WHAT HAPPENED AT THE BATTLE OF

THE SOMME?
 Kacper Mejdus

Introduction

Throughout history, there are many battles that have been remembered for their splendour
or size. Some examples include D-day (operation Overlord, June 6, 1944) or Thermopylae
(480 BC). However, one battle that is etched into our memories not for its glory or length of
time is the Battle of the Somme, which is instead remembered as a grim, melancholic
metaphor of war- where the young and foolish generation is called upon by the old and
bitter and tricked into killing each other. That sometimes, one must pick the weapon up to
put the weapon down, and that deep in his heart of hearts, a soldier fights not because he
hates what is put before him, but rather because he loves what is behind him.
The battle of the Somme is widely considered a total logistical and humanitarian nightmare,
where both sides lobbed forces at one another without end, only for them to be
slaughtered. Although this myth is largely false, it does hold its roots in truth.

Before the battle

February 1916. France, Britain and the German Empire are fighting along 450 miles of
trenches stretching through much of Western Europe. At the same time, Germany is fighting
to the death with Tsarist Russia through frost, mud and rain. 2 years prior in the first months
of the war, Germany storms through western Europe, ending the race to the sea and
occupying Belgium in mid-October and then marches into France shortly after. This begins
the bloody stalemate known as trench warfare in which French, British and German troops
are forced to sit day after day in mud 2 metres deep while being harassed by rats, lice fleas
and disease. Artillery shells fall from the heavens without respite, and the only time this
hellish barrage pauses is for one sides soldiers to clamber over the edge of their trench and
begin the bloody slog over no-mans-land, only to be systematically mowed down by
machine gun fire. This hell would not cease until one side would overrun the other, gaining
only a few metres of ground at the cost of hundreds of young lives, irreplaceable people like
you and me who would never see their families again. In fact, during the Battle of
Passchendaele in 1917, it is concluded that for every life lost by the British 5 centimetres of
ground was gained.
In February of 1916, the British and French high commands had enough of this madness.
They decided to muster their forces for one enormous offensive to relieve the occupied
sectors of France and Belgium prised from the allies in 1914. But Germany strikes first.
On February 21st, 1916, the German army begins an offensive against the French city of
Verdun. German general Erich von Falkenhayn believed that the war would be won or lost in
France and that a war of attrition gave Germany the best chance of achieving this aim. In a
letter to German Emperor William II in 1915, he argued that Britain was the most dangerous
of all the allied powers but could not be assaulted directly as the British sector of the
Western Front was far from ideal to support offensive operations. In his opinion, Britain’s
‘real weapons’ in the war were the French, Russian and Italian armies. However, he viewed
Russia as being ‘already paralysed’ and Italy as too weak to sway the outcome of the war.
According to him, ‘only France remains.’ He concluded that an en masse breakthrough was
unnecessary and that Germany should instead bleed France out by choosing a point at
which to assault ‘which the French would be compelled to throw in every man they have.’
The fortress of Verdun along with its surrounding fortifications along the Meuse River was
selected as the focal point of this offensive as it was a major threat to the main German
communications lines and represented the leading citadel in the French front. The loss of
such an asset was expected to cripple the morale of the French army. The strategy that the
Germans would use to attack Verdun was an unending series of reserved advances that
would draw the French forces into the devastating force of German heavy artillery. The
breakthroughs themselves would be blanketed by a quick German artillery bombardment,
which was purposefully selected to be brief to encompass the element of surprise but
making up the duration with the number of guns themselves and their lightning-fast rate of
fire. By using this strategy, the German army could capture and hold their tactical objectives
before the French had any time to manoeuvre their reserves to counterattack. Command of
this operation was given to Crown Prince William, Eldest son of the German Emperor.
As early as January 1916, French airmen spotted German preparations for the Verdun
offensive and on February 11 a French intelligence officer reported unusually large build-ups
of German troops along the right Meuse bank. With this information French commanders
had to hastily bolster the line at Verdun. Since French commanders were mostly occupied in
their own affairs until this point, the moving of thousands of men and hundreds of heavy
field guns proved a massive logistical challenge. French officers had to organise a motorized
supply chain over 37 miles long which came to be known as Le Voie Sacree (the sacred way)
for its vital role in the French defence.
At 7:15am on 21st of February the Germans began a huge artillery barrage of a front about
40km long from the Bois D’Avocourt to Etain. At about 4:45m the first German infantry was
sent. The first infantry were teams of scouts who assessed the damage done by artillery and
directed more to areas which weren’t shattered. These were followed by pionieretruppen
(combat engineers) ahead of the main body of the assault. By the end of the first day,
German troops made significant gains, penetrating the French lines. On the 22 nd of February,
the Germans consolidated their gains and repelled a French counterattack. The next day the
villages of Brabant sur-Meuse, Wavrille and Samogneux were captured by German infantry.
In these 3 days the Germans had seized the first French defensive line. Both sides then
frantically reinforced their static positions. After a German attack at Samogneux was halted
by French artillery, the entire German line overrun the second line of French defences and
advancing on the key fort of Douaumont. That same evening the French commander at
Verdun, Gen. Joseph-Jacques-Césaire Joffre, the so-called ‘Victor of the Marne’ was relieved
of his duty and was replaced by Gen. Philippe Petain. With this new general came a new
army- the 2nd. On February 25th Petain was given the extremely difficult task of holding the
right bank of the Meuse. French high command declared that a new defensive line from the
East bank of the Meuse to the fort of Douaumont was to be held at all costs. However, as
the French were scrambling to reorganise this new defensive line, the Germans stormed in
and captured the fort of Douaumont, which stood undefended. With this fell arguably the
most formidable of all forts surrounding Verdun. Over the next few days, the French
defence compensated and the German advance slowed to a halt. French aircraft reclaimed
dominance over the Verdun skies and Petain deployed hundreds of brand-new heavy field
guns linked by telephone.

This slaughter continued until December 18 th of 1916. The Battle of Verdun lasted for 303
days and became known as the longest battle in modern history. It was also known as the
longest artillery barrage in modern history, with over 2 million shells being fired by each
side. With the Germans failure to make an immediate impact at Verdun, they soon realised
the British were planning an offensive at the Somme. All the while, the French stood firm at
Verdun with the slogan on ne passe pas! (They shall not pass!)
Equipment assessment

The British, French and German armies made use of a wide variety of equipment, which
undoubtedly changed the course of the conflict. These devices ranged from uniforms to
entrenching tools, the lowliest service pistol to the heaviest field howitzer. Here I will
examine the most prominent equipment used by each army, starting with France and
Britain and ending with Germany.

France
Operational structure
It is often said that the French army of 1914 was prepared for war- maybe an ordinary war
of the time, but not one the likes of the Great War. The standard unit of infantry in 1916
was the Regiment d’Infantrie (R.I.) Each one was individually numbered, and there were
173 R.I. at the outbreak of the war. A typical R.I. consisted of 70 officers and 3,400 other
men of various ranks and was organised into 3 battalions. In addition to the regimental
commander and his staff, the headquarters of each regiment included 12 scouts (on
horseback) and 120 men who formed an admin platoon. They were stretcher bearers,
armourers, cooks, sappers, etc. The R.I. was then further split into 3 battalions, each one
organised like this:
-Headquarters
-Machine-gun (MG) platoon
-Medical personnel/carts
-4 companies, each of 4 officers and 250 rank-and-file men
(A company consisted of four platoons known as ‘sections’, and in turn each platoon
consisted of 4 squads ‘escouades’.)

Each Battalion had one battalion train tagged along, which consisted of-
-1 headquarters cart
-2 light tools carts
-1 field forge
-3 meat wagons
-13 food wagons
(Note – The French army fielded no proper field kitchens in a battalion until 1915.)

A brigade consisted of 2 R.I.s. A division, 2 brigades. Lastly, an army corps consisted of 2

divisions.

Uniform

French uniform in 1914 was of a remarkable sky-blue colour called ‘horizon blue’. However,
in 1915 this colour was changed to a slightly more grey variant, but it still held the same
name. Pictured is a French infantryman with the 1915 pattern uniform.

