INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER

COM 111

BY

KEHINDE ROTIMI KOLADE

08034277127

WHAT IS A COMPUTER?

The term computer is obtained from the word compute (that is “calculate”). A computer is an
electronic device that takes data as inputs, processes the data, stores it and outputs the result
in a specified format. It outputs the result in hard copy or soft copy. The hard copy is the paper
printout from the printer while the soft copy the screen display. Data is all kinds of facts,
including, pictures, letters, numbers, and sounds. Data has no stable state, what is information
to you is data to somebody else. For instance, your ordinary level result is information about
your performance in an examination. By presenting the same result sheet at Federal School of
Surveying, Oyo for admission turns it to data. There are two main parts of computers, hardware
and software. Hardware is all of the parts of the computer you can see and touch. Software is
the instructions that a computer uses to do what you ask it to. Pieces of software are often
called programs. The basic function performed by a computer is the execution of a program.

Figure 1.1 – A Complete computer system

The Basic Functions of a Computer

Any digital computer carries out five functions in gross terms:

 Takes data as input.

 Stores the data/instructions in its memory and can use them when required.
 Processes the data and converts it into useful information.
 Outputs the information.
 Controls all the above four steps.

Many people mistakenly think that where the computer normally displays things is the computer.
This is not true. That is the monitor (see Figure 1.2). The computer is usually a box (see Figure
1.3). Also, you may call the whole assembly of all the hardware (the computer and the monitor,
for example) the computer.

Figure 1.2 - A Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) monitor

Figure 1.3 – The Computer (System Unit)

There are different styles of monitors. One of these is the one already shown. It is called a CRT
monitor. It takes more power than the other popular kind, called LCDs and LEDs (see Figure
1.4). However, CRT monitors work faster, which makes them better for fast games because the
movement will blur less. LCDs are thinner than CRTs, but they are more expensive.

Figure 1.4 – A Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) Monitor

Monitors are only one way the computer can output information for you to see. Another popular
output device is called a printer (see Figure 1. 5). Printers are used to put data on paper. This is
called hard copy, what monitors show on screen is called soft copy. Computers can also output
sounds; this is also soft copy

Figure 1.5 – A Printer

There are also different kinds of input hardware. The two most important are the mouse and the
keyboard. A mouse (Figure 1.6) is used to move the cursor around the screen (monitor display).
A keyboard (see Figure 1.7) is used to enter (type) letters, numbers, and other symbols into a
computer.

Figure 1.6 - A Mouse

 Figure 1.6 - A Keyboard

Computers store all data in binary code, which is a number system that only uses ones and zeros.
One digit in binary code is called a bit, eight bits is called a byte. A byte is the amount of space
one letter takes up. However when letters are formatted specially they get bigger, and so usually
things on a computer are thousands of bytes in size. There are many different kinds of
computers. The ones that most people use are called Personal Computers (PCs). Smaller
computers that are about the size of a briefcase are called laptops or notebooks. There are also
much more powerful computers called mainframes that can be as big as a room or a house!

Main Parts of a Personal Computer

The System Unit • The "system unit" is the name given to the main PC box that houses the
various elements that go together to make up the PC. For instance within the system unit is the
computer system's motherboard, which contains all the main components, such as the CPU. The
system unit also houses items such as the hard disk, the floppy disk and CD-ROM drives etc.
System units come in two basic varieties, the tower version, as illustrated, or a desktop version,
which is designed to sit on your desk with your monitor on top of the system unit.

The System (Mother) Board

The system (mother) board is contained within your system unit and all the vital computer
systems plug directly into the system board. The CPU is normally housed on your system board
along with all the other electronic components. Other items such as the hard disk are attached to
the system board, either directly or via cables. These boards are getting smaller and smaller as
the components become more integrated. If you open up a modern system you will find that it is
mainly full of air.

The CPU (Central Processing Unit)

The CPU is the brains within your computer. It performs most of the calculations within the
computer and is responsible for the smooth running of your operating system (Microsoft
Windows) as well as your application programs, such as wordprocessors, spreadsheets and
databases. There is a small amount of memory associated with the CPU, which it uses to perform
these operations. It also accesses and uses the main memory (RAM - Random Access Memory)
within your computer. In many ways, the CPU is the single most important item within your
computer that governs the overall speed of your computer. The CPU's speed is measured in
MHz. This relates to the frequency that the CPU runs at and the higher the MHz rating of your
CPU the faster your computer will run. To give you some indication of how PCs have advanced
over the years, the original IBM PC released in 1981 ran at less than 5 MHz while modern PCs
can run at speeds well in excess of 2000 MHz. Note that 1000 MHz is the same a 1 GHz.
Memory RAM

Random Access Memory (RAM) is the main 'working' memory used by the computer. When the
operating system loads from disk when you first switch on the computer, it is copied into RAM.
The original IBM PC could only use up to 640 KB of memory (just over half a megabyte),
whereas a modern computer can effectively house as much RAM as you can afford to buy.
Commonly modern computers are supplied with over 128 MB of RAM. As a rough rule, a
Microsoft Windows based computer will operate faster if you install more RAM. When adverts
refer to a computer having 128 Mbytes of memory, it is this RAM that they are talking about.
Data and programs stored in RAM are volatile (i.e. the information is lost when you switch off
the computer).

Memory ROM-BIOS

The ROM-BIOS (Read Only Memory - Basic Input Output System) chip is a special chip held
on your computer's system (mother) board. It contains software that is required to make your
computer work with your operating system, for instance it is responsible for copying your
operating system into RAM when you switch on your computer

What is a peripheral device?

A peripheral device is any device that you can attach to your computer. Thus, you could attach a
scanner or modem to the back of your system unit.

What are input devices?

Input devices allow you to input information to the computer and include things such as the
keyboard and mouse.
What are output devices?

Output devices allow you to output information from the computer and include the printer and
the monitor.

The Keyboard

An Input device. The keyboard allows you to type information into the computer. It has evolved
over the years and many people now use a Microsoft style keyboard, which has additional keys
designed to make Microsoft Windows easier to use.

The Mouse

An Input device. When using an operating system, such as Microsoft Windows, you use the
mouse to select drop down menus, to point and click on items, to select items and to drag and
drop items from one place to another.

CD-ROM

Most computers are now supplied with a CD-ROM (Compact Disc - Read Only Memory) drive.
CD-ROM discs look exactly like music CDs but contain computer data instead of music. The
advantage of a CD-ROM is that it can hold a vast amount of data (equivalent to the storage
capacity of over 450 floppy disks). The other big advantage of CD-ROMs is that they are
interchangeable. This means that you can own a range of different CD-ROMs and choose which
one to insert into your CD-ROM drive.

DVD Drives

Short for "Digital Versatile Disc”. Similar to CD-ROM drives but allows you to use DVD disks,
which contain vastly more information than a traditional CDROM disk. These also transfer the
data from the disk to the computer far faster, allowing you to watch movies on your computer
screen. A CD-ROM can store 650 MB of data, while a single-layer, single-sided DVD can store
4.7 GB of data. The two-layer DVD standard allows a capacity of 8.5 GB. A double-sided DVD
increases the storage capacity to 17 GB (or over 25 times the data storage capacity of a CD-
ROM).

Blu-Ray

Floppy disk

Floppy disks are also known as diskettes. They are very slow compared to hard disks or CD-
ROMs, and hold relatively small amounts of data (1.44 Mbytes). Sometimes people will backup
(i.e. copy) important data from their hard disk to floppy disks. However, as diskettes are
notoriously unreliable this is not the best way of backing up valuable data (but is better than
nothing).

Zip Disc
A Zip disc is like a more recent version of the floppy disk, the main difference being that a single
Zip disc can hold up to 250 Mbytes of data. They also offer 11 increased speed compared to the
old floppy disk

The CD ROM, floppy and Zip disks are now obsolete. They have been replaced with USB based
flash disks.

Hard (Fixed) Disk

Hard disks are the main, large data storage area within your computer. Hard disks are used to
store your operating system, your application programs (i.e. your word processor, games etc) and
your data. They are much faster than CD-ROMs and floppy disks and can also hold much more
data.

USB Flash Disk

A USB flash drive consists of a flash memory data storage device integrated with a USB
(universal serial bus) interface. USB flash drives are typically removable and rewritable, much
smaller than a floppy disk (1 to 4 inches or 2.5 to 10 cm), and weigh less than 2 ounces (56 g).
Storage capacities typically range from 64 MB to 64 GB with steady improvements in size and
price per gigabyte. Some allow 1 million write or erase cycles and have 10-year data retention,
connected by USB 1.1 or USB 2.0.

USB flash drives offer potential advantages over other portable storage devices, particularly the
floppy disk. They have a more compact shape, operate faster, hold much more data, have a more
durable design, and operate more reliably due to their lack of moving parts. Additionally, it has
become increasingly common for computers to ship without floppy disk drives. USB ports, on
the other hand, appear on almost every current mainstream PC and laptop. These types of drives
use the USB mass storage standard, supported natively by modern operating systems such as
Windows, Mac OS X, Linux, and other Unix-like systems. USB drives with USB 2.0 support can
also operate faster than an optical disc drive, while storing a larger amount of data in a much
smaller space.

The Monitor

An Output device. The monitor is the TV type screen that you view your programs on. They are
supplied in different sizes, common sizes range from 15" to 21" screens. You should be aware
that poor quality or badly maintained monitors could harm your eyesight.

Additional items or cards

Many 'extra' components can easily be fitted to your computer, which has the advantage of
making the computer 'upgradeable' as newer and better hardware using Expansion Slot on the
Motherboard.
Sound cards and speakers

Many computers are now supplied with sound cards and speakers that mean that when you run
'multi-media' programs, you can listen to sounds that are played back via your computer. If you
have a microphone and suitable software, you can also record sounds. You can even purchase
special software that will allow you to talk to your computer and get the computer to type the
words you have spoken on your screen. In time, this type of software may replace the keyboard.

