THE FUN WAY TO LEARN ELECTRONICS

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PROJECTS YOU CAN BUILD TONIGHT!

CHOOSING THE RIGHT CABINET
FOR YOUR PROJECT
IC TESTBENCH
WORKBENCH
PROJECTS

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 Get switc ed on
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ELECTR pK
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In case you're not all that familiar

with us, we're not a publication for
electrical engineers and other
wizards. No way, ELECTRONICS
HANDBOOK Is expressly for people
who Iike to build their own projects
and gadgets- and maybe get a
little knee-deep In tape, solder and
wire clippings In the process.
In fact, we have a sneaking
suspicion that our readers Ilke us
because they think we're Just as
bug-eyed and downright crazy over
great new project ideas as they are.
And guess theyre rightl
I

ELECTRONICS HANDBOOK thinks of

you who dig electronics as the last
of a special breed. It's more than
Just the "do-lt -yourself" angle-It's
also the spirit of adventure. In this
pre-packaged, deodorized world,
building your own stereo system,
shortwave receiver, darkroom timer
or CB outfit Is Ilke constructing a
fine-tuned little universe all your
own. And when it all works Of course, we can't make you a
perfectly- It really takes you to master electrician overnight. But we
another world. can show you the fundamentals of
repair plus maintenance tips.
IF YOU'RE NEW TO ELECTRONICS YOU TRY A FEW ISSUES AND EVALUATE OUR...
GET A "BASIC COURSE"I
HOW -TO -DO -IT HELP Tips and
It gives youa complete, ground- pointers that add up to money
floor lowdown on a variety of saved. For example-tuning up your
Important electronic subjects. For tape player...all about radios ...whys
example-Understanding and hows of tumtabies,,.care and
Transistors...How Radio Receivers Pull feeding of speakers.
InSignals..,Cathode Ray Tubes
Explained...How Capacitors EXCITING DISCOVERIES. Whatever
Work...Using Magnetism in
your particular Interest In electronics,
Electronics, and much, much morel you'll be entering a world of
discovery In the pages of the
ELECTRONICS HANDBOOK
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 ELECTA flics
HAflOB
CONTENTS
FROM THE EDITOR'S DESK 6
NEW PRODUCTS PARADE 8
NEW BOOK REVIEWS 12
CLASSIFIED FLEAMARKET 17
UNDERSTANDING ELECTRICITY 18
A VOICE IN THE OUTBACK 26
PASSIVE ALARM CIRCUIT 37
POWER SUPPLY BASICS 39
IMPEDANCE MISMATCH 49
CHOOSING THE RIGHT CABINET 53
ANTIQUE RADIO (DYNAMIC SPEAKERS) 66
MAKING PCB's THE EASY WAY 69
MEDICAL ELECTRONICS 73
SOLID STATE UPDATE 76
STINGRAYS WITH A CHARGE 79
THE CATALOG CORNER
82
AUDIO TAPE NOISE LIMITER
86
MIM BM Ma MI ME RBI MO MIR MIMI Ma MI NM 31131 INIM Mil MI MI MI IM INZI
IBM NM MI MN EMI MI MI NMI MIN 1111B Zill IfflMfflM MN

WORKBENCH IC TESTBENCH
PROJECTS
31 59
i

LED ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT TESTER MINI -MICRO METRONOME

FUNCTIONAL CAPACITANCE VERIFIER TAKING THE COUNT
AUDIBLE INDICATOR FOR HF PULSES NINE VOLT NEON LAMP
A SIMPLE LOGIC PROBE DO-IT-YOURSELF LOGIC
CAPACITOR TESTER SIMPLE TRIAC TESTER
THE TELEPHONE LINE PROTECTOR PULSE DELAY CIRCUIT
TV ANTENNA PROTECTOR IN -CIRCUIT RESISTANCE VERIFIER
HOME/AUTO BURGLAR ALARM
SQUARE WAVE CONDITIONER

