Health and Disease

Health, as defined by the World Health Organisation, is a state of mental, social as well as physical being. Disease being the opposite, is a
hindrance in the well being of our body that affects the functioning of organs and organ systems. Thus, the relationship between health and disease
can be thought of as the state of entire well being and not just the absence of disease. Human health and diseases is an important topic that needs
to be studied for a better understanding of our body.

Types of Diseases
The human body suffers from many diseases, it can be due to genetic defects, infections or an unhealthy lifestyle.

Diseases can be classified into two types:

1. Congenital Diseases: Genetic defects present by birth. This may be due to gene mutation, chromosomal aberration or environmental
effects. Chromosomal and gene defects are transmitted to the next generation. E.g. Haemophilia, colour blindness, Down syndrome,
Turner’s syndrome, etc.
2. Acquired Diseases: Diseases acquired during a lifetime.
a. Infectious or communicable disease: transmitted from one person to another
b. Non-communicable disease: doesn’t spread by infection
c. Deficiency disease: caused due to deficiency of an important nutrient, enzyme or hormones, e.g. anaemia, kwashiorkor,
beriberi, diabetes, etc.
d. Allergies: hypersensitivity to foreign substances, e.g. pollen, dust, mites, etc.

Common Diseases in Humans

 The disease-causing organism is known as a pathogen, e.g. bacteria, virus, protozoan, fungi, worms
 There are many ways by which a pathogen can enter our body. Here is a table of most common diseases found in humans.
Name of the Causing agent/ pathogen Vector/ mode of Symptoms Effects
disease infection
Typhoid Salmonella typhi (Bacteria) -by contaminated food -continued high fever, -can be
and water headache, diagnosed by
stomachache, Widal test
constipation and loss -intestinal
of appetite perforation in
severe cases
Pneumonia Streptococcus pneumoniae, -by inhaling droplets or -fever, chills, cough -respiration
Hemophilus aerosols released by an and headache problems due to
influenzae (Bacteria) infected person or using fluid that gets
infected utensils filled in the alveoli
Common cold Rhinoviruses -by cough, sneezes and -nasal congestion and -nose and
contaminated objects discharge, sore throat, respiratory
cough, headache passage
Malaria Plasmodium falciparum, P. -female anopheles -high fever with chills -the parasite
vivax (Protozoan) mosquito is a vector multiplies in liver
-spread by mosquito cells, attacks
bite RBCs and rupture
Amoebic Entamoeba -houseflies are a carrier -constipation, -infection in the
dysentery histolytica (Protozoan) -spread by abdominal pain, large intestine
contaminated food by mucous and blood in
the faecal matter the stool

Ascariasis Ascaris (Helimenthes) -contaminated water, -muscular pain, internal -blockage of

vegetables, fruits bleeding, anaemia, intestinal passage
-parasite eggs are fever
excreted our in faeces
of the infected person,
which contaminates soil
Filariasis/ Wuchereria bancrofti, W. -bloodsucking black -inflammation of the -lymphatic
Elephantiasis malayi (Helminthes) flies and female lower limb and genital vessels,
mosquitos act as a organs especially of the
vector lower limbs, get
blocked
Ringworms Microsporum, Trichophyton, -spread from the soil, -dry scaly lesions, itchy -effects skin, nail
Epidermophyton (Fungi) using a towel, clothes or skin in the groin or scalp
comb of an infected between the toes
person
The lifecycle of Plasmodium (malarial
parasite)

 Plasmodium enters in the body by the bite of

female Anopheles mosquitos
 The infectious form is sporozoites, that comes
from the saliva of female anopheles when they
bite
 It multiplies in the liver cells and then attacks
RBCs resulting in RBCs rupture
 Haemozoin, a toxic substance gets released
 The gametocyte produced in the human blood
gets transferred to the mosquito when it bites
an infected person
 Macro and micro gametocyte undergo
fertilization, transformation and sporogenesis in
the mosquito’s intestine and sporozoites are
formed
 Sporozoites migrate to salivary gland of
mosquito and the cycle is repeated
 Plasmodium sp needs human and female
Anopheles mosquito to complete their lifecycle

Types of Immunity

 The ability of the body to protect and fight against any pathogen or foreign bodies is called immunity
 The immune system defends our body against any infection
 There are two types of immunity:
1. Innate immunity: is present at the time of birth. There are 4 types of barriers present in the defence mechanism of our body.
i. Physical barriers: skin and mucous coating of the epithelial lining of respiratory, gastrointestinal and urinary tract
ii. Physiological barriers: saliva, tears and stomach acid
iii. Cellular barriers: neutrophils, monocytes, natural killer lymphocytes
iv. Cytokine barriers: interferons secreted by virus-infected cells
2. Acquired immunity is something that we acquire during the lifespan and is pathogen-specific.

 The primary response of low intensity is initiated after the first encounter with a pathogen
 Subsequent infection results in a highly intensified secondary response or amnestic response due to memory of the
first response
 B-lymphocytes produce antibodies in response to foreign antigen
 Antibodies (H2L2) are Y shaped protein molecule with 4 peptide chains; 2 light and 2 heavy
 There are five types of antibodies or immunoglobulins present in humans; IgG, IgM, IgD, IgA and IgE
 IgG is the most abundant antibody found in the blood
 IgG is transferred to a foetus through the placenta and protects the infant until their own immunity develops
 IgA is present in the breast milk, colostrum, the yellowish fluid secreted initially during lactation has an abundant IgA
 IgE is involved in the allergic reaction
 The antibody-mediated response is known as humoral immune response
 T-lymphocytes mediate, cell-mediated response or CMI
 Cell-mediated response is responsible for distinguishing between self from non-self and graft rejection after
transplantation
Active immunity: Antibodies are produced in the host body in response to antigen. Effective response takes some time. Vaccination, where an
attenuated pathogen is injected is a type of active immunity.
Passive immunity: Giving readymade antibodies to get the quick response against a pathogen is termed as passive immunity. Injecting antitoxin
for snakebite, which contains antibodies against the venom is passive immunisation.
Recombinant DNA technology has helped in producing large-scale vaccine production.
The hepatitis-B vaccine is produced from yeast.