Modems

A modem is a device that is used to attach your computer to the telephone system. The modem
converts data into sound that is sent over the telephone line, the receiving modem turns the
sounds back into data. If you wish to connect to the Internet, you will need a modem.

Printers

Most data is printed once you have created it and there are a vast number of different printers
available to accomplish this. Most common are ink jet and laser printers both of which can now
produce coloured output (at a cost).

Scanners

Scanners allow you to scan printed materials into your computer, which can then be stored
within the computer. These pictures can then be altered, resized and printed as required.

Recordable CDs

CD-ROMs are read-only devices, but increasingly people are purchasing a special type of CD
drive unit that allows you to record data, music or video to your own CDs. These devices require
the purchase of special CDs that you can write to, called CD-R (Compact Disc – Recordable).

How computer memory is measured;

Basic Units of Data Storage: It is important to realize that the term digital computer refers to the
fact that ultimately the computer works in what is called binary. Humans work in tens (because
we have 10 fingers). To use the jargon humans work in base 10. A digital computer uses the
numbers 0 and 1 (or on and off if you prefer). When we talk about computer storage, either the
amount of memory (RAM) or the hard disk capacity we are talking about numbers that are
multiples of 0 or 1

Bit: All computers work on a binary numbering system, i.e. they process data in ones or zeros.
This 1 or 0 level of storage is called a bit. Often hardware is specified as a 32-bit computer,
which means that the hardware can process 32 bits at a time. Software is also described as 16 bit,
32 bit or 64 bit software.

Nibble: A nibble consists of 4 Bits

Byte: A byte consists of eight bits i.e 23 = 2 Nibbles = 1 Character

Kilobyte: A kilobyte (KB) consists of 1024 bytes.

Megabyte: A megabyte (MB) consists of 1024 kilobytes, approximately 1,000,000 bytes.

Gigabyte: A gigabyte (GB) consists of 1024 megabytes, approximately 1,000,000,000 bytes.

Terabyte: A terabyte (TB) consists of approximately 1,000,000,000,000 bytes.

Files: Data and programs are stored on your disk as files. There are different types of files, such
as the files that you store your data in, the files that contain your programs and also files used to
store your operating system (such as Microsoft Windows).

CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPUTERS

Computers have certain definite characteristics that make them unique. These characteristics
include:

(a) Speed: The computers have the ability to execute or carry out instructions at very great speed.

(b) Accuracy: Computers per se do not make errors i.e. there is accuracy of work. Any error is
usually caused by the human elements.

(c) Storage: Computers can store large volume of data/information on secondary storage, which
can be retrieved at a later time.

(d) Consistency: Computers have the ability to consistently follow instructions without getting
tired.

(e) Repetitiveness: Computers have the ability to continue processing over an extended period.

(f) Complexity: Computers have the ability to carry out very complex operations that beats the
best human ability.
 Computer Generations
Generation in computer terminology is a change in technology a computer is/was being used.
Initially, the generation term was used to distinguish between varying hardware technologies.
But nowadays, generation includes both hardware and software, which together make up an
entire computer system.

There are totally five computer generations known till date. Each generation has been discussed
in detail along with their time period, characteristics. We've used approximate dates against each
generation which are normally accepted.

Following are the main five generations of computers:

First Generation
The period of first generation was 1946-1959.
First generation of computers started with using vacuum tubes as the basic components for
memory and circuitry for CPU (Central Processing Unit). These tubes like electric bulbs
produced a lot of heat and were prone to frequent fusing of the installations, therefore, were very
expensive and could be afforded only by very large organisations.

In this generation, mainly batch processing operating systems were used. In this generation,
Punched cards, Paper tape, Magnetic tape Input & Output device were used.
There were machine codes and electric wired board languages used.

The main features of First Generation are:

 Vacuum tube technology
 Unreliable
 Supported Machine language only
 Very costly
 Generate lot of heat
 Slow Input/Output device
 Huge size
 Need of A.C.
 Non-portable
 Consumed lot of electricity

Some computers of this generation were:

 ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator Automatic Computer)
 EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer)
 UNIVAC (Universal Automatic Computer)
 IBM-701
 IBM-650
 Second Generation
The period of second generation was 1959-1965.
This generation using the transistor were cheaper, consumed less power, more compact in size,
more reliable and faster than the first generation machines made of vacuum tubes. In this
generation, magnetic cores were used as primary memory and magnetic tape and magnetic disks
as secondary storage devices.

In this generation, assembly language and high-level programming language like FORTRAN,
COBOL was used.

There were Batch processing and Multiprogramming Operating system used.

The main features of Second Generation are:

 Use of transistors
 Reliable as compared to First generation computers
 Smaller size as compared to First generation computers
 Generate less heat as compared to First generation computers
 Consumed less electricity as compared to First generation computers
 Faster than first generation computers
 Still very costly
 A.C. needed3
 Support machine and assembly languages

Some computers of this generation were:

 IBM 1620
 IBM 7094
 CDC 1604 (Control Data Corporation)
 CDC 3600 (Control Data Corporation)
 UNIVAC 1108 (Universal Automatic Computer)

Third Generation
The period of third generation was 1965-1971.
The third generation of computer is marked by the use of Integrated Circuits (IC's) in place of
transistors. A single IC has many transistors, resistors and capacitors along with the associated
circuitry. The IC was invented by Jack Kilby. This development made computers smaller in size,
reliable and efficient.

In this generation, Remote processing, Time-sharing, Real-time, Multi-programming Operating

System were used.
 High-level language (FORTRAN-II TO IV, COBOL, PASCAL PL/1, BASIC, ALGOL-68, etc.)
were used during this generation.

The main features of Third Generation are:

 IC used
 More reliable
 Smaller size
 Generate less heat
 Faster
 Lesser maintenance
 Still costly
 A.C. needed
 Consumed lesser electricity
 Support high-level language

Some computers of this generation were:

 IBM-360 series
 Honeywell-6000 series
 PDP(Personal Data Processor)
 IBM-370/168
 TDC-316 (Torpedo Data Computer)

Fourth Generation
The period of Fourth Generation was 1971-1980.
The fourth generation of computers is marked by the use of Very Large Scale Integrated (VLSI)
circuits. VLSI circuits having about 5000 transistors and other circuit elements and their
associated circuits on a single chip made it possible to have microcomputers of fourth
generation. Fourth Generation computers became more powerful, compact, reliable, and
affordable. As a result, it gave rise to personal computer (PC) revolution.

In this generation, Time sharing, Real time, Networks, Distributed Operating System were used.
All the higher level languages like C and C++, DBASE, etc., were used in this generation.

The main features of Fourth Generation are:

 VLSI technology used

 Very cheap
 Portable and reliable
 Use of PC's
 Very small size
 Pipeline processing
 No A.C. needed
 Concept of internet was introduced
 Great developments in the fields of networks
 Computers became easily available

Some computers of this generation were:

 DEC 10 (Digital Equipment corporation)

 STAR 1000
 PDP 11
 CRAY-1 (Super Computer)
 CRAY-X-MP (Super Computer)

Fifth Generation
The period of Fifth Generation is 1980-till date.
In the fifth generation, the VLSI technology became ULSI (Ultra Large Scale Integration)
technology, resulting in the production of microprocessor chips having ten million electronic
components.

This generation is based on parallel processing hardware and AI (Artificial Intelligence)

software.

AI is an emerging branch in computer science which interprets means and methods of making
computers think like human beings.

All the higher level languages like C and C++, Java, .Net, etc., are used in this generation.
AI includes:

 Robotics
 Neural networks
 Game Playing
 Development of expert systems to make decisions in real life situations.
 Natural language understanding and generation.

The main features of Fifth Generation are:

 ULSI technology
 Development of true artificial intelligence
 Development of Natural language processing
 Advancement in Parallel Processing
 Advancement in Superconductor technology
 More user friendly interfaces with multimedia features
 Availability of very powerful and compact computers at cheaper rates

Some computers types of this generation are:

 Desktop
 Laptop
 NoteBook
 UltraBook
 ChromeBook
BRIEF HISTORY OF COMPUTER

The first computers were people! That is, electronic computers (and the earlier mechanical
computers) were given this name because they performed the work that had previously been
assigned to people. "Computer" was originally a job title: it was used to describe those human
beings (predominantly women) whose job was to perform the repetitive calculations required to
compute such things as navigational tables, tide charts, and planetary positions for astronomical
almanacs. Imagine you had a job where hour after hour, day after day, you were to do nothing
but compute multiplications. Boredom would quickly set in, leading to carelessness, leading to
mistakes. And even on your best days you wouldn't be producing answers very fast. Therefore,
inventors have been searching for hundreds of years for a way to mechanize (that is, find a
mechanism that can perform) this task.

The abacus was an early aid for mathematical computations. Its only value is that it aids the
memory of the human performing the calculation. A skilled abacus operator can work on
addition and subtraction problems at the speed of a person equipped with a hand calculator
(multiplication and division are slower). The abacus is often wrongly attributed to China. In fact,
the oldest surviving abacus was used in 300 B.C. by the Babylonians. The abacus is still in use
today, principally in the Far East. A modern abacus consists of rings that slide over rods, but the
older one pictured below dates from the time when pebbles were used for counting (the word
"calculus" comes from the Latin word for pebble)

A very old abacus

A more modern abacus. Note how the abacus is really just a representation of the human fingers: the 5 lower rings on each rod
represent the 5 fingers and the 2 upper rings represent the 2 hands
In 1617 an eccentric (some say mad) Scotsman named John Napier invented logarithms, which
are a technology that allows multiplication to be performed via addition. The magic ingredient is
the logarithm of each operand, which was originally obtained from a printed table. But Napier
also invented an alternative to tables, where the logarithm values were carved on ivory sticks
which are now called Napier's Bones

An original set of Napier's Bones [photo courtesy IBM]

A more modern set of Napier's Bones

Napier's invention led directly to the slide rule, first built in England in 1632 and still in use in
the 1960's by the NASA engineers of the Mercury, Gemini, and Apollo programs which landed
men on the moon

A slide rule
Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) made drawings of gear-driven calculating machines but
apparently never built any.