2 / ELECTRONICS HANDBOOK
 r.n.II...i
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MASTERING troubleshCo-Iny "¡heir
ELECTRONICS
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 OUR CHANGING WORLD
For those of us who became interested in electronics in the days of vacuum tubes and transis-
tors, today's integrated circuits (ICs) are nothing short of miraculous. Entire circuits that once re-
quired dozens of discrete components, together with considerable construction and "debugging"
time, are now available in a postage -stamp -size package. Obtaining a desired circuit function, such
as amplification or a logic gate, today involves little more than selecting an appropriate IC and add-
ing a few external components (such as capacitors and resistors) together with a voltage source.
All the hard work has already been done! ICs are, in effect, little "package" of amplification, voltage
regulation, detection, timing, inverting, and similar useful functions.
The nature of electronic circuit design and construction has changed. Circuit design is much more
of a "cookbook" procedure, requiring far less complex math, voltage and current measurements,
attention to parts layout and placement, and so on, than in previous years. Designing with IC de-
vices is largely a matter of "chaining" appropriate ICs and the functions they perform together to
create working electronic devices. Moreover, the availability of inexpensive and versatile "bread-
board" design tools makes experimentation with ICs and circuit prototyping merely a matter of in-
serting ICs and other components into holes and connecting them with "plug-in" wires. Circuit
construction now takes minutes rather than hours of careful soldering. feel old when contemplate
I I

that many younger electronics enthusiasts have never known the "joy" of trying to solder parts
mounted on a so-called "perfboard," or the smell of a fried transistor that was inadequately heat-
sinked during soldering. (If you are one of those younger people, take if from me-you haven't
missed a thing!)

2ChLtriaolt_

Don Gabree,
-Publisher

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4 / ELECTRONICS HANDBOOK
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VOLUME XI 5
 FROM
THE EDITOR'S DESK
Got a question or a problem with a project-- he isn't offering a circuit design service. Write
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The Tube Lives from evidence based on the CRT, bit of difference.) In any event,
fd' say that you've won your bet. tube -style stereo amplifiers don't
First, I'd like to tell you that Vol. 8
But your buddy may cry foul, sound significantly different from
ofElectronics Handbook was saying that by vacuum tube he
terrific. built your triple -output
I
well -designed solid-state amps.
meant anything but a CRT, so we'll The fact that tube amps produce
regulated DC power supply, and it
press on with our analysis. only even -order harmonics when
works great. Also, your new Solid
State Update column is a great overdriven has little bearing here,
idea, and I'm sure it won't be long Because of their power - since hi-fi amps don't get
before some other magazine handling capability, vacuum tubes overdriven the way musical -
borrows the concept. Keep up the are still favored as generators of instrument amps do. But as long
RF energy. When you reheat a as certain golden -eared audio-
good work!
Now for the important stuff. A slice of pizza in your microwave philes cling to their tube amps, the
friend of mine and have made a
I
oven, you're making use of a vacuum tube will never die.
bet that we'd like you to settle. He magnetron tube. When you listen
to a shortwave radio broadcast, As a final example of the viability
says the vacuum tube is dead; say I