1- The ‘Adrian helmet’ (casque Adrian) was the

standard helmet of the French army in WW1. It
was the first standard-issue modern steel helmet
anywhere in the world. The first model, the M15
saw service with many armies even into the
1930s but was superseded by the improved
M26.
2- Standard-issue French army overcoat (1915
horizon blue)
3- The collar was where markings of status and
rank were displayed on a French uniform.
4- Standard-issue French M1877 canvas water
bottle. Originally canvas coloured, but in 1915 it
was changed to horizon blue along with the
uniform. French soldiers carried 2- one with
water and the other with watered down wine.
5- Standard-issue French Model 1886/15 frog
bayonet. It featured a 52cm sharpened blade.
6- Standard-issue French M1893 canvas haversack.
It carried all food related items- utensils, rations,
a mug, a food storage container and a ‘dixie’
mess tin used to boil and prepare food.
 7- Standard-issue French breeches. They had different coloured piping signifying
different units- cavalry had green, infantry had yellow and artillery had red.
8- Standard-issue French horizon blue leg wraps. These were called puttees. In 1914
boots were made out of canvas, but in 1915 were changed to black leather along
with the uniform change.
Weaponry

Lebel M1886 rifle

The Lebel model 1886 rifle was the standard infantry rifle of the French army during WW1.
Designed in 1886 and entering service in 1887, it was a truly revolutionary weapon when it
first entered service. It featured a brand-new smokeless powder for the bullets which
burned hotter, faster and cleaner than gunpowder. This enabled the bullet to be more
accurate and far more powerful than that of conventional rifles. Also, when fired, it did not
produce a cloud of smoke that gave away the firers position. It included an 8 round tube
magazine with a calibre of 8mm. the bullets were stored in a tube underneath the barrel
and sported flat tops to prevent a bullet igniting the powder of the one in front of it. This
rifle might’ve been revolutionary, but by the time of the First World War it was outclassed
significantly by designs of other nations.

Standard-issue lebel rifle

The Lebel rifles reloading mechanism. The bullets might’ve

been a new design, but the reloading mechanism was first
used on Russian designs years earlier.
CSRG modele 1915 ‘chauchat’ machine rifle

The ‘chauchat’ (pronounced show-sha) was officially dubbed a machine rifle, but in practical
use it was fielded as one of the worlds first light machine guns. It was the only machine gun
ever to use the ‘long recoil’ system of operation. Unlike designs which utilised the ‘short
recoil’ system like the Russian maxim machine gun, the ‘long recoil’ system required the
barrel to recoil the full length of the cartridge. This leads to a very large and cumbersome
weapon with severe recoil. If used without a tripod mount, the firer acts as part of the recoil
system, and if he moves too much, the mechanism will not function as intended and firing
will stop. Unlike its contemporaries made from wood and blued machined steel, the
chauchat was made entirely from stamped steel and turned parts. It was pioneering in
industrial design and the idea was for large quantities of these weapons to be made quickly
and cheaply in factories not created for arms manufacture.
The chauchat has a reputation as the worst machine gun ever fielded, which it does not
entirely deserve. Problems with reliability of the gun included the fact that the moving parts
were prone to expanding when heated up, thus jamming the gun. It could not fire again
until sufficiently cooled. It was the first light machine gun to incorporate a magazine feed
(albeit one which was dangerously open to the elements of the trenches) but had an
extremely low rate of fire, less than half of that of its British equivalent, the Lewis gun
(which will be covered later.) all in all, the chauchat was an essential stop-gap measure for
the allies. It is worthy to note however that nothing from the chauchat was carried over to
later designs.

CSRG modele 1915 ‘Chauchat’

Hotchkiss Modele 1914 machine gun

The Hotchkiss mle. 14 was a gas operated, air cooled and strip fed heavy machine gun
designed in 1914. It was supremely different from most other contemporary machine guns
of the time, being gas operated rather than recoil operated and air cooled rather than water
cooled. Being gas operated and equipped with a very prominent brass gas regulator, the gun
could be kept operating while dirty by simply opening up the regulator to allow more
propellant gas to drive the gun. It used stamped metal ammunition strips fed from left to
right and replaced when used. It was a very reliable and tough weapon, although these
qualities made it excessively heavy at 47.5 kg. It required a crew of 3 to operate effectively-
one gunner and 2 loaders. An interesting feature of the weapon was that it had the
capability to fire exactly the same ammunition as the regular French infantry rifle, the
M1886 lebel. It had a lightning-fast rate of fire, at 600 rounds per minute, or 10 rounds per
second.

Hotchkiss Mle. 1914

Canon de 75 modele 1897

The French ‘soixante quinze’ (seventy-five) was the first truly modern field gun. Unveiled in
1897, it shocked friend and potential foe alike. This quick-firing gun was designed in utter
secrecy to give the French army a winning edge in battle. The German army was a major
concern at the time but faced with the unveiling of the brand-new ‘75’, the German’s new
7.7cm Flugabwehrkanone (flak) 96 had to be rapidly modernised. The characteristics of this
excellent weapon made it the workhorse of French field artillery units during the First World
War. One feature this gun boasted was the ability to be a truly fast-firing gun. This is
because it had a hydraulic shock-absorber and air spring, which meant that the gun didn’t
have to be re-aimed after firing every shot, meaning that it could fire several shots in quick
succession. It earned the name ‘75’ due to its 75mm calibre. It was such a successful
weapon that it continued service even into WWII.

A 75mm Mle. 1917 field gun in use

with US forces, 1917.

M1877 ‘de Bange’ 155mm Howitzer

The ‘de Bange’ 155mm cannon was a French heavy artillery piece which was introduced
after the Franco-Prussian war and established the standard 155mm calibre in the French
army. The guns name ‘de Bange’ comes from its designer, Charles de Bange. In total, 1,400
guns were built by France. Most of them were placed in French forts, specifically around
Toul, Belfort and Verdun. The first series of guns featured a wooden carriage and wheels
which absorbed recoil after the shot, while later guns were made entirely out of steel. Along
with the steel chassis, a hydraulic brake was fitted which made it easier to absorb recoil and
return to a pre-shot position. Around 200 of the 1,400 guns manufactured were put in
reserve for any offensive operations during the course of the war.

A ‘de Bange’ 155mm cannon in its

position on the Western front.
Cannons on the Western front
received a rare field modification-
padded wheels (as seen in the
photo) which greatly improved
traction characteristics off-road.
Artillery operational structure

Until 1914, the French army did not have any doctrines, especially for artillery. The French
high command held outlandish concepts like elan vitale, the idea that French troops could
overcome more modern firepower by their very ‘Frenchness’. This was radically changed
just before the war broke out, however. Infantry and Cavalry units had an emphasis on
speed and mobility in the field (a bit hard to accomplish in practice with the very nature of
trench warfare) while artillery had a completely opposite approach. Heavy artillery was
mainly reserved for sieges, as with their new doctrine, it was seen as impractical to wield
such heavy and cumbersome weapons with infantry. Therefore, French artillery was mainly
reserved for being stationed far behind the frontline and firing at targets kilometres away.
French field artillery groups were organised as follows-
- 3 firing batteries
- 1 HQ company

And HQ company consisted of-

- 1 major
- 4 subalterns
- 1 medical officer
- 1 veterinary officer
- 1 non-commissioned officer
- 2 corporals
- 15 men (8 mounted on horseback)
- 1 1-horse medical cart
- 3 2-horse wagons (1 for meat and 2 for luggage and supplies)
- 1 4-horse observatory cart (2 wheeled)

Firing batteries consisted of their own smaller sub-batteries. From now on these sub-
batteries will be referred to as ‘platoons’ to avoid confusion, although they of course were
known as batteries. Whenever the word ‘platoon’ is used referring to the subcategories,
replace it with ‘battery’.