A Leonardo da Vinci drawing showing gears arranged for computing

The first gear-driven calculating machine to actually be built was probably the calculating clock,
so named by its inventor, the German professor Wilhelm Schickard in 1623. This device got
little publicity because Schickard died soon afterward in the bubonic plague.

Schickard's Calculating Clock

In 1642 Blaise Pascal, at age 19, invented the Pascaline as an aid for his father who was a tax
collector. Pascal built 50 of this gear-driven one-function calculator (it could only add) but
couldn't sell many because of their exorbitant cost and because they really weren't that accurate
(at that time it was not possible to fabricate gears with the required precision). Up until the
present age when car dashboards went digital, the odometer portion of a car's speedometer used
the very same mechanism as the Pascaline to increment the next wheel after each full revolution
of the prior wheel. Pascal was a child prodigy. At the age of 12, he was discovered doing his
version of Euclid's thirty-second proposition on the kitchen floor. Pascal went on to invent
probability theory, the hydraulic press, and the syringe. Shown below is an 8 digit version of the
Pascaline, and two views of a 6 digit version:
 Pascal's Pascaline [photo © 2002 IEEE]

A 6 digit model for those who couldn't afford the 8 digit model

Konrad Zuse's electromechanical "Z machines". The Z3 (1941) was the first working machine
featuring binary arithmetic, including floating point arithmetic and a measure of
programmability. In 1998 the Z3 was proved to be Turing complete, therefore being the world's
first operational computer.

• The non-programmable Atanasoff–Berry Computer (1941) which used vacuum tube based
computation, binary numbers, and regenerative capacitor memory.

• The secret British Colossus computers (1943)[8], which had limited programmability but
demonstrated that a device using thousands of tubes could be reasonably reliable and
electronically reprogrammable. It was used for breaking German wartime codes.

• The Harvard Mark I (1944), a large-scale electromechanical computer with limited

programmability.

• The U.S. Army's Ballistics Research Laboratory ENIAC (1946), which used decimal arithmetic
and is sometimes called the first general purpose electronic computer (since Konrad Zuse's Z3 of
1941 used electromagnets instead of electronics). Initially, however, ENIAC had an inflexible
architecture which essentially required rewiring to change its programming.

Several developers of ENIAC, recognizing its flaws, came up with a far more flexible and
elegant design, which came to be known as the "stored program architecture" or von Neumann
architecture. This design was first formally described by John von Neumann in the paper First
Draft of a Report on the EDVAC, distributed in 1945. A number of projects to develop
computers based on the stored-program architecture commenced around this time, the first of
these being completed in Great Britain. The first to be demonstrated working was the
Manchester Small-Scale Experimental Machine (SSEM or "Baby"), while the EDSAC,
completed a year after SSEM, was the first practical implementation of the stored program
design. Shortly thereafter, the machine originally described by von Neumann's
paper—EDVAC—was completed but did not see full-time use for an additional two years.
Today, we have computer systems that are small, fast and highly reliable like the one shown
below.
COMPUTER CLASSES

Computers can be classified based on the following parameters:

 Type of data processed

 The size

 The Purpose or scope

 The age of technology

Classification by type of data processed

In this category, we have:

Digital computers

Analog computers

Hybrid computers

Digital computer
These are computers that operate on discrete values. That is, values that occur at a point in time.
E.g. 0,1,2,3… The output from digital computers is usually in the form of discrete values. This
class of computers is commonly found in the business environments, and they include Desk
Calculators, Adding machines, and most of the computers we have around, that is, the personal
computers

Analog computer
An analog computer is a form of computer that uses continuous physical phenomena such as
electrical, mechanical, or hydraulic quantities to model the problem being solved. The output of
analog computers is usually represented in the form of smooth curves or graphs from which
information can be read.

In general, analog computers are limited by real, non-ideal effects

These are examples of analog computers that have been constructed or practically used:

differential analyzer

Kerriso n Predictor

mechanical integrator

MONIAC Computer (hydraulic model of UK economy)

operational amplifier

planimeter

Rangekeeper

slide rule

thermostat

Torpedo Data Computer

Water integrator

Mechanical computer
Hybrid computer
Hybrid computers are computers that comprise features of analog computers and digital
computers. The digital component normally serves as the controller and provides logical
operations, while the analog component normally serves as a solver of differential equations.

In general, analog computers are extraordinarily fast, since they can solve most complex
equations at the rate at which a signal traverses the circuit, which is generally an appreciable
fraction of the speed of light. On the other hand, the precision of analog computers is not good;
they are limited to three, or at most, four digits of precision.

Hybrid computers can be used to obtain a very good but relatively imprecise 'seed' value, using
an analog computer front-end, which is then fed into a digital computer iterative process to
achieve the final desired degree of precision. With a three or four digit, highly accurate
numerical seed, the total digital computation time necessary to reach the desired precision is
dramatically reduced, since many fewer iterations are required.

Consider that the nervous system in animals is a form of hybrid computer. Signals pass across
the synapses from one nerve cell to the next as discrete (digital) packets of chemicals, which are
then summed within the nerve cell in an analog fashion by building an electro-chemical potential
until its threshold is reached, whereupon it discharges and sends out a series of digital packets to
the next nerve cell. The advantages are at least threefold: noise within the system is minimized
(and tends not to be additive), no common grounding system is required, and there is minimal
degradation of the signal even if there are substantial differences in activity of the cells along a
path (only the signal delays tend to vary). The individual nerve cells are analogous to analog
computers; the synapses are analogous to digital computers.

Note that hybrid computers should be distinguished from hybrid systems. The latter may be no
more than a digital computer equipped with an Analog-to-digital converter at the input and/or a
Digital-to-analog converter at the output, to convert analog signals for ordinary digital signal
processing, and conversely, e.g., for driving physical control systems, such as servomechanisms.
Classification by Purpose or Scope
Using scope as a criterion, computers can be classified into two broad categories:

(a) Dedicated or Special purpose computers: These are computers that are designed to carry out
only specified task. The series of instructions that these types of computer follow to carry out its
operation is in-built and cannot be modified. E.g. word processor, robots used in car
manufacturing plants.

(b) General Purpose Computers: These are computers designed to perform a wide variety of
operations. They can be programmed to carry out scientific oriented applications or business
oriented ones just by changing the series of instructions in its memory.

Classification by Size

Using physical size as a factor, the following types of computers can be identified:

(a) Micro-Computers: These are computers that are small in size which can be placed on the desk
or lap or palm.

(b) Mini Computers: These are large computers that support multi users. Their speed of
operations is high compared to micros.

(c) Mainframe Computers: These are very large computers that support multi users. Their speed
of operations and memory capacity is larger than that of a mini computer.

Classification by Age of Technology

This classification is also referred to as generations of computers. This was discussed above.
INPUT DEVICES AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

An input device is any peripheral (piece of computer hardware equipment) used to provide data
and control signals to an information processing system (such as a computer).

The most common input devices used by the computer are the keyboard and mouse. The
keyboard allows the entry of textual information while the mouse allows the selection of a point
on the screen by moving a screen cursor to the point and pressing a mouse button.

CLASSIFICATION OF INPUT DEVICES

Many input devices can be classified according to:

• The modality of input (e.g. mechanical, motion, audio, visual, etc.)

• Whether the input is discrete (e.g. key presses) or continuous (e.g. a mouse's position, though
digitized into a discrete quantity, is fast enough to be considered continuous)

• The number of degrees of freedom involved (e.g. two-dimensional traditional mice, or three-
dimensional navigators designed for CAD applications)

Pointing devices, which are input devices used to specify a position in space, can further be
classified according to:

• Whether the input is direct or indirect. With direct input, the input space coincides with the
display space, i.e. pointing is done in the space where visual feedback or the cursor appears.
Touch screens and light pens involve direct input. Examples involving indirect input include the
mouse and trackball.

• Whether the positional information is absolute (e.g. on a touch screen) or relative (e.g. with a
mouse that can be lifted and repositioned)

Note that direct input is almost necessarily absolute, but indirect input may be either absolute or
relative. For example, digitizing Graphics tablets that do not have an embedded screen involve
indirect input and sense absolute positions and are often run in an absolute input mode, but they
may also be setup to simulate a relative input mode where the stylus or puck can be lifted and
repositioned

KEYBOARD

A keyboard is a human interface device which is represented as a layout of buttons. Each button,
or key, can be used to either input a linguistic character to a computer, or to call upon a particular
function of the computer. Traditional keyboards use springbased buttons, though newer
variations employ virtual keys, or even projected
POINTING DEVICES

A pointing device is any human interface device that allows a user to input spatial data to a
computer. In the case of mice and touch screens, this is usually achieved by detecting movement
across a physical surface. Analog devices, such as 3D mice, joysticks, or pointing sticks,
function by reporting their angle of deflection. Movements of the pointing device are echoed on
the screen by movements of the cursor, creating a simple, intuitive way to navigate a computer's
GUI.

HIGH-DEGREE OF FREEDOM INPUT DEVICES

Some devices allow many continuous degrees of freedom as input. These can be used as pointing
devices, but are generally used in ways that don't involve pointing to a location in space, such as
the control of a camera angle while in 3D applications. These kinds of devices are typically used
in CAVEs, where input that registers 6DOF is required.