Allergies
  Exaggerated immune response to certain environmental antigens, e.g. pollens, dust, mites, etc.
 IgE antibody is produced during an allergic reaction
 Mast cell releases histamine and serotonin during an allergic reaction
 Antihistamines, adrenalin and steroids reduce the allergic symptoms

Auto Immunity

 When body attack self-cells it results in auto-immune disorder

 Rheumatoid arthritis is an auto-immune disorder

Immune System in The Body

 The human immune system comprises lymphoid organs, cells and antibodies
 Primary lymphoid organs: bone marrow and thymus. Here lymphocytes develop, mature and differentiate to antigen-specific
lymphocytes
 Secondary lymphoid organs: spleen, lymph nodes, tonsils, Peyer’s patches in small intestine and appendix. These are the site for
reaction with antigen and they become effector cells after the proliferation
 The spleen acts as a filter of the blood. It contains lymphocytes and phagocytes and a large number of erythrocytes are present
 Lymph nodes trap the antigens present in the lymph or tissue fluid
 Mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT): the mucosal lining of respiratory, urinary are digestive tract accounts for the 50% of total
lymphoid tissues present in the body

AIDS (Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome)

 Caused by HIV (Human Immuno Deficiency Virus)

 It is a retrovirus with RNA as its genome
 The virus produces viral DNA in the host by the enzyme
reverse transcriptase
 The viral DNA gets incorporated into the host genome and
multiple copies of the virus are produced
 The virus attacks helper T-cells, where it replicates and
multiplies, resulting in the marked decrease in the number of T
lymphocytes
 The infected person becomes immunodeficient after the virus
attacks T- helper cells
 AIDS patient become prone to various infections like
mycobacterium, toxoplasma, fungal and other viral infections
 ELISA (Enzyme-Linked Immuno-Sorbent Assay) is a widely
used diagnostic test for AIDS
  AIDS may be transmitted by sexual intercourse, contaminated blood transfusion, using an infected syringe or from mother to foetus
through the placenta
 NACO (National AIDS Control Organisation) works for the awareness and prevention of AIDS by educating people

Cancer

 Cancer is caused due to uncontrolled cell division leading to the formation of tumours
 There is a breakdown of regulatory mechanism in oncogenic transformation of normal cells
 Cancerous cells lack contact inhibition property, which inhibits further growth of cell on contact with other cells
 Benign tumours are non-invading and remain confined to their original location
 Malignant tumours have invading ability and damage surrounding tissues
 Metastasis: It is a property of malignant tumour when cells sloughed off from it reach distant sites and form a tumour in the various parts
of the body
 Cancer is caused due to DNA damage or genetic mutation resulting in the faulty regulation of the cell division
 Cancer can also be caused due to the activation of proto-oncogenes present in normals cells under certain condition
 Carcinogens: ionising radiation (e.g. X-rays, gamma rays), non-ionising radiation (UV rays), chemical agents (e.g. present in tobacco),
viral oncogenes of oncogenic viruses
 Cancer can be diagnosed by using a CT scan (computed tomography), MRI (magnetic resonance imaging), X-ray, PET scan (positron
emission tomography) or by histopathological studies of tissue and blood
 Cancer can also be diagnosed using molecular biology techniques to identify inherited susceptible genes for certain cancers
 Antibodies against cancer antigens can also be used for diagnostic purpose
 Cancer can be treated by surgery, transplantation, immunotherapy, radiation therapy
 𝛂-interferon act as biological response modifier, which activates the immune system to destroy tumour

Drugs and Alcohol Abuse

 Opioids, cannabinoids and coca alkaloids are commonly abused drugs

 There are opioid receptors present in our CNS and GI tract, where opioid drugs bind
 Diacetylmorphine is commonly known as heroin or smack. It is extracted from the latex of poppy plant Papaver somniferum. It is obtained
by acetylation of morphine
 Cannabinoids bind with the cannabinoid receptors present in the brain. They affect the cardiovascular system
 Cannabinoids, e.g. marijuana, hashish, charas, ganja, etc. are obtained from the flower tops, leaves, resins of the plant Cannabis sativa
 Cocaine or coca alkaloid is obtained from the plant Erythroxylum coca.
 Cocaine acts by interfering with the transport of dopamine, a neurotransmitter
 Atropa belladonna and Datura also have hallucinogenic properties
 Sportspersons also take cannabinoids to enhance their performance, muscle relaxation and reduce anxiety
 Morphine is used as sedative and pain killer
 Barbiturates, amphetamines, benzodiazepines, etc. are used as a medicine for depression, insomnia and other mental illness
 Nicotine (alkaloid) present in tobacco stimulates the release of adrenalin and nor-adrenalin hormone by the adrenal gland. It increases
heart rate and blood pressure
 Smoking causes oxygen deficiency by increasing the concentration of carbon monoxide in the blood thereby decreasing the concentration
of oxygen bound to haemoglobin
 The excessive use of drugs and alcohol damages the nervous system and causes liver cirrhosis
 The misuse of narcotic analgesic, anabolic steroids, diuretics to enhance performance and increase muscle strength is frequently done by
sports person
 Anabolic steroids induce masculinisation and aggressiveness in females