A firing battery consisted of-

 - 1 field platoon (4 guns (mixed calibre), 6 wagons)
- 1 horse platoon (4 guns (mixed calibre,) 6 wagons)
- 155mm QF platoon
- Mountain platoon

Each 155mm QF platoon consisted of-

- 4 155mm guns
- 4 carriages
- 1 observation wagon

Each Mountain platoon consisted of-

- 4 75mm (or lower calibre) guns
- 16 mules
- 16 ammo boxes
- 8 mules to carry ammo boxes
- 1 mule to carry tools

Every battery also had its own field echelon, which was a unit that would operate behind
the front line, maintaining the guns, distributing food amongst the crews, taking care of the
animals, etc. Every platoon had its own assigned field echelon group. At this point it gets
very confusing, so here is a handy diagram.
155mm QF
platoon
Field artillery
group 155mm gun gun carriage observation
x4 x4 wagon
Headquarters
company

mountain
platoon
firing battery firing battery firing battery
4x 75mm 16x ammo 8x ammo mule to carry
16x mules tools
guns boxes carrier mules

firing
battery
field/horse
combat platoon
echelon

field horse 155mm QF mountain

platoon platoon platoon platoon gun x4 wagon x6
 Britain

Operational structure

in 1914 a British infantry division consisted of about 18,100 men, along with 5600 horses, 24
machine guns, 54 light field guns, 18 medium howitzers and 4 heavy field guns. The division
consisted of 3 infantry brigades, which in turn consisted each of 4 infantry battalions, which
in turn each consisted of 4 rifle companies and 1 machine gun section. The division also had
1 cavalry section for reconnaissance, one signal company, 3 companies of field ambulances,
2 companies of royal engineers, 3 brigades of the royal field artillery, each with 3 batteries,
one brigade of field artillery with 3 howitzer batteries, and finally 1 battery of the royal
heavy divisional artillery. One noteworthy point is that there are no regiments in this
structure, and no battalions for the artillery.
One royal field artillery brigade consisted of 3 batteries, and each of these batteries had 6
field guns. In total, one royal field artillery brigade consisted of 772 men, 23 officers and 748
horses. Each rifle company consisted of 227 men.
However, in 1916 this layout was quite significantly changed. The cavalry section, machine
gun sections and royal heavy divisional artillery division were removed. These losses were
replaced with the addition of one royal engineer company, and now each infantry brigade
had one MG company had one machine gun (MG) company and one light mortar battery. In
addition, there was one company of pioneers added, 3 batteries of medium mortars and
one battery of heavy mortars. These values should be taken with a grain of salt though, as
every infantry division had their own preferences and therefore had its own slight
deviations. Here is a diagram of a standard 1916 infantry division-

infantry division

3x field 3x royal
3x infantry 3x royal field field artillery
signal company ambulance engineer
brigades artillery brigade brigade
company company

light mortar
You might see that these 3 units aren’t 3x royal field 3x howitzer
MG company connected to any other branch- that is
battery artillery battery batteries
because they were entrusted to work
independently from other units in the
4x infantry division.
battalions

pioneer 3x medium heavy mortar

4x rifle company mortar battery battery
companies
One worthy note is that unlike the French army’s artillery branch working independently
from other branches, the British artillery branch worked as part of an infantry division. That
is because unlike the French army’s doctrine of using artillery as a breakthrough weapon,
the British army used artillery as a supporting weapon meant to be used in conjunction with
infantry, thereby offering them fire support against heavier targets.

Uniform

British Uniform took a radical change in the late

17th century, from the iconic redcoat uniform to 5
more muted tones like green and khaki.
Uniform sported by British soldiers during
WW1 is a khaki colour called ‘khaki drill’. It 1
was coloured this way so British soldiers 6
could blend into the mud and dust of the
battlefield.
1- British model 1902 tunic. The buttons
were made from brass and imprinted
with the lion coat-of-arms.
7
2- British standard-issue straight-leg
trousers. Breeches were also available
at the time, but soldiers preferred to
wear the straight legged trousers as
2
they were more comfortable.
3- British army puttees. They were
coloured in ‘khaki drab’ unlike the rest
of the uniform.
4- British army ammunition shoes. They
were called that by the soldiers because 3
they were made of a similar material as
the British ammunition pouches at the 4
time.
5- model 1914 brodie helmet. American soldiers used a similar helmet, with the
difference being that British helmets had a rubber ring on the inside.
6- British 1916 pattern Winchester bayonet. A license built Japanese design, built by
Winchester (as the name suggests.)
7- 1908 pattern infantry belt. It contained pouches for a soldier’s personal items like
the AB64 paybook and pictures of loved ones, and also contained a second pouch for
field dressing and tea rations. Lastly, it contained five pouches for 10-round
ammunition clips for the lee-Enfield rifle around the waist.
Weaponry

Lee-Enfield rifle

The Lee-Enfield was the standard-issue infantry rifle of British units during WW1. While not
necessarily being the most notable weapon of the war, the Lee Enfield did its job well and
enjoyed a good reputation among British soldiers. It featured a 10-round magazine and a
high rate of fire. A well-trained infantryman could achieve a fire rate of up to 12 rounds a
minute. At the battle of Mons, this quick rate of fire played to its advantage when German
troops thought they were being attacked by machine guns rather than regular rifles after
witnessing the fire rate of the Lee-Enfield. Like everything though, it did have its flaws, most
notable of which is that it was extremely prone to jamming and clogging in the battlefield as
a result of the ever-present mud. This would mean that dirt and grit would regularly become
lodged in the firing mechanism and result in misfire. One interesting fact is that although the
Lee-Enfield could hold 10 rounds, soldiers often loaded it with only 5 to reduce wear on the
magazine spring, which was very prone to damage.

.303 calibre Lee-Enfield rifle

Lewis Light Machine gun mk. I

The ‘Lewis gun’ was a refinement by U.S. army colonel Isaac N. Lewis, of an existing
design by Samuel McClean (another American). The resulting weapon defined the light
machine gun as a class of firearm. Regular machine guns like the French Hotchkiss could
fire faster and more accurately at range but were heavy and required a crew of men to
operate it effectively. A ‘light’ machine gun was designed to be manned by a single
soldier and take the fight to the enemy. It featured a 47 round ‘pan’ magazine fitted on
top which limited the rate of fire but made the gun much easier and simpler to operate.
The weapon was air cooled by a finned radiator fan fitted beneath a sheet metal shroud,
giving the gun its distinctive appearance. It functioned by the principle of the ‘venturi’
effect, sucking the hot air forwards and drawing cold air in behind it. This effect can be
clearly seen in high-speed video footage. A fun fact about this gun is that it was used as
a prop in the very first Star Wars film- ‘Star Wars- A New Hope’ (1984.)

‘Lewis’ light machine gun

Vickers Heavy machine gun

The Vickers heavy machine gun was a development of the Russian ‘Maxim’ gun. It was a
7.7mm calibre weapon and was extremely heavy and large weighing in at 23kg and
having a barrel length of 72cm. In total it had a length of 1.12 metres. Due to this
excessive size and weight, it required a team of 6 to 8 men to operate to its full
potential- one fired, one fed the ammunition and the rest carried ammunition, spare
parts and the weapon itself. It had a great reputation for solidity and reliability, though.
So much so that in August 1916 during the battle of the Somme 100 of these machine
guns continued a sustained 12-hour barrage without any breakdowns. All in all, they
used over a million rounds without breakdown. It had a very distinct appearance due to
its water-cooling jacket. Cold water would flow through this jacket, cooling the barrel as
 it fired, allowing for long, sustained bursts. It served on every single front of the First
War and continued service even into the 1960s.

Distinct water cooling jacket

Vickers Mk. I heavy machine gun

Ordnance QF 18 Pounder light field gun

The QF 18-pounder field gun Mk. I was the British army’s standard field gun of the first
world war, and after some teething troubles developed into a very reliable weapon. The 18-
pounder was developed after the Boer war, where the British army’s existing artillery had
proved inferior to those used by the Boers. The first completed guns were issued as early as
1904, and by the outbreak of WW1 the only change that had been made was to make the
barrel liner replaceable. The 18 pounders first went to war with the BEF (British
expeditionary force), and it became clear that each gun would fire far more shells than
initially speculated. Under the increased stress of battle the recoil springs proved to be quite
fragile and once they broke the gun was out of action until they were replaced. It had a
calibre of 83.3mm and earned its name from the weight of the shell, which weighed 18lbs
(around 9kg.) an impressive 113 million rounds of ammunition was manufactured for this
gun, with 99 million shots being fired over the Western Front.

An ANZAC 18-pounder field

gun in action at Beaussart

QF 4.5-inch howitzer Yellow painted shells were high

explosive, and pale green shells
were smoke.