• Wired glove

• Fiber optic sensors (For example, ShapeTape)

• Magnetic or ultrasonic motion tracking devices

• 3D or 6D Mice

• Some haptic devices

COMPOSITE DEVICES

Input devices, such as buttons and joysticks, can be combined on a single physical device that
could be thought of as a composite device. Many gaming devices have controllers like this.
Technically mice are composite devices, as they both track movement and provide buttons for
clicking, but composite devices are generally considered to have more than two different forms
of input.

• Game controller

• Gamepad (or joypad)

• Paddle (game controller)

• Wii Remote

AUDIO INPUT DEVICES

In the fashion of video devices, audio devices are used to either capture or create sound. In some
cases, an audio output device can be used as an input device, in order to capture produced sound.

• Microphone

• MIDI keyboard or other digital musical instrument

IMAGING AND VIDEO INPUT DEVICES

Video input devices are used to digitize images or video from the outside world into the
computer. The information can be stored in a multitude of formats depending on the user's
requirement.

• Webcam
• Image scanner

• Fingerprint scanner

• Barcode reader

• 3D scanner

• Laser rangefinder

Medical Imaging

o Computed tomography

o Magnetic resonance imaging

o Positron emission tomography

o Medical ultrasonography
OUTPUT DEVICES AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

An output device is any piece of computer hardware equipment used to communicate the results
of data processing carried out by an information processing system (such as a computer) to the
outside world.

In computing, input/output, or I/O, refers to the communication between an information

processing system (such as a computer), and the outside world. Inputs are the signals or data sent
to the system, and outputs are the signals or data sent by the system to the outside.

The most common outputs are monitors, printers and speakers.

a. Visual display unit

A visual display unit is also called VDU, monitor, or screen. It offers a two
dimensional visual presentation of information a device that display information
on a screen.

b. Printer

Printers produce a permanent hard copy of the information on paper. It is

computer peripheral that place texts on paper.

c. Speaker

A speaker can be used for various sounds meant to alert the user, as well as music
and spoken text.

LIST OF GRAPHICAL OUTPUT DEVICES

• Computer display device

o Cathode ray tube

o Flat panel display

o Vector display

o Liquid Crystal Display

 o Storage tube

• Computer printer

o Laser printer

o Inkjet printer

o Electrostatic printer

o Thermal printer

• Film recorder

• Industrial Digital Printers

• Plotter

• Head-mounted display

• Projectors

o Video projector

o LCD projector

o Laser projector

• Volumetric displays

o Swept-volume display

o Varifocal mirror display

o Emissive volume display

o Laser display

o Holographic display
7

COMPUTER STORAGE

Computer data storage, often called storage or memory, refers to computer components, devices,
and recording media that retain digital data used for computing for some interval of time.
Computer data storage provides one of the core functions of the modern computer, that of
information retention. It is one of the fundamental components of all modern computers, and
coupled with a central processing unit (CPU, a processor), implements the basic computer model
used since the 1940s.

In contemporary usage, memory usually refers to a form of semiconductor storage known as

random access memory (RAM) and sometimes other forms of fast but temporary storage.
Similarly, storage today more commonly refers to mass storage - optical discs, forms of magnetic
storage like hard disks, and other types slower than RAM, but of a more permanent nature.
Historically, memory and storage were respectively called primary storage and secondary
storage.

The contemporary distinctions are helpful, because they are also fundamental to the architecture
of computers in general. As well, they reflect an important and significant technical difference
between memory and mass storage devices, which has been blurred by the historical usage of the
term storage. Nevertheless, this article uses the traditional nomenclature.

Primary storage

Primary storage, presently known as memory, is the only one directly accessible to the CPU. The
CPU continuously reads instructions stored in the primary and executes them. Any data actively
operated on is also stored there in uniform manner.

Historically, early computers used delay lines, Williams tubes, or rotating magnetic drums as
primary storage. By 1954, those unreliable methods were mostly replaced by magnetic core
memory, which was still rather cumbersome. Undoubtedly, a revolution was started with the
invention of a transistor that soon enabled then unbelievable miniaturization of electronic
memory via solid-state silicon chip technology.

This led to a modern random access memory (RAM). It is small-sized, light, but quite expensive
at the same time. (The particular types of RAM used for primary storage are also volatile, i.e.
they lose the information when not powered).

As shown in the diagram, traditionally there are two more sub-layers of the primary storage,
besides main large-capacity RAM:

• Processor registers are located inside the processor. Each register typically holds a word of data
(often 32 or 64 bits). CPU instructions instruct the arithmetic and logic unit to perform various
calculations or other operations on this data (or with the help of it). Registers are technically
among the fastest of all forms of computer data storage.
• Processor cache is an intermediate stage between ultra-fast registers and much slower main
memory. It's introduced solely to increase performance of the computer. Most actively used
information in the main memory is just duplicated in the cache memory, which is faster, but of
much lesser capacity. On the other hand it is much slower, but much larger than processor
registers. Multi-level hierarchical cache setup is also commonly used—primary cache being
smallest, fastest and located inside the processor; secondary cache being somewhat larger and
slower.

Main memory is directly or indirectly connected to the CPU via a memory bus, today sometimes
referred to as a front side bus. It is actually comprised of two buses (not on the diagram): an
address bus and a data bus. The CPU firstly sends a number through an address bus, a number
called memory address, that indicates the desired location of data. Then it reads or writes the data
itself using the data bus. Additionally, a memory management unit (MMU) is a small device
between CPU and RAM recalculating the actual memory address, for example to provide an
abstraction of virtual memory or other tasks.

As the RAM types used for primary storage are volatile (cleared at start up), a computer
containing only such storage would not have a source to read instructions from, in order to start
the computer. Hence, non-volatile primary storage containing a small startup program (BIOS) is
used to bootstrap the computer, that is, to read a larger program from non-volatile secondary
storage to RAM and start to execute it. A non-volatile technology used for this purpose is called
ROM, for read-only memory (the terminology may be somewhat confusing as most ROM types
are also capable of random access).

Many types of "ROM" are not literally read only, as updates are possible; however it is slow and
memory must be erased in large portions before it can be re-written. Some embedded systems
run programs directly from ROM (or similar), because such programs are rarely changed.
Standard computers do not store non-rudimentary programs in ROM, rather use large capacities
of secondary storage, which is nonvolatile as well, and not as costly

When accessing memory, a fast processor will demand a great deal from RAM. At worst, the
CPU may have to waste clock cycles while it waits for data to be retrieved. Faster memory
designs and motherboard buses can help, but since the 1990s "cache memory" has been
employed as standard between the main memory and the processor. Not only this, CPU
architecture has also evolved to include ever larger internal caches. The organisation of data this
way is immensely complex, and the system uses ingenious electronic controls to ensure that the
data the processor needs next is already in cache, physically closer to the processor and ready for
fast retrieval and manipulation.

1 GB of SDRAM mounted in a personal computer. An example of primary storage.

Secondary storage

Secondary storage, or storage in popular usage, differs from primary storage in that it is not
directly accessible by the CPU. The computer usually uses its input/output channels to access
secondary storage and transfers the desired data using intermediate area in primary storage.
Secondary storage does not lose the data when the device is powered down—it is non-volatile.
Per unit, it is typically also an order of magnitude less expensive than primary storage.
Consequently, modern computer systems typically have an order of magnitude more secondary
storage than primary storage and data is kept for a longer time there.

In modern computers, hard disks are usually used as secondary storage. The time taken to access
a given byte of information stored on a hard disk is typically a few thousandths of a second, or
milliseconds. By contrast, the time taken to access a given byte of information stored in random
access memory is measured in billionths of a second, or nanoseconds. This illustrates the very
significant access-time difference which distinguishes solid-state memory from rotating
magnetic storage devices: hard disks are typically about a million times slower than memory.
Rotating optical storage devices, such as CD and DVD drives, have even longer access times.

Some other examples of secondary storage technologies are: flash memory (e.g. USB sticks or
keys), floppy disks, magnetic tape, paper tape, punch cards, standalone RAM disks, and Zip
drives. Note that floppy disk, paper tape, punch cards and Zip drives are now obsolete

The secondary storage is often formatted according to a file system format, which provides the
abstraction necessary to organize data into files and directories, providing also additional
information (called metadata) describing the owner of a certain file, the access time, the access
permissions, and other information.

Most computer operating systems use the concept of virtual memory, allowing utilization of
more primary storage capacity than is physically available in the system. As the primary memory
fills up, the system moves the least-used chunks (pages) to secondary storage devices (to a swap
file or page file), retrieving them later when they are needed. As more of these retrievals from
slower secondary storage are necessary, the more the overall system performance is degraded.

40 GB hard disk drive (HDD); when connected to a computer it serves as secondary storage
PURPOSE OF STORAGE

Many different forms of storage, based on various natural phenomena, have been invented. So
far, no practical universal storage medium exists, and all forms of storage have some drawbacks.
Therefore a computer system usually contains several kinds of storage, each with an individual
purpose.

A digital computer represents data using the binary numeral system. Text, numbers, pictures,
audio, and nearly any other form of information can be converted into a string of bits, or binary
digits, each of which has a value of 1 or 0. The most common unit of storage is the byte, equal to
8 bits. A piece of information can be handled by any computer whose storage space is large
enough to accommodate the binary representation of the piece of information, or simply data.
For example, using eight million bits, or about one megabyte, a typical computer could store a
small novel.

Traditionally the most important part of every computer is the central processing unit (CPU, or
simply a processor), because it actually operates on data, performs any calculations, and controls
all the other components.

