigm does not compulsorily
need feedback or a digital twin system. IoT is more focused on networking than
controls. Some of the constituent sub-systems in an IoT environment (such as those
formed by CPS-based instruments and networks) may include feedback and controls
too. In this light, CPS may be considered as one of the sub-domains of IoT.

4.2.3 IoT versus WoT

From a developer’s perspective, the Web of Things (WoT) paradigm enables access
and control over IoT resources and applications. These resources and applications
are generally built using technologies such as HTML 5.0, JavaScript, Ajax, PHP,
and others. REST (representational state transfer) is one of the key enablers of WoT.
The use of RESTful principles and RESTful APIs (application program interface)
enables both developers and deployers to benefit from the recognition, acceptance,
and maturity of existing web technologies without having to redesign and redeploy
solutions from scratch. Still, designing and building the WoT paradigm has various
adaptability and security challenges, especially when trying to build a globally
uniform WoT. As IoT is focused on creating networks comprising objects, things,
people, systems, and applications, which often do not consider the unification aspect
and the limitations of the Internet, the need for WoT, which aims to integrate the
various focus areas of IoT into the existing Web is really invaluable. Technically,
WoT can be thought of as an application layer-based hat added over the network
layer. However, the scope of IoT applications is much broader; IoT also which
includes non-IP-based systems that are not accessible through the web.

4.3 Enabling IoT and the Complex Interdependence of Technologies

IoT is a paradigm built upon complex interdependencies of technologies (both

legacy and modern), which occur at various planes of this paradigm. Regarding
Figure 4.8, we can divide the IoT paradigm into four planes: services, local
connectivity, global connectivity, and processing. If we consider a bottom-up view,
the services offered fall under the control and purview of service providers. The
service plane is composed of two parts: 1) things or devices and 2) low-power
connectivity.

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 Typically, the services offered in this layer are a combination of things and
low-power connectivity. The immediate low-power connectivity, which is
responsible for connecting the things in local implementation, may be legacy
protocols.
 The range of these connectivity technologies is severely restricted; they are
responsible for the connectivity between the things of the IoT and the nearest
hub or gateway to access the Internet.
 The local connectivity is responsible for distributing Internet access to
multiple local IoT deployments. This distribution may be on the basis of the
physical placement of the things, on the basis of the application domains, or
even on the basis of providers of services. Services such as address
management, device management, security, sleep scheduling, and others fall
within the scope of this plane.
 In continuation, the penultimate plane of global connectivity plays a
significant role in enabling IoT in the real sense by allowing for worldwide
implementations and connectivity between things, users, controllers, and
applications. This plane also falls under the purview of IoT management as it
decides how and when to store data, when to process it, when to forward it,
and in which form to forward it. The Web, data-centers, remote servers,
Cloud, and others make up this plane.
 The final plane of processing can be considered as a top-up of the basic IoT
networking framework. The continuous rise in the usefulness and penetration
of IoT in various application areas such as industries, transportation,
healthcare, and others is the result of this plane. Various computing

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paradigms such as “big data”, “machine Learning”, and others, fall within
the scope of this domain.

4.4 IoT Networking Components

(i) IoT Node: These are the networking devices within an IoT LAN. Each of
these devices is typically made up of a sensor, a processor, and a radio,
which communicates with the network infrastructure (either within the LAN
or outside it). The nodes may be connected to other nodes inside a LAN
directly or by means of a common gateway for that LAN. Connections
outside the LAN are through gateways and proxies.
(ii) IoT Router: An I oT router is a piece of networking equipment that is
primarily tasked with the routing of packets between various entities in the
IoT network; it keeps the traffic flowing correctly within the network. A
router can be repurposed as a gateway by enhancing its functionalities.
(iii) IoT LAN: The local area network (LAN) enables local connectivity within
the purview of a single gateway. Typically, they consist of short-range
connectivity technologies. IoT LANs may or may not be connected to the
Internet. Generally, they are localized within a building or an organization.
(iv) IoT WAN: The wide area network (WAN) connects various network
segments such as LANs. They are typically organizationally and
geographically wide, with their operational range lying between a few
kilometers to hundreds of kilometers. IoT WANs connect to the Internet and
enable Internet access to the segments they are connecting.

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(v) IoT Gateway: An IoT gateway is simply a router connecting the IoT LAN to
a WAN or the Internet. Gateways can implement several LANs and WANs.
Their primary task is to forward packets between LANs and WANs, and the
IP layer using only layer 3.
(vi) IoT Proxy: Proxies actively lie on the application layer and performs
application layer functions between IoT nodes and other entities. Typically,
application layer proxies are a means of providing security to the network
entities under it ; it helps to extend the addressing range of its network.

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