The QF 4.5-inch (114mm) howitzer

was one of the best British field
artillery pieces as it was light,
handy and fired a useful shell. It
was another weapon developed in
the aftermath of the Boer war.
During that conflict the Royal
Artillery learned the hard way that
its previous field howitzers were
too heavy, slow in action and
generally not powerful enough, so
a new design was sought. A private
manufacturer, Coventry Ordnance
Works, was awarded the contract
in the end. This welcome change from the heavier guns proved to be a very sound weapon,
so sound in fact that it only required one change in its entire service life- the rounding off of
sharp corners on the beech to prevent cracking after prolonged firing. It also had 2 types of
shells, both very handy- a high explosive shell and a smoke shell. The smoke shell, unlike
conventional munitions, would release a smoke screen which would cover the movements
of friendly infantry and prevent visibility of assets for the enemy.

BL 60-pounder Heavy field gun

The 60-pdr gun entered service in 1910

and had several developments worked
upon it by the time of WW1. One notable
change was ‘production engineering’ to
simplify manufacturing. It had an
extremely long service life, only starting
to be replaced by the 4.5-inch howitzer in
the late 1930s. However, they remained
in service with some medium batteries until 1942. It wasn’t a remarkable weapon, being
extremely simple to manufacture and maintain. It required a 10-man crew- 1 detachment
commander, 1 operator, 1 layer, 1 trail traverser, 1 loader and rammer, 1 cartridge prepare
and loader, 3 men to prepare the shell and finally 1 man to cover it when not in use.
British Doctrine

British doctrine during WW1 was centred around ‘taking it slow.’ Infantry would march in
columns and over no-mans-land they would (in theory) march unwavering through a hail of
bullets with artillery supporting them from above. This was only in theory though as through
the crash and din of battle its not a very good idea to take a casual stroll, so many soldiers
deviated from this bizarre doctrine and opted for running instead.

Germany

Operational structure

In 1914 a German infantry division consisted of 18,000 men who were equipped with 4600
horses, 24 heavy machine guns and 72 light field guns. In terms of structure and
organisation, the division consisted of 2 infantry brigades, which each consisted of 2
regiments, which each consisted of 3 infantry battalions and one MG company. The division
also contained one artillery brigade which consisted of 2 artillery regiments which each
consisted of 2 artillery batteries. In Most cases, the division also had an engineer company, a
cavalry company and a medical company. This is quite an abstract structure though, so let’s
dive a little deeper.
Each infantry battalion consisted of 4 infantry companies. Since each division had 12
infantry battalion, this meant that in a division there was a total of 48 infantry companies. A
company consisted of 150 men in peacetime. (This was changed to 270 men when war
broke out.) This means that 12,960 men out of the 18,000 in a division served in infantry
companies. This structure changed as the war progressed, however. One notable change is
the addition of a permanent medical company and the inclusion of 3 permanent engineer
companies in 1916. furthermore, in 1916 divisions used for offensive operations (known as
Eingreifsdivisions) were issued 180 Light machine guns unlike the regular division’s 0, and
they were also issued 108 heavy machine guns unlike the regular division’s 24. However, the
number of light artillery pieces was halved from 72 to 36. Lastly, the Angriffsdivisions were
issued with 12 heavy howitzers, 18 light mortars and 6 medium mortars. (Note- mortars
were referred to by the Germans as ‘minenwerfer’, which literally translates to ‘mine-
thrower.’)
 Here is a visualisation of how the 1916 divisions and Eingreifsdivisions were organised-
Infantry
division

2x infantry 3x engineer artillery medical cavalry

brigades company brigade company company (?)

1916 type infantry division

2x infantry 2x artillery
regiments regiments

MG 2x artillery
company batteries

3x infantry
battalions

Eingreifsdivision

3x infantry engineer medical

artillery brigade
brigade company company

2x infantry 2x artillery
regiments regiments Eingreifsdivisions

3x MG 2x artillerey
companies batteries

3x infantry Light mortar heavy mortar

battalions company company

Uniform

German uniform during the Great War changed quite a bit during the course of the war.
Most people recognise German infantrymen as having a silly spiked helm and high boots.
Although this extremely impractical uniform was worn, it was only in the early months of
1914. Later in the war it was replace by more modern uniform and headwear designs. The
uniform of a German infantryman in 1918 would be completely unrecognisable from that of
a 1914 soldier.
The main colour for the uniform stayed essentially the same throughout the entire war-
‘feldgrau,’ or ‘field grey’ was its official designation.

Pictured and labelled is the German uniform from

1916- around the time of the Battle of the Somme.

1- M16 stallhelm (steel helmet.) these were

introduced in 1916 to replace the old 2
German army caps as many soldiers were 6
falling prey to shrapnel from artillery shells.
A very handy design which protected all the
vital parts. Introduced during the battle of
the Somme.
2- Shoulder boards displayed the regimental
number of a soldier in stylised red silk. 5
3
Some soldiers said it was too stylised for
their liking.
3- German army wool tunic. Known as the
‘einheitzbluse’ they were produced in
Bavaria from 1915 and were only issued in
1916.
4- Brown German ‘marching boots’ used by
German infantry throughout the entire war.
The grey bands around the calves aren’t
puttees- they are in fact extremely long 4
socks.
5- Leather belt. All leather gear started off as
black, but in 1915 an order went out to
change all leather gear from black to brown.
It carried 6 pouches, a gas mask container
(the grey-green cylinder) and a space for a trench knife, which interestingly wasn’t
actually issued to soldiers. Soldiers were expected to buy the knife themselves for
their own earnings at camp catalogues, essentially shops behind the frontline. They
were designed to be very short so they could be used in trenches or hallways, since
long bayonets seemed impractical. Lastly, the belt carried an entrenching tool at the
back. Machine gunners had an entrenching tool with an extremely short almost non-
existent handle.
6- Gewehr s98.05 10-inch bayonet. They were originally used as knives for artillery
crewmen. It was known as the ‘butcher blade’ by the British because of its width.
Weaponry

Gewehr 98

After the Franco-Prussian war in 1870, cultural memory of that conflict was strong in WW1.
German fear of civilian insurgency was the cause of brutality in France and Belgium, and
France for her sought revenge over the defeat. This bitter rivalry culminated in a small arms
race between the two nations. The Prussian army adopted the single-shot bolt-action
Mauser immediately after this conflict and this was developed into what became a world
standard rifle, much like the Kalashnikov today. The ultimate variant was the Gewehr 98,
the culmination of this massively commercially successful series of rifles. It was the first rifle
to utilise the pointed ‘spitzer’ (spire shaped) or ‘S’ bullet. Unlike the flat-based bullets used
on the British Lee-Enfield, this was a very aerodynamic design which meant the bullet could
travel much faster than its contemporaries. However, it did not prove to be a revolutionary
weapon when faced against the allies. Though very large and well-equipped, the German
army lacked experience for modern warfare.

1906 dated G98

Spandau Maschinengewehr MG 08/15

The MG 08/15 was a German built light machine gun introduced in 1915. It was also based
off the Russian ‘Maxim’ gun like the before-mentioned Vickers Mk. I utilised by the British. It
had extremely similar performance, wit one of the only performance differences being that
it used a 50-round belt. For more information, see the Vickers Mk. I.

German MG 08/15, very

similar in appearance to
the British Vickers.
German light machine guns

Germany did not build its own variant of light machine gun, and so therefore it utilised
captured British and French designs like the Lewis gun, Vickers Mk. I and chauchat whenever
it was possible- and it usually was, as these weapons were seized in enormous numbers at
the beginning of the war.

Leichtefeldhaubitze (LeFH) 16

When the fluid fronts of 1914 devolved into the bloody slog of trench warfare, all sides
sought out a method to dislodge the entrenched enemy. Artillery was one such weapon and
it proved highly effective against all sorts of targets- infantry, fortifications and even the
very first tanks. As such, field guns and howitzers were ever-present in the trench lines that
began to spring up by early 1915. In 1916, the German army took on the new ’10.5cm
leichte feldhaubitze 16’ (105mm light field howitzer model 1916) series of guns. Its design is
highly classical, incorporating prominent, spoked wheels to either side of the trail. The shells
were separate loading, meaning that the propellant and charge had to be loaded separately.
Each projectile weighed in at 16.5kg and were available in HE (high explosive) or AP (armour
piercing) types. A typical crew for this weapon numbered 6 men. All in all, around 500 units
were produced over the war.