Without a significant amount of memory, a computer would merely be able to perform fixed
operations and immediately output the result. It would have to be reconfigured to change its
behavior. This is acceptable for devices such as desk calculators or simple digital signal
processors. Von Neumann machines differ in that they have a memory in which they store their
operating instructions and data. Such computers are more versatile in that they do not need to
have their hardware reconfigured for each new program, but can simply be reprogrammed with
new in memory instructions; they also tend to be simpler to design, in that a relatively simple
processor may keep state between successive computations to build up complex procedural
results. Most modern computers are von Neumann machines.

In practice, almost all computers use a variety of memory types, organized in a storage hierarchy
around the CPU, as a tradeoff between performance and cost. Generally, the lower a storage is in
the hierarchy, the lesser its bandwidth and the 40 greater its access latency is from the CPU. This
traditional division of storage to primary, secondary, tertiary and off-line storage is also guided
by cost per bit.
HIERACHY OF STORAGE

Various forms of storage, divided according to their distance from the central processing unit.
The fundamental components of a general-purpose computer are arithmetic and logic unit,
control circuitry, storage space, and input/output devices. Technology and capacity as in
common home computers around 2005.

Recently, primary storage and secondary storage in some uses refer to what was historically
called, respectively, secondary storage and tertiary storage.
Tertiary storage or tertiary memory, provides a third level of storage. Typically it involves a
robotic mechanism which will mount (insert) and dismount removable mass storage media into a
storage device according to the system's demands; this data is often copied to secondary storage
before use. It is primarily used for archival of rarely accessed information since it is much slower
than secondary storage (e.g. 5-60 seconds vs. 1-10 milliseconds). This is primarily useful for
extraordinarily large data stores, accessed without human operators. Typical examples include
tape libraries and optical jukeboxes.

When a computer needs to read information from the tertiary storage, it will first consult a
catalog database to determine which tape or disc contains the information. Next, the computer
will instruct a robotic arm to fetch the medium and place it in a drive. When the computer has
finished reading the information, the robotic arm will return the medium to its place in the
library.

Off-line storage

Off-line storage, also known as disconnected storage, is a computer data storage on a medium or
a device that is not under the control of a processing unit. The medium is recorded, usually in a
secondary or tertiary storage device, and then physically removed or disconnected. It must be
inserted or connected by a human operator before a computer can access it again. Unlike tertiary
storage, it cannot be accessed without human interaction.

Off-line storage is used to transfer information, since the detached medium can be easily
physically transported. Additionally in case a disaster, for example a fire, destroys the original
data, a medium in a remote location will be probably unaffected, enabling disaster recovery. Off-
line storage increases a general information security, since it is physically inaccessible from a
computer, and data confidentiality or integrity cannot be affected by computer-based attack
techniques. Also, if the information stored for archival purposes is accessed seldom or never, off-
line storage is less expensive than tertiary storage.

In modern personal computers, most secondary and tertiary storage media are also used for off-
line storage. Optical discs and flash memory devices are most popular, and to much lesser extent
removable hard disk drives. In enterprise uses, magnetic tape is predominant. Older examples are
floppy disks, Zip disks, or punched cards.

CHARACTERISTIC OF STORAGE

Storage technologies at all levels of the storage hierarchy can be differentiated by evaluating
certain core characteristics as well as measuring characteristics specific to a particular
implementation. These core characteristics are volatility, mutability, accessibility, and
addressibility. For any particular implementation of any storage technology, the characteristics
worth measuring are capacity and performance.
Volatility

Non-volatile memory will retain the stored information even if it is not constantly supplied with
electric power. It is suitable for long-term storage of information. Nowadays used for most of
secondary, tertiary, and off-line storage. In 1950s and 1960s, it was also used for primary
storage, in the form of magnetic core memory.

Volatile memory requires constant power to maintain the stored information. The fastest
memory technologies of today are volatile ones (not a universal rule). Since primary storage is
required to be very fast, it predominantly uses volatile memory.

Differentiation
Dynamic memory is a form of volatile memory which also requires the stored information to be
periodically re-read and re-written, or refreshed, otherwise it would vanish.

Static memory is a form of volatile memory similar to DRAM with the exception that it does
not refresh on occasion.

Mutability
Read/write storage or mutable storage.

Allows information to be overwritten at any time. A computer without some amount of

read/write storage for primary storage purposes would be useless for many tasks. Modern
computers typically use read/write storage also for secondary storage.

Read only storage

Retains the information stored at the time of manufacture, and write once storage (WORM)
allows the information to be written only once at some point after manufacture. These are called
immutable storage. Immutable storage is used for tertiary and off-line storage. Examples include
CD-ROM and CD-R

Slow write, fast read storage

Read/write storage which allows information to be overwritten multiple times, but with the write
operation being much slower than the read operation. Examples include CD-RW.

Accessibility
Random access

Any location in storage can be accessed at any moment in approximately the same amount of
time. Such characteristic is well suited for primary and secondary storage. Sequential access.
The accessing of pieces of information will be in a serial order, one after the other; therefore the
time to access a particular piece of information depends upon which piece of information was
last accessed. Such characteristic is typical of off-line storage.
HOW COMPUTERS WORK

A general purpose computer has four main sections: the arithmetic and logic unit (ALU), the
control unit, the memory, and the input and output devices (collectively termed I/O). These parts
are interconnected by busses, often made of groups of wires.

Control unit

The control unit (often called a control system or central controller) directs the various
components of a computer. It reads and interprets (decodes) instructions in the program one by
one. The control system decodes each instruction and turns it into a series of control signals that
operate the other parts of the computer. Control systems in advanced computers may change the
order of some instructions so as to improve performance.

A key component common to all CPUs is the program counter, a special memory cell (a register)
that keeps track of which location in memory the next instruction is to be read from.

The control system's function is as follows —note that this is a simplified description, and some
of these steps may be performed concurrently or in a different order depending on the type of
CPU:

1. Read the code for the next instruction from the cell indicated by the program counter.

2. Decode the numerical code for the instruction into a set of commands or signals for each of
the other systems.

3. Increment the program counter so it points to the next instruction.

4. Read whatever data the instruction requires from cells in memory (or perhaps from an input
device). The location of this required data is typically stored within the instruction code.

5. Provide the necessary data to an ALU or register.

6. If the instruction requires an ALU or specialized hardware to complete, instruct the hardware
to perform the requested operation.

7. Write the result from the ALU back to a memory location or to a register or perhaps an output
device.

8. Jump back to step (1).

Since the program counter is (conceptually) just another set of memory cells, it can be changed
by calculations done in the ALU. Adding 100 to the program counter would cause the next
instruction to be read from a place 100 locations further down the program. Instructions that
modify the program counter are often known as "jumps" and allow for loops (instructions that
are repeated by the computer) and often conditional instruction execution (both examples of
control flow).

It is noticeable that the sequence of operations that the control unit goes through to process an
instruction is in itself like a short computer program - and indeed, in some more complex CPU
designs, there is another yet smaller computer called a microsequencer that runs a microcode
program that causes all of these events to happen.

Arithmetic/logic unit (ALU)

The ALU is capable of performing two classes of operations: arithmetic and logic.

The set of arithmetic operations that a particular ALU supports may be limited to adding and
subtracting or might include multiplying or dividing, trigonometry functions (sine, cosine, etc)
and square roots. Some can only operate on whole numbers (integers) whilst others use floating
point to represent real numbers—albeit with limited precision. However, any computer that is
capable of performing just the simplest operations can be programmed to break down the more
complex operations into simple steps that it can perform. Therefore, any computer can be
programmed to perform any arithmetic operation—although it will take more time to do so if its
ALU does not directly support the operation. An ALU may also compare numbers and return
boolean truth values (true or false) depending on whether one is equal to, greater than or less
than the other ("is 64 greater than 65?").

Logic operations involve Boolean logic: AND, OR, XOR and NOT. These can be useful both for
creating complicated conditional statements and processing boolean logic.

Superscalar computers contain multiple ALUs so that they can process several instructions at the
same time. Graphics processors and computers with SIMD and MIMD features often provide
ALUs that can perform arithmetic on vectors and matrices.
Memory

Magnetic core memory was popular main memory for computers through the 1960s until it was
completely replaced by semiconductor memory.

A computer's memory can be viewed as a list of cells into which numbers can be placed or read.
Each cell has a numbered "address" and can store a single number. The computer can be
instructed to "put the number 123 into the cell numbered 1357" or to "add the number that is in
cell 1357 to the number that is in cell 2468 and put the answer into cell 1595". The information
stored in memory may represent practically anything. Letters, numbers, even computer
instructions can be placed into memory with equal ease. Since the CPU does not differentiate
between different types of information, it is up to the software to give significance to what the
memory sees as nothing but a series of numbers.

In almost all modern computers, each memory cell is set up to store binary numbers in groups of
eight bits (called a byte). Each byte is able to represent 256 different numbers; either from 0 to
255 or -128 to +127. To store larger numbers, several consecutive bytes may be used (typically,
two, four or eight). When negative numbers are required, they are usually stored in two's
complement notation. Other arrangements are possible, but are usually not seen outside of
specialized applications or historical contexts. A computer can store any kind of information in
memory as long as it can be somehow represented in numerical form. Modern computers have
billions or even trillions of bytes of memory.

The CPU contains a special set of memory cells called registers that can be read and written to
much more rapidly than the main memory area. There are typically between two and one
hundred registers depending on the type of CPU. Registers are used for the most frequently
needed data items to avoid having to access main memory every time data is needed. Since data
is constantly being worked on, reducing the need to access main memory (which is often slow
compared to the ALU and control units) greatly increases the computer's speed.
Computer main memory comes in two principal varieties: random access memory or RAM and
read-only memory or ROM as discussed earlier. RAM can be read and written to anytime the
CPU commands it, but ROM is pre-loaded with data and software that never changes, so the
CPU can only read from it. ROM is typically used to store the computer's initial start-up
instructions. In general, the contents of RAM is erased when the power to the computer is turned
off while ROM retains its data indefinitely. In a PC, the ROM contains a specialized program
called the BIOS that orchestrates loading the computer's operating system from the hard disk
drive into RAM whenever the computer is turned on or reset. In embedded computers, which
frequently do not have disk drives, all of the software required to perform the task may be stored
in ROM. Software that is stored in ROM is often called firmware because it is notionally more
like hardware than software. Flash memory blurs the distinction between ROM and RAM by
retaining data when turned off but being rewritable like RAM. However, flash memory is
typically much slower than conventional ROM and RAM so its use is restricted to applications
where high speeds are not required.

In more sophisticated computers there may be one or more RAM cache memories which are
slower than registers but faster than main memory. Generally computers with this sort of cache
are designed to move frequently needed data into the cache automatically, often without the need
for any intervention on the programmer's part.

How the CPU Executes Program Instructions

Let us examine the way the central processing unit, in association with memory, executes a
computer program. We will be looking at how just one instruction in the program is executed. In
fact, most computers today can execute only one instruction at a time, though they execute it
very quickly. Many personal computers can execute instructions in less than one-millionth of a
second, whereas those speed demons known as supercomputers can execute instructions in less
than one-billionth of a second.
Before an instruction can be executed, program instructions and data must be placed into
memory from an input device or a secondary storage device (the process is further complicated
by the fact that, as we noted earlier, the data will probably make a temporary stop in a register).
As Figure 8.3 shows, once the necessary data and instruction are in memory, the central
processing unit performs the following four steps for each instruction:

1. The control unit fetches (gets) the instruction from memory.

2. The control unit decodes the instruction (decides what it means) and directs that the necessary
data be moved from memory to the arithmetic/logic unit. These first two steps together are called
instruction time, or I-time.

3. The arithmetic/logic unit executes the arithmetic or logical instruction. That is, the ALU is
given control and performs the actual operation on the data.

4. Thc arithmetic/logic unit stores the result of this operation in memory or in a register. Steps 3
and 4 together are called execution time, or E-time

The control unit eventually directs memory to release the result to an output device or a
secondary storage device. The combination of I-time and E-time is called the machine cycle.
Figure 8.4 shows an instruction going through the machine cycle

Each central processing unit has an internal clock that produces pulses at a fixed rate to
synchronize all computer operations. A single machine-cycle instruction may be made up of a
substantial number of sub-instructions, each of which must take at least one clock cycle. Each
type of central processing unit is designed to understand a specific group of instructions called
the instruction set. Just as there are many different languages that people understand, so each
different type of CPU has an instruction set it understands. Therefore, one CPU-such as the one
for a Compaq personal computer-cannot understand the instruction set from another CPU-say,
for a Macintosh.
It is one thing to have instructions and data somewhere in memory and quite another for the
control unit to be able to find them. How does it do this?

The location in memory for each instruction and each piece of data is identified by an address.
That is, each location has an address number, like the mailboxes in front of an apartment house.
And, like the mailboxes, the address numbers of the locations remain the same, but the contents
(instructions and data) of the locations may change. That is, new instructions or new data may be
placed in the locations when the old contents no longer need to be stored in memory. Unlike a
mailbox, however, a memory location can hold only a fixed amount of data; an address can hold
only a fixed number of bytes - often two bytes in a modern computer.

Figure 8.5 shows how a program manipulates data in memory. A payroll program, for example,
may give instructions to put the rate of pay in location 3 and the number of hours worked in
location 6. To compute the employee's salary, then, instructions tell the computer to multiply the
data in location 3 by the data in location 6 and move the result to location 8. The choice of
locations is arbitrary - any locations that are not already spoken for can be used. Programmers
using programming languages, however, do not have to worry about the actual address numbers,
because each data address is referred to by a name. The name is called a symbolic address. In
this example, the symbolic address names are Rate, Hours, and Salary.
 COMPUTER SOFTWARE

Computer software is basically a program, which allows the hardware components to operate
effectively as well as provide very many useful services. Computer manufacturers and certain
software specialist usually write software. Programs are sequences of instructions given to a
computer to enable it solve a particular problem or accomplish a given assignment.

Some of these programs are permanently stored in the computer. They automatically start up the
computer when it is switched on. On completion of the initial process of start-up, they will
transfer control to the operating system, which is the manager of the computer resources. The
rest of these programs that are for the external use are loaded to the memory of the system from
the secondary storage medium like hard/floppy disk after the system boot-up. The loading of the
operating system is automatic, hence if It is not loaded, the system cannot boot or prompt for a
command.

CATEGORIES OF SOFTWARE

The tree diagram below illustrates the different categories of software and, to some extent, their
relationships to each other. This section examines the distinction between systems software and
applications software.

System Software

The term systems software covers the collection of programs usually supplied by the
manufacturer of the computer. These programs protect the user from the enormous complexity of
the computer system, and enable the computer to be used to maximum effect by a wide variety of
people, many of whom will know very little about the inner workings of computers. Without
systems software a modern digital computer would be virtually impossible to use.

Broadly speaking, systems software consists of three elements:

- Those programs concerned with the internal control and co-ordination of all aspects of the
computer system, namely the operating system;

- A number of other programs providing various services to users. These services include
translators for any languages supported by the system and utility programs such as program
editors and other aids to programming;

- Graphical user interfaces (GUls) providing intuitive, easily learned methods for using
microcomputer systems.

Operating systems

If a computer system is viewed as a set of resources, comprising elements of both hardware and
software, then it is the job of the collection of programs known as the operating system to
manage these resources as efficiently as possible. In so doing, the operating system acts as a
buffer between the user and the complexities of the computer itself. One way of regarding the
operating system is to think of it as a program which allows the user to deal with a simplified
computer, but without losing any of the computational power of the machine. In this way the
computer system becomes a virtual system, its enormous complexity hidden and controlled by
the operating system and through which the user communicates with the real system.

The main functions of operating systems

Earlier it was stated that the function of an operating system is to manage the resources of the
computer system. Generally these resources managed by Operating System are CPU, Memory,
Input/Output Devices, Backing Store and Files

The above is by no means a full list of the functions of an operating system. Other functions
include:

- interpretation of the command language by which operators can communicate with the
operating system;

- error handling. For example, detecting and reporting inoperative or malfunctioning peripherals;

- protection of data files and programs from corruption by other users;

- Security: protection of data files and programs from unauthorized use;

- Accounting: accounting and logging of the use of the computer resources.

- Program Loading to the main memory for processing - Multiprogramming

- Interrupt handling

- Job Sequencing

- File Management

- Job Scheduling

- Peripheral Control

- Recovery from System Failure

Some current operating systems are OS/2, Windows 95, 98, ME, Windows XP, Windows 7,
Windows 8, Windows 10, Windows 11, UNIX, MS-DOS, Windows NT etc.

Types of Operating System

- Single Program OS: allow one user’s program at a time

- Simple Batch Systems: Provides multiprogramming of batch programs but have few facilities
for multi-access

- Multi-access and Time-sharing: Allows multiple access to system resources and therefore share
processors time to cope with numerous users

- Real-time system: Used in any real time data processing technique

System Services

Often a manufacturer will provide a number of programs designed specifically for program or
application development. Some examples of such aids are as follows.

Language Translators (Processors)

These are computer programs designed to convert high-level language programs into machine
code, that is, into a form directly usable by a computer. Common types of language processors
are Assembler, Compilers and Interpreters.

Assembler: This is a translator that convert program written in Assembly language to machine
code and vice-versa.

Compiler: This is a translator that convert program written in High Level Language to machine
code and vice-versa, and the translation in done all at once. Languages translated by Compiler
are COBOL, FORTRAN, C++ etc.

Interpreter: This is a translator that convert program written in High Level language to machine
code and vice-versa, but the translator is done line by line. Example of language translated by
Interpreter is BASIC.
Utility Programs

As part of the systems software provided with a computer system there are a number of utility
programs specifically designed to aid program development and testing. These include the
following.

Editors: These permit the creation and modification of source programs and data files.

Debugging Aids : Debugging aids help programmers to isolate and identify the cause of bugs.

File managers: These simplify and facilitate a number of operations connected with program
development and maintenance such as keeping backup copies of important files; deleting,
creating, merging, sorting files etc. Without the help of such dedicated programs, operations such
as these could be extremely time-consuming and consequently expensive.

Graphical User Interfaces (GUls)

The vast majority of microcomputer users are interested merely in using a computer as a tool,
without any real interest in the technical details of its operation. A typical user will probably
want to run one or more common general-purpose applications, organize files into directories,
delete files and format disks. Though the operating system will provide these services, the user
needs to have a certain amount of technical knowledge to perform these tasks, Graphical user
interfaces (or GUI, pronounced Gooey) provide a more intuitive means of performing common
tasks. They usually make use of a pointing device, typically a mouse, by means of which a
pointer is moved around the monitor screen on which small pictures (or icons) are displayed.
These icons represent, among other things, programs which can be run by moving the mouse
pointer over the icon and then clicking one of the buttons on the mouse. Applications run in their
own self-contained areas called windows. In addition, it is usually possible to activate pull-down
menus which provide access to standard functions. When a GUI uses Windows, Icons, Mouse,
Pointers and Pull-down menus, it is referred to as a WIMP environment.

USER APPLICATIONS SOFTWARE

Applications software refers to programs that have some direct value to an organisation, and will
normally include those programs for which the computer system was specifically purchased.
Application Software are grouped into User Program and Commercially produced applications
software.