A restored LeFH 16,

currently resting at the
Boyen Fortress in my Polish
hometown of Giżycko.
 21cm Morser 10

The morser 10 was a heavy howitzer used by Germany in WW1. It was designed to replace
the obsolete 21cm morser 99, which lacked a functional recoil system. It was so heavy and
cumbersome that for transport it had to be split into 2 main sections- the carriage and the
cannon itself. Before the morser 10 was commissioned for production, a small test series of
21cm versuchsmorser (test mortar) was given to the German army. These test pieces alone
exceled in the field. Around 216 of these guns were built before the outbreak of war. It was
mostly designed for sieges and not for anti-infantry use so it was equipped with concrete-
shattering shells.

One of the only surviving images of

this gun with a gun shield fitted.

Size comparison of this gun’s shell

casing compared to an early war
German helmet.

Big Bertha

The Big Bertha, or Dicke Bertha in German, was a 420mm howitzer that was used to
bombard French and Belgian forts. Officially designated as the 42-cm kurze Marinekanone
14 L/12 in Räderlafette (“42-cm short naval canon 14 L/12 on wheeled carriage”), the gun
was affectionately named ‘Big Bertha’ as a single projectile fired by it completely destroyed
fort Loncin during the siege of Liege, but according to some sources, it was named Big
Bertha was used in honour of the owner of the Krupp corporation, Bertha Krupp von Bohlen
und Holbach. A total of 12 Big Berthas were built and utilised by The Germans.
The gun was designed in utmost secrecy by Germany’s greatest arms manufacturer, Krupp.
It was built in the years prior to the war for the sole purpose of shattering French and
German forts that were built of steel reinforced concrete. By the time they were finished,
the 12 Big Berthas were the largest artillery pieces used by any army on the globe. It would
fire projectiles weighing up to 810kg to a distance of almost 9 kilometres. The most
 prominently used Shell type was one built with a delayed fuse that would explode once it
buried itself almost 12 metres into the earth. The gun and its carriage weighed in at a total
of 47 tons when fully assembled. They generally operated in pairs, and a single Big Bertha
was operated and serviced to by a team of up to 240 men.
A Big Bertha preparing to fire during
the battle of Verdun.

German Artillery Doctrine

German artillery doctrine was unlike that of the French and British doctrines of the time,
favouring somewhat of a middle-ground. Whereas the British favoured an approach to
artillery that supported the infantry as they advanced and the French used artillery
exclusively for sieges, the Germans used artillery for a slightly different purpose. German
artillery was used in conjunction with infantry as they had howitzers as part of infantry
divisions, but artillery units would choose their own strategically important targets like
hardpoints or forts and destroy them independently. These targets were usually far out of
range of the infantry while they were advancing but would ultimately help infantry units in
the long run, making their job a whole lot easier when the time came to assault the targets
from the ground. Here is a quote from the German ‘Artillerie-fibel’ (artillery
handbook/instruction book) reinforcing the German artillery doctrine-
‘Commit harassing fire sadistically. Where and when would it be most unpleasant on your
own side? No regularity. Let surprise fire alternate with single shots (refeeding) by roving
guns and roving batteries.’

Battle of the Somme begins

Switching focus back to the summer offensive envisioned by the allies, their plan is to launch
a massive breakthrough to relieve the parts of France and Belgium that were occupied by
Germany at the beginning of the war. Their plans are thwarted however, as Germany strikes
first and attacks the French at Verdun, aiming to knock them out of the war as they saw
France as ‘Britain’s greatest weapon’. France is knocked out of the summer offensive,
forcing Britain to strike alone. The objective of this offensive is also changed to relieving the
French army from the pressure of defending Verdun.
The main idea of the offensive presented by leautenant general Sir Henry Rawlinson is to
strike a 25-mile piece of land near the Somme River in July. However, the newly elected
British commander Sir Douglas Haig had other ideas. He envisioned an attack near Ypres,
where the strategic objectives were clearer and he wanted to wait till his inexperienced
units get more training. This was one of the major British breakdowns of the offensive.
Britain did not have a large standing army at the onset of the war like the other participants.
Minister for war Lord Kitchener realised that Britain required a much larger force to make
an impact on the war in Europe. He appealed for 100,00 volunteers but in 5 months over 2
million men had heeded the call. 1 and a half years later, many of them were on their way
to the Somme. Most of these units were just civilians with no prior combat experience.
Some of them hadn’t even finished their training and a lot of them had lied about their age
to get into the army. For this reason, Sir Douglas Haig wanted to postpone the offensive, but
General Rawlinson insisted.
Rawlinson’s strategy was simple. He would begin the offensive with an enormous, week-
long artillery barrage using over 1400 guns which in theory would shatter German bunkers,
kill the occupants and pulverise any defensive positions. 19 mines buried under German
strongpoints would be detonated, pulverising these forts further. After the barrage would
cease, Rawlinson would send his men to overrun the now-vacant enemy trenches and
consolidate his gains. In the North, a diversionary attack would be made at Gommecourt to
distract the Germans from the main event. With 6 weeks to go before the attack, the
previously quiet Somme sector is being transformed. Shells have to be stockpiled, roads
built, drains dug, water pipes and telephone lines laid. In his words, he wanted to ‘bite and
hold’- ‘take what the Germans have and invite them to take it back.’

‘It is capital country in which to undertake an offensive. For the observation is excellent, and
with plenty of guns and ammunition, we ought to avoid the heavy losses which the infantry
have always suffered on these occasions.’ Sir Henry Rawlinson

The barrage begins on the 24th of June 1916. British guns commence a week-long artillery
barrage firing over 1.6 million shells in its duration. This continues for the next week. This
intense shelling was expected to put the Germans out of the fight but, most of the German
troops were sitting safely in their dugouts 10 metres below ground, unharmed from the
artillery above. Although 1.6 million shells were fired, a combination of inexperienced gun
crews, faulty shells and lack of heavy guns renders the German fortifications largely
unphased. It is not until the 1st of July however that the offensive truly begins.
The attack begins at 7:30am in broad daylight, so the artillery can see what it is firing at.
British morale is high and troops are confident of victory. Many troops are about to witness
combat for the first time. The Germans have a trick up their sleeve though- from unciphered
telephone calls and captured prisoners of war (PoW’s) the Germans know exactly where,
when and how the British will attack.
1st July- timeline
7:00 am- allied artillery barrage reaches its peak.
7:20am- British detonate a colossal mine under a German strongpoint called Hawthorn
redoubt. British troops rush forward to occupy the crater.
7:28am- remaining 18 British mines are detonated under German strongpoints.
7:30am- British artillery barrage moves onto the second line as British and French troops
begin the advance through 18 miles of no-mans-land. German troops scramble out of their
dugouts and set up machine guns. In North sector, British infantry are easy targets for
German machine gunners, especially through chokepoints in barbed wire which the British
will gather at in a futile attempt to break through. The majority of them are mowed down.
Some units do manage to break through the German line and make slight gains. Near
Thiepval, the 36th Ulster division captures the Schwaben redoubt. Unfortunately, without
support on either flank they are isolated and the survivors are forced to retreat the
following night. On their right, the 32nd Ulster division captures the Leipzig redoubt, while
near La Boiselle the 34th division captures the Lochnagar crater. These are small nooks and
crannies in the German line, far short of their set objectives.
In the South, allied troops make comparatively good gains. The 21st and 7th divisions take
Mametz and cut off the heavily fortified village of Fricourt which the Germans abandon
overnight. To their right, the 18th and 30th division take their objectives, including the
village of Montauban, which is consolidated by 11am. Next to them, the veteran French
20th corps (9th and 11th divisions) achieve their first day objectives and capture 2,500
German prisoners of war. The Germans didn’t expect the offensive to extend so far south
and aren’t as well prepared in these areas. Also, in the south the British guns are boosted by
French 155mm artillery batteries which are far better at destroying barbed wire and
fortifications. At 9:30am, French colonial troops lead the attack South of the Somme River.
They take all their objectives for the day and capture 3,000 more prisoners of war. Despite
success in the south, the first day is a costly failure for the brits. German losses for the day
are estimated at 12,000 men, French losses are estimated at 7,000 but the British suffer an
estimated 57,000 casualties, 1/3 of which were killed.

‘We were told it would be a walkover, of course we might be expected to be sniped out by a
stray German, naturally.’ Private Cyril Jones. Like many others, he lied about his age to
enlist. He joined the 2nd Devonshire battalion when he was just 15. He regularly writes to
his mother and sisters back home in England. On one occasion, a chaplain asked him how
old he was, so he told the truth. The chaplain replied with ‘splendid, splendid!’