User Programs: are written by people within the organization for specific needs, which cannot
be satisfied by other sources of software. These program writers may be professional
programmers employed by the organization, or other casual users with programming expertise.
Commercial Packages

These are the kind of application packages that are produced by software professionals and be
sold for a wide variety of users. This falls into two main categories:

a. Special-purpose packages: Though commercial, it is designed for a specific

purpose like a department or a section of an organization. Examples are:

- Airline Seat Reservation,

- Theatre Seat Reservation

- Hotel Room Reservation .

- Point of Sales Software

- A Payroll Program

Program for each of these areas are of use only in their specific area of application
and their use will be confined to a specific department of the business. A Payroll
Program for example, can only be used for Payroll and will be used by Payroll
staff only.

b. General Purpose: These provide facilities which might be used in a wide variety
of business situation and which might therefore be used across many department
of business e.g.

1. Word-processing: These programs that, more or less, turn a computer system

into a powerful typewriting tool and more. It helps us to produce letters, reports,
magazines, memos, etc. Example of Word-processing programs are: .WordStar,
WordPerfect, PC Write, MultiMate, Ten Best and WordStar 2000.

2. Database Management: They store and retrieve information such as customer

lists, inventories and notes. These programs help us to record and maintain
information about people, places, things and management reports of all types.
Examples are Dbase III & IV, FoxBASE, Oracle, FoxPro and Clipper,
MICROSOFT ACCESS, Paradox,

3. Spreadsheet: Spreadsheets are software packages that, more or less, turn a

computer system into a sophisticated electronic calculator. Many Spreadsheet
packages also have presentation graphics generators, which take data and
painlessly convert them into bar charts, line charts, and the like. These programs
help us to produce financial reports and other mathematical computations.
Examples are Lotus 1-2-3, QuatoPro, SuperCalc, Multiplan, VP Planner, Planning
Assistant and Microsoft Excel.

4. Desktop Publishing & Graphics Programs: Graphics programs create graphs

and drawings that can be used in newsletters, posters, advertisements and other
 documents. Some allow users to import photographs into documents or create
animated pictures for use in "multimedia" presentations. Popular graphics
programs include PC Paintbrush, Illustrator, Persuasion, Cricket Draw, Corel
Draw, Print Master, Print Shop, Microsoft PowerPoint, and Harvard Graphics.

5. Communication Software: This allows communications and networking.

Examples are Internet Explorer, Netscape Navigator

ADVANTAGES OF CUSTOM APPLICATION SOFTWARE (USER PROGRAMS)

1. The needs of the organization are precisely met

2. The method of inputting/outputting data may be designed to suit user’s taste.

3. It may require less memory and less disk space.

4. Program may execute faster 5. Programs can be changed to meet changing conditions.

DISADVANTAGES

1. Development time may be lengthy

2. Human resources needed for development may not be available

3. High cost of development (since it is designed for only one organization).

4. Cost of maintenance / upgrading may be high.

ADVANTAGES OF GENERIC APPLICATION SOFTWARE (COMMERCIAL

APPLICATION PACKAGES)

1. Availability is immediate as only installation process is necessary before it can start being
productive.

2. Cost is less as it is spread among a number of users who purchase the product.

3. Reliability may be greater as it is thoroughly tested before it is marketed.

DISADVANTAGES

1. It may not be an exact match for needs

2. It may require more system resources. Programs are frequently longer, thereby, requiring more
memory and disk space

3. It is not adapted to changing needs

4. It may execute more slowly.

GUIDELINE FOR ACQUISITION OF APPLICATION SOFTWARE

1. The software to be acquired must be one whose use will improve the particular operating
function of that business.

2. It must be of high performance

3. The software to be acquired must be one with enough ease in learning.

4. The software to be acquired must be available when needed

5. If a software package is complex then training is required

6. Good documentation: The package to be used must be properly documented. This should
include how the package is to be installed how to use the package and other necessary technical
details.

7. Users friendliness: The package must be easy to use even by non- computer specialists.

8. Compatibility of the package: Before a package program can be adopted, it must be

compatible with the user system requirements as well as with the user’s hardware.
SOCIAL IMPLICATION OF COMPUTERS ON THE SOCIETY

Given below are some of the areas the gains of information technology (computer age) have
manifested:

(a) The Office

(b) Manufacturing Industry

(c) Health

(d) Finance and Commerce

(e) Military Institution

(f) Education and Training

(g) Leisure

THE OFFICE:

The Mechanized Office started in the second half of the 19th Century with the introduction of
Typewriter and Telegraph. Within the 1st half of the 20th Century, additional office technologies
had been developed. These are: Automatically switched Telephone, Electric Typewriter, Telex,
Duplicating machines, Adding Machines, etc. The rise of Electronics during and after the Second
World War brought about a gradual replacement of the Mechanical equipment by the smaller,
more reliable more versatile equivalent, e.g. Private Branch Telephone Exchange, Electronic
Typewriters, Display Terminals, Copiers and Computers. Office Automation helps to keeps
management about the state of production, stocks, and personnel etc, as part of management
information system (MIS).

More interestingly today, is the talk about electronic office. This is where an office will have a
central computer connected to by various officers via terminals in their homes and carry out their
official assignments. The most important advantage of this system is speed at which jobs are
handled with this system and cutting of cost of transportation by staff from their homes to their
various offices. The demerit lies in the fact that there would be lack of social interaction among
staff and inadequate privacy of data and job operations. As well there would be lack of superior
control of subordinates and the cost of implementing such a system is high.

MANUFACTURING INDUSTRY:

Manufacturing Industries are among the first and most well established fields of application of
information technology. It has provided tools for production planning, production design and
industrial research. The earliest application of information technology to the manufacturing
industries was the Jacquard Loom, where the weaving pattern was controlled by sequence of
punched cards. Based on principle, the Numerical Control (NC) of Machine tools came to being
in 1952 and started to appear commercially in the early 60’s and took another 10 years before the
Paper Tape was replaced by programs stored in the memory of the computers. In such Computer
Numerical control (CNC) Machine, various aspects of the machine processing happen under a
pre-programmed computer control.

Other areas where information technology has done very well are Computer integrated
manufacturing (CIM), Computer Aided Manufacturing (CAM), computer Aided Design (CAD).
Computer Aided Design was successfully applied to many fields outside the manufacturing unit,
such as computer itself, Architectural and Building Industries.

HEALTH:

Computer-Controlled life support systems can monitor a patient’s condition via a number of
sensor devices checking on, for example, pulse rate, body temperature and blood pressure. This
frees nurses for other duties. Computer-assisted diagnosis systems make use of artificial
intelligence to assist a physician in diagnosing a patient condition. Another interesting
development is the use of the computer to assist the plastic surgeon in the repairs of facial
injuries or deformities.

FINANCE AND COMMERCE:

Every money transactions are of importance to information technology. A record usually needs
to be made either formally or informally about the amount, the purpose, the parties involved, and
the date of transaction etc previously recorded on paper and processed by hand or by means of
slow Electromechanical machine. This device certainly was inadequate hence it failed in face of
massive growth in transactions. Information Technology has provided us with very good
methods of transacting business, e.g. West Union Money Transfer operate by First Bank of
Nigeria Plc and the use of point of sale terminals (POS).

MILITARY APPLICATION:

Computer and Telecommunication technologies have been employed for Military purposes ever
since their beginning-calculation of ballistics of artillery shells and transmission and decoding
messages are among the best-recorded uses of these technologies. The automated battlefield
concept includes Missiles, which find their pre-programmed target with very high accuracy.
EDUCATION AND TRAINING:

Information Technology is mostly widely used in broadcasting (Telephone, Radio, etc). Other
areas where IT is applicable are Computer Assisted Training (CAT), Computer Managed
Learning (CML), with training material such as TUTORIAL on a screen-based terminal.
Computer Managed Learning monitors the responses, and answer to the parts of questions.

The computer records progress of the learner.

LEISURE:

One of the common use of computer by many today is for whiling away of time when they are
bored with work. There are a lot of games than one can play with computer system. Most
desktops come with games preinstalled with the operating system and other games can be bought
and installed for leisure hours. One can either play such games with the computer or play alone
or play with someone else and having the computer as the umpire.

COMPUTER AS AN AID TO LAWYER

Computers are used in many law chambers to record cases and courts proceedings. With Expert
system and artificial intelligence that characterize the fifth generation computers of today,
computers with a well developed database is capable of determining and revealing various
defenses strategies based on similar cases that have been determined somewhere else before.
DATA PROCESSING TECHNIQUE

Data processing systems make use of one or more processing techniques, depending on the
requirements of the application. The methods can be categorized according to the ways in which
data is controlled, stored and passed through the system; the major categories are: batch
processing; on-line processing, which includes real-time and time-sharing; distributed processing
and centralized processing.

Batch Processing: The Batch processing method processes batches of data at regular interval. It
closely resembles manual methods of data handling, in that, transactions are collected together
into batches, sent to the computer centre, sorted into the order of the master file and processed.
Such systems are known as traditional data processing systems. It has advantage of providing
many opportunities for controlling the accuracy of data and conversely, the disadvantage is the
delay between the time of collecting transaction and that of receiving the result of processing.

On-line Processing System: On-line processing systems are those where all peripherals in use
are connected to the CPU of the main computer. Transactions can be keyed in directly. The main
advantage of an on-line system is the reduction in time between the collection and processing of
data. The two main methods of on-line processing are real time and time-sharing processing.

Real-time processing: This refers to situation where event is monitored and controlled
by a computer. For example a car's engine performance can be monitored and controlled
by sensing and immediately responding to changes in such factors like the air
temperature, ignition timing or engine load. Microprocessors dedicated to particular
functions are known as embedded system.

Time Sharing: This refers to the activity of the computer's processor in allocating time-
slices to a number of users who are given access through terminals to centralized
computer resources. The aim of the system is to give each user a good response time. The
processor time-slice is allocated and controlled by time-sharing operating system.

Distributed Processing

As the term suggests, a distributed processing system is one which spreads the processing tasks
of an organization across several computer system; frequently, these systems are connected and
share resources (this may relate to common access to files or programs) through a data
communication system. Each computer system in the network should be able to process
independently.

Centralized System:

With this type of system, all processing is carried out centrally, generally by a mainframe
computer. This is achieved through computer networks. There are several networks that is linked
with the central computer where processing takes place.
Multitasking

While a computer may be viewed as running one gigantic program stored in its main memory, in
some systems it is necessary to give the appearance of running several programs simultaneously.
This is achieved by having the computer switch rapidly between running each program in turn.
One means by which this is done is with a special signal called an interrupt which can
periodically cause the computer to stop executing instructions where it was and do something
else instead. By remembering where it was executing prior to the interrupt, the computer can
return to that task later. If several programs are running "at the same time", then the interrupt
generator might be causing several hundred interrupts per second, causing a program switch each
time. Since modern computers typically execute instructions several orders of magnitude faster
than human perception, it may appear that many programs are running at the same time even
though only one is ever executing in any given instant. This method of multitasking is sometimes
termed "time-sharing" since each program is allocated a "slice" of time in turn.

Before the era of cheap computers, the principle use for multitasking was to allow many people
to share the same computer.

Seemingly, multitasking would cause a computer that is switching between several programs to
run more slowly - in direct proportion to the number of programs it is running. However, most
programs spend much of their time waiting for slow input/output devices to complete their tasks.
If a program is waiting for the user to click on the mouse or press a key on the keyboard, then it
will not take a "time slice" until the event it is waiting for has occurred. This frees up time for
other programs to execute so that many programs may be run at the same time without
unacceptable speed loss.

Multiprocessing

Some computers may divide their work between one or more separate CPUs, creating a
multiprocessing configuration. Traditionally, this technique was utilized only in large and
powerful computers such as supercomputers, mainframe computers and servers. However,
multiprocessor and multi-core (multiple CPUs on a single integrated circuit) personal and laptop
computers have become widely available and are beginning to see increased usage in lower-end
markets as a result.

Supercomputers in particular often have highly unique architectures that differ significantly from
the basic stored-program architecture and from general purpose computers. They often feature
thousands of CPUs, customized high-speed interconnects, and specialized computing hardware.
Such designs tend to be useful only for specialized tasks due to the large scale of program
organization required to successfully utilize most of the available resources at once.
Supercomputers usually see usage in large-scale simulation, graphics rendering, and
cryptography applications, as well as with other so-called "embarrassingly parallel" tasks.
DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS

Introduction

Communication means an exchange of information between two or more parties and it can be
exchange in a variety of way, that might be in the form of word, letters, messages drawing, body
movement or any other symbols that represents the idea which make to other understandable.
Data communication entails electronically exchanging data or information. It is the movement of
computer information from one point to another by means of electrical or optical transmission
system. This system often is called data communication networks.

Data Communication systems can therefore be defined as the combinations of facilities including
software to aid data movement from one location to the other electronically:

In today's computing world, data refers to facts, statistics, pictures, voice and other information
that is digitally coded and intelligible to variety of electronic machines. The key technology of
the information age is computer communications. The value of high-speed data communication
network is that it brings the message sender and receiver closer together in time. Data
communication and networking is a truly global area of study. It facilitates more efficient use of
computers and improves the day to day control of business by providing faster information flow.
The information society where information and intelligence are the key drivers of personal,
business, and national success has arrived. Data communication is the principle enabler of the
rapid information exchange and will become more important than the use of computer
themselves in the future. To be more familiar that what is data communication and its
capabilities along with its limitation, we have to be familiar with the data communication media,
components of data communication.

Communication media

It is necessary to have a pathway or the media to transmit data from one point to another. The
term media means the device that transmits the voice or the data form one point to another. Many
different types of transmission media are in use today for example: copper wire, glass or plastic
cables, which are called fiber optic cables or air transmission (radio, infrared, microwave, or
satellite). There are two types of media; one is guided media and another is radiated.

In Guided media the messages flow through the physical media like twisted pair-wire, coaxial
cable, fiber optic cables, the media guided is the signal.

In Radiated media messages is broadcast through the air such as infrared, microwave, or satellite.

Data Transmission and Communication Device

Data is the specific individual facts or the facts, from which decision can be made; it is the raw
facts that can be processed into accurate and relevant information. Digital and analog is the two
types of fundamental data; Digital and analog transmission have the following features;
- computers produce the digital data where as telephone produces analog data.

- Digital data are binary either on or off and the analog data is the sound wave.

- Analog signals are continuous waves that carry information by the characteristics of the waves.
Analog transmission is the transmission of a continuously variable signal as opposed to a direct
on/off signal.

- The traditional way of transmits telephone signal is an example of analog transmission. Digital
signal is a discontinuous signal whose various states are discrete intervals apart, such as +15
volts and -15 volts. Most computers transmit the data in a digital form over the digital circuit to
the attached device for example to the "printer" same as analog voice data also can transmit to
the analog form through the telephone networks.

Data can be transmitted from one specific form to another. For example; as we know most of
computer produces the digital data; we can convert digital data to analog voice data by using the
special device called MODEM through the analog telephone circuit.

Data transmission may be either asynchronous or synchronous.

Asynchronous transmit only one character at a time and during transmission the character is
preceded by a start bit and followed stop bit that lets the receiving device known where a
character begins and ends. Asynchronous transmission is inherently inefficient due to the
additional overhead required for start and stop bits, and the idle time between transmissions. It is
therefore generally used for only low speed data transmission.

Synchronous transmission is a form of transmission in which data is sent as a block using

frames or packets. In Synchronous transmission a group of character is sent to communication
link in a continuous bit stream while data transfer is controlled by a timing signal initialed by the
sending device. Used for high speed transmission.

ON-LINE DATA TRANSMISSION

This means that communication lines are directly connected to the computer either by means of a
multiplexor or (Transmission controller) or by means of interface unit. The interface unit scans
the communication lines frequently to dictate those that are ready to send or receive data. When
a line is ready to transfer data, the scanning ceases and the channel number of the line is signaled
to the CPU if the processor is in a position to accept data, then transmission begins.

OFF-LINE DATA COMMUNICATION

This type of data transmission indicates that the communication lines are not connected directly
to the computer. Key-to-disk are often used for off-line preparation and transmission of data in
remote job-entry-system.

ELEMENTS OF DATA COMMUNICATION

(a) Information Source

(b) Message

(c) Transmitter

(d) Signal

(e) Receiver

(f) Information Destination

Information Source: Originator of messages wishing to convey information to another person.

Message: This is the idea/information that the sender wants to pass across to the receiver at a
particular destination.

Transmitter: Wireless operator transmitting messages by means of a mouse key connected to

transmitting set.

Signal: The signal produced by the transmitting set when the mouse key is depressed.

Receiver: Wireless operator receiving message by means of a receiving set.

Information Destination: Receipt of, message by addressee.

EQUIPMENT/COMPONENTS REQUIRED FOR DATA TRANSMISSION

(a) Multiplexor

(b) Front-End-Processor

(c) Concentrator

(d) Modem

Modems
MODEM Stands for MODulator DEModulator is used to convert analogue signal to digital and
vice versa. A modem is a device that modulates and demodulates the signals. Modulation means
the conversions of data from digital signal to analog signal and demodulates means the
conversion of data signal from analog to digital signal. Modems are always use in pairs. The unit
at the sending end converts the digital signal to analog signals for transmission through the
analog circuit; at the receiving end, another modem converts analog to digital for the receiving
computer. Modem transmission rate is measured in bits-per-second and it usually expresses bps.
The amount of data actually transferred for one system to another is depends upon the speed of
the modem.

Front-End Processor (FEP):

A front-end processor is the special purpose device; this specialized computer manages all
routing communications with peripheral devices. For large mainframe installations, a front-end
processor is typically a special purpose minicomputer. The primary application of the FEP is to
serve as the interface between the host/client computer and the data communication network
with its thousands of terminals or microcomputers. It can handle coding and decoding data, error
diction, retrieval of message, interpreting, and processing of the control information, addressing,
routing message to the right computer, and breaking the long message in to small packets. Front-
end processor can provide up to 30 percent additional processing time for mainframe.

Multiplexors

Multiplexors is an electronic device that allows a single communications channel to carry data
transmissions simultaneously from many sources. Multiplexing a data communication means
that two or more information is sent simultaneously via the communication circuit. Multiplexors
is transparent, when the circuits are multiplexed at one end and demultiplexed at the other, each
user's terminal or microcomputer thinks it has its own separate connection to the host computer.
The objective of multiplexor is to reduce communication costs by allowing the more efficient use
of circuits through sharing.

TYPES OF TRANSMISSION

Simplex Channel: In this type of communication, transmission takes place in one direction. The
system known as Teletex, the sending of data alongside a television signal, is a good example of
a simplex channel. Here the recipient has no formal means of communicating with the originator
to ask for a repeat if there is an error.

Half-Duplex: This communications is bi-directional, but transmission moves in one direction at

a time. The example is in radio telephone conversation. A protocol using the word "over" to
allow the direction of data flow to change is used.

Full- Duplex: this allows bi-directional communication simultaneously. This is used for normal
telephone conversation where both the initiator and the receiver can talk at the same time.
NETWORKS

An interconnected set of two or more computers may be called a "Computer Network". A

computer that is not connected to other computers is a "Stand-alone system".

Basic Advantages of Using Networks

There are many possible advantages in using networks. The basic ones are:

a. the sharing of resources (e.g. computers and staff) and information.

b. The provision of local facilities without the loss of central control.

c. The even distribution of work

d. Improved communication facilities.