Aerial photograph of German

trenches and fortifications North
of Thiepval, 10 May 1916.

A young German Sommekampfer,

1916. The British weren’t the only ones
who conscripted teenagers after they
lied about their age. The Germans had
a similar problem. Older men also lied
about their age, so the range of ages in
the German army was quite diverse.
The battle of the Somme has many sub-battles during its duration. The very first battle
which lasted from the 1st to the 13th of July was called the Battle of Albert. During the
subsequent battles, the French 6 th army and the right flank of the British 4 th army inflicted a
significant defeat on the German 2 nd army’s defenders. From the Albert-Bapaume Road to
Gommecourt the British attack was a disaster.
Against the wishes of French commander Joseph-
Jacques-Césaire Joffre, Sir Douglas Haig
abandoned all plans for the offensive North of the
road, preferring to instead secure and bolster his
successes in the South, where the Allied forces
were pressing forward towards the German
second line in preparation for a general strike on
the 14th of July, concluding the battle of Albert.
Battle of Bazentin Ridge
The British 4th army attacked the German second
line on the 14th of July, which stretched from the
Somme River then wound around Guillemont and
Ginchy and ended North-West cresting the ridge
of Pozières on the Albert-Bapaume Road. The
main objectives were the villages of Bazentin le
Petit, Bazentin le Grand and Longueval which was
next to Delville Wood and had High Wood ahead
of it. The attack was executed by 4 British divisions
along a 4.5 kilometre piece of land. Following a 5-
minute Hurricane Bombardment (a very quick and
intense artillery bombardment taking into account
the element of surprise, used before an assault.)
Field artillery fired a creeping barrage and the
attacking infantry advanced behind it into no-mans-land, British objectives for the First Day
leaving them a very short distance to cross without artillery
support in order to arrive at the German trench. The attack was partially successful as most
of the strategic objectives were captured and the German defence South of the road was
put under great stress. No follow-up attack ever came though due to British communication
failures, casualty management and disorganisation amongst the ranks.

Battle of Fromelles
The battle of Fromelles was a subsequent attack on the 19 th of July to support the 4 th army
on the Somme River around 80 kilometres South. It was envisioned that the attack would
exploit any German weakening of the German line and so the preparations were rushed as
the enemy was expected to be in a weakened state. The defenders were ‘gravely
underestimated’ and the attackers were outnumbered 2:1. The attack did not achieve much,
but it was the Baptism of Fire for the Australian Imperial Force on the Western Front. The
battle is recognised as the ‘worst 24 hours in Australia’s history.’ Of the 7,080 Allied
casualties, 5,533 were taken by the 5 th Australian division. The Germans suffered 1,600 –
2,000 casualties and 150 were taken prisoner.
With the battle of Fromelles ending on the 20 th of July, the ‘First phase’ of the battle of the
Somme ends with it. From late July to September the Second phase rages on.

Battle of Delville Wood

The battle of Delville wood was an operation intended to secure the British right flank while
the main body of the British force advanced forward to capture the higher-positioned areas
of High Wood and Pozières. After the battle of Albert in early July, the offensive had evolved
to the capture of fortified villages, forests and other terrain that offered vantage points for
artillery observation or jump-off points for other attacks. The fierce and costly fighting at
Delville Wood eventually secured the objective of the British right flank and was the debut
of the South African 1st Infantry Brigade (including a Southern Rhodesian contingent0 which
held the Wood from the 15 th to the 20th of July. When they were relieved, casualties
equated to 2,536 men- similar to casualties taken by other brigades on July 1 st.

Battle of Pozières
The Battle of Pozières opened with the taking of the Pozières village by the 1st Australian
Division (Australian Imperial Force) of the Reserve Army, the only success in the Allied
disaster of 22 and 23 July, when a general attack happening at the same time as a French
attack further south, turned into a series of separate, isolated attacks due to communication
failures, supply failures and poor weather. German barrages and counterattacks began on
the 23rd of July and didn’t cease until the 7 th of August. The fighting ended with the Reserve
Army capturing the plateau surrounding the village to the north and east, overlooking the
fortress village of Thiepval from the back.
Battle of Guillemont
The battle of Guillemont was an attack from the 3 rd to the 6th of September on the village
which was captured by the 4th army on the first day, but British forces were forced to retreat
the following night. Guillemont was located on the right side of the British sector, near the
boundary with the French 6th army. German defences surrounded the British salient at
Delville Wood and had a clear view over the French 6 th army sector to the South towards the
Somme River. The German defences in that area was anchored on the second line and many
fortified villages North from Maurepas at Combles, Guillemont, Falfemont farm, Delville
Wood and High Wood. The battle over Guillemont was considered by some spectators to be
the strongest German effort during the Battle of the Somme. Many attempts were made by
British and French leaders to coordinate the 4 armies, but none were successful. When
allied attacks paused at the End of August, the Germans launches their largest counterattack
in the Battle of the Somme.

Battle of Ginchy
On the 9th of September, the British 16th division captured the German village of Ginchy,
which is located 1.5km north-east of Guillemont, at the junction of 6 roads on a high-set
position overlooking Combles, 4km to the south-east. After the Battle of Guillemont ended,
British troops were required to advance to positions which would give the British an
advantage of observation over the German 3rd line in preparation for a general attack in
mid-September. British assaults from the Leuze Wood going North to Ginchy had begun on
the 3rd of September, when the 7th division captured the village but was forced out by a
German counterattack. The capture of Ginchy and the successful advance of the French 6 th
army on the 12th of September (the largest French attack during the Battle of the Somme)
enabled both armies to vastly increase the size and magnitude of their attacks which
brought many successes throughout the month.

Flers-Courcelette– A New Age of Warfare

The battle of Flers-Courcelette was a largely unremembered part of the battle of the
Somme. It was the third and final offensive mounted by the British army which attacked an
unofficial line and the German 3rd line to take Morval, Lesboeufs and Gueudecourt, which
was combined with a French assault at Fregicourt and Rancourt to surround Combles and
mount a supporting attack along the South bank of the river Somme. Even though the
official objective of the breakthrough was not achieved, strategic gains were significant- the
front line was advanced by around 2.3-3.3 kilometres and many casualties were inflicted
upon the Germans. However, there is one thing very significant and special about this battle.
It was the dawn of a new age of warfare which would change the way wars were to be
fought in the future. This innovation was, of course, the introduction of tanks.
Tanks in the First World War weren’t those that we would recognise today. They were built
for very specific strategic requirements and therefore were extremely specialised, unlike
modern designs which aim to be used for as many purposes as possible. They were designed
to be very long to be able to cross trenches without falling into them. Popular opinion
presents this vehicle as being a miracle weapon that saved the allies from the Germans- this
could not be further from the truth. The first tanks were a nightmare for the maintenance
crew and engineers- the engine was just about powerful enough to pull the 28 ton machine
along, the tracks were prone to breaking and much of the external space was crammed with
return rollers to accommodate the tracks. It wasn’t much better for the crew. Since there
was no ventilation and the engine was uncovered, it was sweltering hot on the inside.
Temperatures could reach up to 50 degrees on the inside of the vehicle. In addition, the lack
of ventilation meant that often crew members would pass out due to lingering gun fumes.
Furthermore, the tank lacked any sort of suspension system, meaning that it would be a
rather rough ride for the crew.
The tank mark I had quite a secretive initial production. The name ‘tank’ was chosen as a
codename to protect its true identity from the Germans. It came from the fact that they
were masqueraded as vehicles carrying water tanks in any official documents or messages.
In addition, the tank crews didn’t even know what role they signed up for prior to the
unveiling of the tanks. The first tank brigade was called the Heavy Machine Gun Corps and
was a branch of the machine gun corps. This decision was made to preserve secrecy of this
project.
The first tank- the Mark I- came in 2 ‘genders’- male and female. The male variant was one
which carried 2 6-pounder naval guns used for destroying enemy bunkers and fortifications.
Along with that it also carried 3 machine guns- 2 facing the sides and rear and one facing
forward. The female variant swapped the 6-pounder guns for 2 extra machine guns facing
forward and to the sides. these 2 variants were made to be used in conjunction with one
another. In a typical group of British tanks there would be 2 females and one male- the
females would protect the male from enemy infantry while the male would bide its time
destroying enemy fortifications. The tanks were all but invulnerable to enemy small-arms
fire, as they had 10mm of armour all around. (Nowadays that is considered practically
nothing, but during WW1 it would protect the crew from most weapons available at the
time.) there were only 2 weapons that a tank could fear in 1916- machine gun bullets and
artillery. Later in the war the Germans manufactured specific anti-tank ammunition for their
rifles, but this was only introduced in 1917.
A mark I. tank on September 15,
1916- the very first time tanks were
used in combat.
Battle of Morval
The Battle of Morval was an attack followed through by the 4th Army on Morval,
Gueudecourt and Lesboeufs which were held by the German 1st Army. These 3 villages
were the final objectives of the battle of Flers-Courcelette. The attack was postponed to
rendezvous with the French Sixth Army on Combles (south of Morval) and because of rain.
The combined attack was also intended to cut off the German positions westward (near
Thiepval) of reinforcements, before an attack by the Reserve Army, scheduled on the 26 th of
September. Combles, Morval, Lesboeufs and Gueudecourt were captured and a small
number of tanks joined in the battle later in the afternoon. Many casualties were inflicted
on the Germans but the French weren’t as successful as the British. The 4 th Army’s advance
on the 25th of September was its deepest since 14 July crippled the Germans in some places,
particularly in a salient near Combles. The Reserve Army’s attack began on the 26 th of
September in the Battle of Thiepval Ridge.

Battle of Thiepval
The Battle of Thiepval Ridge was the first en masse offensive mounted by the Reserve Army
led by Lieutenant General Hubert Gough and was intended to exploit the 4 th Army’s attack
at Morval 24 hours afterwards. Thiepval Ridge was well fortified and the German defenders
fought with great determination and courage, while the British coordination of infantry and
artillery broke down completely after the first day due to frantic fighting in the labyrinth of
trenches, dug-outs and shell-craters. The last British objectives were not captured until the
Battle of the Ancre Heights (1st of October – 11th of November). Organisational difficulties
and fast deteriorating weather ruined Joffre's intention to continue by vigorous coordinated
attacks by the allied armies, which separated and declined in effectiveness during late
September, at the same time as a revival occurred in the German defence. The British
experimented with new techniques in gas warfare, machine-gun bombardment and tank–
infantry cooperation, as the Germans struggled to survive the flood of men and material
fielded by the allies, despite reorganisation and significant reinforcements of troops,
artillery and aircraft from Verdun. September became the worst month for casualties for the
German army.

Battle of the Transloy Ridges

The Battle of Transloy Ridges began during good weather conditions, and Le Sars was taken
by the 7th of October. However, the advance paused due to rain from the 8th to the 11th of
October and due to allow time for artillery barrage from the 13tth to the 18 th of October
when it became apparent that the Germans had recovered from their earlier defeats.
Douglas Haig consulted his commanders and on the 17th of October he reduced the size of
operations in the area by cancelling the 3rd army’s plans and reducing the size of the 4th
army’s and reserve army’s operations, in cooperation with the French 6 th army. They paused
again before resuming on the 23rdf of October on the Northern side of the 4 th army.
Another delay followed till the 5th of November, again due to bad weather. The next day, the
4th army ceased all offensive operations apart from the smallest diversionary attacks
intended to draw attention away from the reserve and 5th armies.

Battle of the Ancre Heights

The Battle of the Ancre Heights was fought after Haig made plans for the 3 rd army to attack
and capture the area east of Gommecourt, the reserve army to attack the are North of
Thiepval Ridge and east from Beaumont Hamel–Hébuterne and for the 4th army to advance
and reach the Péronne–Bapaume Road that wraps around le Transloy and Beaulencourt–
Thilloy–Loupart Wood, north of the Albert-Bapaume Road. The reserve army attacked to
complete the capture of the Regina Trench and the Stuff trench, North of Courcelette and
reaching to the West end of Bazentin Ridge and around the Schwaben and Stuff redoubts.
German reinforcements from quieter fronts like Flanders frequently counterattacked the
British and the British objectives weren’t secured until the 11th of November.

Battle of the Ancre

The battle of Ancre was the last large-scale operation of the Battle of the Somme and of
1916. The 5th (formerly reserve) army penetrated into the Ancre valley to exploit German
exhaustion after the Battle of the Ancre Heights and gain ground in preparation for a
resumption of the offensive later in 1917. The battle began with a mine being detonated
under the Hawthorn Ridge Redoubt and an attack on Serre, which failed although the 31 st
division took its objectives before retreating alter down the line. South of Serre, Beaumont
Hamel and Beaucourt-sur-l'Ancre were captured. Further to the south of Ancre, the French
St. Pierre division was captured, the outskirts of Grandcourt were reached by British forces
and the Canadian 4th division captured the Regina Trench to the north of Courcelette. The
battle concluded on November 18th, in which both sides stood in a stalemate, enduring the
cold weather until 1917.

Wartime Heroes

During the battle of the Somme, there were many people who did truly heroic deeds and
should rightly be recognised as heroes. Some of them are quite famous in popular opinion,
while others are less known. That doesn’t make their deeds any less amazing. Even those
that were fighting on the side of the enemy- may that be Germany or any of its allies- it is
important to remember that these men were only fighting for their country at the time like
any soldier on our side would. Therefore, their heroic actions and deeds will be mentioned
exactly like those of Britain and its allies.

Sir Adrian Carton de Wiart

Lieutenant general Sir Adrian Paul Ghisliain Carton de Wiart was a British army officer who
fought during the Battle of the Somme. He was born in Brussels, Belgium on the 5 th of May
1880 to an aristocratic family. He spent his early days in Belgium and in England, but after
his parents divorced in 1886, him and his father moved to Cairo so his father could practice
politics in Egypt’s mixed courts. Through this he was connected to the Egyptian inner circles
and soon learnt how to speak Arabic.
He joined the British army at the time of the Second Boer War at around 1889, where he
entered the false name of ‘trooper Carton’ claiming to be 25 years old, when in fact he was
no older than 20. Early during this conflict, he was wounded in the stomach and groin and
had to be sent back to England. His father was furious when he found out that his son had
‘abandoned’ his duty but allowed him to remain in England. After a brief time at Oxford with
his friends, he was given a role in the 4th Dragoon guards. He fought in South Africa for a
second time before being transferred to India in 1902. His wound obtained in the Boer war
instilled into him a strong desire to be physically fit. His hobbies were mostly athletics,
sports and hunting among other physically demanding activities. According to his friends, he
was "a delightful character and must hold the world record for bad language."
When WW1 broke out, he was en route to British Somaliland where a low-level war was
underway against the followers of Dervish leader Mohammed bin Abdullah called the ‘mad
Mullah’ by the British. He was put into the Somaliland Camel corps as a staff officer. Carton
de Wiart was shot twice in the face during this conflict, once through the eye and once
through the ear.
In February 1915, he took a ferry to France. He took part in the fighting on the Western
front, taking command of 3 battalions and a brigade. He was wounded seven more times
during the first world war, losing his left hand in 1915, biting off his fingers in a medical
camp when a doctor refused to amputate them, shot through the skull and ankle during the
battle of the Somme, through the hip at the battle of Passchendaele, through the leg at the
battle of Cambrai and through his other ear at Arras. He was awarded the Victoria cross
after the war and received a newspaper article about his story in 1916-
For most conspicuous bravery, coolness and determination during severe operations of a
prolonged nature. It was owing in a great measure to his dauntless courage and inspiring
example that a serious reverse was averted. He displayed the utmost energy and courage in
forcing our attack home. After three other battalion Commanders had become casualties, he
controlled their commands, and ensured that the ground won was maintained at all costs.
He frequently exposed himself in the organisation of positions and of supplies, passing
unflinchingly through fire barrage of the most intense nature. His gallantry was inspiring to
all.
— London Gazette, 9 September 1916

He went on to fight in WW2, fighting during the invasion of Poland 1939, fighting in Norway
in 1940, fighting with Yugoslavian partisans in 1941, fighting in Italy and landing in a prisoner
of war camp (from which he escaped by digging a tunnel under its walls,) and finally in China
from 1942 to 1947. He retired in October 1947 and died on June 5 th, 1963. He received the
following military honours-
- Victoria cross
- Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire
- Companion of the Order of the Bath
- Companion of the Order of St Michael and St George
- Companion of the Distinguished Service Order
- Queens South Africa Medal
- Africa General Service Medal
- 1914 Star
- British War Medal
- Victory Medal (United Kingdom)
- 1939-1945 Star
- Africa Star
- Italy Star
- Burma Star
- War Medal 1939-1945
Painting of Sir Adrian Carton de Wiart
- King George VI Coronation Medal by Sir William Orpen, 1919
- Queen Elizabeth II Coronation Medal
- Officer of the Order of the Crown (Belgium)
- Croix de Guerre 1914-1918 (Belgium)
- Silver Cross (Knight) of the Order of Military Virtue of Poland
- Cross of Valour (Poland)
- Commander of the Legion of Honour of France
- Croix de Guerre 1939-1945 (France)

Sir Adrian Carton de Wiart is remembered after his death as the ‘unkillable soldier’ because
of the number of times he had been shot and survived- 23 times in total. He had been shot
in the groin, stomach, through the eye, through both ears, in the skull, ankle, thigh, hip and
leg and had his left hand blown off by artillery and bit off 3 of his fingers after a doctor
refused to amputate them. On his grave is written probably his most famous quote about
the First World War- ‘Frankly, I enjoyed the war.’
Manfred von Richthofen

Manfred Albrecht Freiherr von Richthofen, known in English as Baron von Richthofen or the
Red Baron, was a fighter pilot with the German air force during WW1. He is considered by
many as the ace-of-aces of the First World War. He was in fact the highest-scoring ace of the
war, being officially credited with 80 air combat victories.
Manfred was born in Kleinberg, near Breslau, Lower Silesia (now part of the City of
Wrocław, Poland) on 2 May 1892 into a prominent Prussian Aristocratic Family. His father
was Major Albrecht Philipp Karl Julius Freiherr von Richthofen and his mother was
Kunigunde von Schickfuss und Neudorff. After being educated at home he attended a school
at Schweidnitz for a year before undertaking cadet training at the Wahlstatt military school
when he was 11. After completing the cadet training in 1911, he joined an Uhlan cavalry
unit, the Ulanen-Regiment Kaiser Alexander der III. von Russland (1. Westpreußisches) Nr. 1
("1st Emperor Alexander III of Russia Uhlan Regiment (1st West Prussian)") and was
assigned to the regiments 3rd squadron.
When WW1 began, Richthofen served as a cavalry reconnaissance officer on both the
Eastern and Western Fronts, seeing action in Russia, France and Belgium. However, with
trench warfare taking up most of the Western Front, cavalry operations were deemed
outdated and obsolete. With this change he was transferred to a unit of telephone
operators and dispatch runners. He was very disappointed and bored with this change, but
an even harder blow came when he was assigned to the supply branch. His interest in
aircraft was born however when he examined a German aircraft behind the frontline. With
this revelation he appealed for a transfer to the German air force. It is said that in his
application letter for the transfer he wrote "I have not gone to war in order to collect cheese
and eggs, but for another purpose." His request was granted and he joined the air force in
May 1915.
He began his training as a fighter pilot in October 1915. In February 1916, Manfred ‘rescued’
his brother Lothar from the boredom of being a troop instructor in Luben and urged him to
become a fighter pilot. The next month Manfred joined the 2nd Bomber squadron flying a 2-
seater aircraft over Verdun. He shot down a French aircraft over Fort Douaumont, but again
this kill wasn’t confirmed.
After his experience at Verdun, he gained the controls of a fighter aircraft and flew over big
battles like the Somme and Cambrai. On September 17, 1916, he gained his first aerial
victory after he shot down a British aircraft. His autobiography states that he “honoured the
fallen enemy by placing a stone on his beautiful grave." He continued this practice until he
had 60 such silver cups.
The Red Baron that is known widely by many types of medias only rose to prominence in
late 1917, after the Somme. From July 1917, he flew his most famous aircraft- the all-red
Fokker Dr.1 triplane. He became the commander of his squadron in late 1917. At this point,
he took the flamboyant step of painting his aircraft all red. His autobiography states-
"For whatever reasons, one fine day I came upon the idea of having my crate painted glaring
red. The result was that absolutely everyone could not help but notice my red bird. In fact,
my opponents also seemed to be not entirely unaware (of it).”
With this step, his squadron followed his lead and also painted their aircraft bright colours-
first red, then bright colours like yellow, blue, pink and purple. This is where his squadron
earns its name- the ‘flying circus.’ This state of flamboyant fame would not last though.
Manfred von Richthofen received a fatal wound just after 11:00 am on 21 April 1918 while
flying over Morlancourt Ridge near the Somme River.at the time, he had been pursuing a
British Sopwith Camel Biplane at very low altitude and at very high speed. The British
aircraft had been piloted by Canadian novice pilot Wilfrid Reid May of No.2 09 Squadron of
the RAF. May had just fired on his cousin, Wolfram von Richthofen. On seeing his cousin
attacked, Manfred flew to his rescue and fired on May, causing him to pull away. Richthofen
pursued May across the Somme battlefield. Manfred was spotted and attacked by May’s
school friend and flight commander, Arthur ‘Roy’ Brown. In this final stage of the chase, a
single .303 bullet hit Richthofen through the chest, severely injuring his heart and lungs. His
aircraft stalled and veered sharply for the ground, hitting the ground on a hill near the Bray-
Corbie road, just north of the village of Vaux-sur-Somme.
He was recognised as a Hero in Germany, and when asked why he risked his life I the air, he
replied with ‘I risk my life in the air so that the soldier in the trenches may have an easier lot
in life.’ He received the following military awards in his lifetime-
- Prussian Military Pilot Badge
- Honour Goblet for the Winner of Air Combat
- Iron Cross, 1st Class (10 April 1916), 2nd Class (23
September 1914)
- Duke Carl Eduard Medal with Sword Clasp (9
November 1916)
- Knight's Cross of the Royal House Order of
Hohenzollern with Swords (11 November 1916)
- Pour le Mérite (12 January 1917)
- Knight's Cross of the Military Order of St. Henry (16
April 1917)
- Order of the Red Eagle, 3rd Class with Crown and
Swords (2 April 1918)
- Knight's Cross of the Saxe-Ernestine House Order, 1st
Class with Crown and Swords
Manfred Albrecht Freiherr von Richthofen
- Military Merit Order (Bavaria) 4th Class with Swords
- Knight's Cross of the Württemberg Military Merit
Order
- Hessian Bravery Medal
- Cross for Faithful Service
- Lippe War Merit Cross, 2nd Class
- Cross of War of Honour for a Heroic Deed
 - Brunswick War Merit Cross, 2nd Class
- Wound Badge, 3rd Class (1918)
- Hanseatic Crosses of the Three Hanseatic Cities of Bremen, Hamburg, and Lübeck
- Order of the Iron Crown, 3rd Class (Austro-Hungary)
- Austro-Hungarian Military Merit Cross, 3rd Class with War Decorations
- Field Pilot Badge (Austria-Hungary)
- Iron Crescent (Ottoman Empire)
- Silver Imtiyaz Medal (Ottoman Empire)
- Silver Liakat Medal (Ottoman Empire)
- Military Order for Bravery, 4th Class (12 June 1917) (Kingdom of Bulgaria)

Conclusion

The battle of the Somme is largely remembered as a total logistical and military failure for all
sides. Though that reputation is not entirely without reason, it is quite a large over-
exaggeration. That is to say that it wasn’t one of the deadliest battles in history though- all
in all, there were 430,000 British casualties, 200,000 French casualties and 450,000 German
casualties.
War has a tendency to do something that nothing else in the world can- It brings out the
worst of human nature. The raw, rotten, greedy side of our souls, where all humanity is
forgotten in favour of greed, selfishness and material gain. Obviously, war is not a good
thing by any stretch of the imagination, but it also has another unique side effect- It brings
out the best in people, the unwavering courage, unimaginable kindness, empathy and
compassion from one human being to another, where one would happily forsake their
safety, comfort and life in order to ensure those values are granted to another individual or
a larger community. It brings people together for one common cause and sets all
disagreements aside in favour of a larger common goal.
Although eliminating war from our world is the ultimate goal, this is a utopian dream and is,
sadly, impossible to accomplish. However hard we try, we cannot erase war as a whole from
society. War will evolve and change forms as time goes by, and although we cannot
eradicate it completely, one thing we can do is never forget the heroes who died so that we
might live.