it isn't. Who's right? There is a you're hearing a signal that in all of tubes, we should note that
likelihood was amplified by high - vacuum tubes are once again
large pizza and a six-pack riding
power vacuum tubes. Perhaps making their presence felt in, of all
on this bet, fellas, so don't let me
these applications may one day be places, digital electronics. No,
down.
- Neil Vance, Tacoma, WA taken over by solid-state devices,
but it won't be any day soon.
we're not returning to the days of
the UNIVAC, when tube -based
As you obviously surmised, Neil, Vacuum tubes can also be found computers filled entire rooms,
flattery is a good way to ensure in some musical -instrument generated prodigious quantities of
that a letter gets published. Your amplifiers, and here's why: solid- heat, and broke down every
comments regarding Vol. 8 are state amplifiers generate both couple of hours. These new tubes
certainly appreciated. For the even and odd harmonics when are nothing like the short-lived,
benefit of anyone else who might overdriven, but tube amps heat -producing glass bottles of
like to build our triple -output generate only the even harmonics. yore. To be precise, the new tubes
regulated power supply, please As a result, tube amps don't sound are vacuum microelectronic
note that back issues of Vol. 8 are as harsh when overdriven by a devices, which are fabricated
still available. frenzied guitarist, and are thus using equipment and materials
Now, let's settle your bet. As far preferred by picky guitar players similar to those employed in the
as I'm concerned, until my Aunt like Chuck Berry and others. semiconductor industry. Research
Amanda gets rid of her 1953 - Perhaps the most famous tube is being carried out at the Naval
vintage Dumont television re- amps are those made in England Research Laboratory in Washing-
ceiver, the vacuum tube still lives. by Marshall. ton, D.C., the Lawrence Livermore
But that argument isn't likely to Tube amplifiers are also favored National Laboratory, The Amoco
win you a pizza, so let's take a more by certain highbrow audiophiles, Technology Co., and a variety of
careful survey of current applica- but I remain skeptical of their other places. Two methods have
tions for the vacuum tube. First of reasoning. (Remember, these are shown the greatest promise. The
all, let's not forget that the the same fellows who replace first of these is the so-called
ubiquitous CRT, or cathode-ray conventional speaker cable with thermionic IC, in which optical
tube, is found in millions of half-inch -thick , coaxial transmis- lithography is used to form
television sets, computers, and sion line made from oxygen -free metallic cathode, anode, and gate
oscilloscopes. Maybe in ten or copper and claim to hear an structures on a sapphire substrate.
twenty years some flat -screen improvement in sound, when all The scheme works well, but
technology such as the LCD will the laws of physics militate against because it relies on thermionic
supplant the CRT, but probably such a claim, and unbiased ears, emission of electrons, power
not in all applications. So, simply like mine, can't hear the slightest consumption is high. The second

6 / ELECTRONICS HANDBOOK
approach replaces the hot cathode electrical disturbance? -Waymon than the best tube amplifiers.
with a field emitter, a cold source Arden, Denver, Colorado. Anyone who claims he can hear
of electrons. This has the Shielded (coax) TV leadin cable the difference between a good
beneficial effect of reducing power may lessen pickup of local transistor amplifier and a tube amp
consumption and allowing denser, interference. Its total capacitance which has similar specifications is
submicron geometries to be used. (number of feet times the pulling his own leg. There are
Researchers are currently at the capacitance per foot) will also cut plenty of such audio nuts around,
stage where they are able to down on the weak signals from by the way. They really believe
fabricate discrete vacuum micro- distant TV stations. Why not try what they say, but they're never
electronic devices, but it won't be using standard (flat wire, 300 - taken a real blindfold test to prove
long before they start producing ohm) leadin cable first? You may it.
integrated circuits based on this find there's little or no local
technology. interference, and you'll be spared
the trouble and signal loss of coax
Why bother with vacuum
leadin. Up with LPs; Down with CDs!
microelectronics at all? Speed is
If you find you are getting Why are are record markers in
the answer. Vacuum microelec-
interference, then you can go to such a hurry to push aside the LP
tronic devices have the potential to
coax. Weak signals from distant record? It's given us the music we
switch at faster rates than the
TV stations can also be improved if want, when we want it (to quote
semiconductor devices currently
you get an antenna amplifier and RCA) for nearly 40 years.
in production. They could find
mount it right on the TV antenna Even though many people won't
application in computers, high -
definition TV, and military
mast. admit it, most people can't tell the
electronics. The latter seems an difference between the same
especially promising application, music played on an LP and on a
What is "Transistor" Sound? CD particularly when it's played at
since vacuum microelectronic hear stereo fans talking about
devices are not as sensitive to high
I
rock music volume levels. They
"transistor" sound and also about just want to keep up with "the
temperatures and radiation as "tube" sound. thought that
semiconductors ICs.
I
latest." I'm not going CD for a long
transistors, and in the old days, time. Instead shall upgrade my
Obviously, vacuum -tube tech- tubes, just reproduce whatever
I

nology is far from dead. You've present (good) stereo system. I

sounds are fed to them. In other can't see spending $14-18 on a CD

won your bet, Neil. Now go claim words, don't transistors (and
that pizza. when can get the same thing on
tubes) just amplify signals? The
I

MK. LP for $6-8. Long live vinyl discs, is

lovers of Tube sound claim that my motto!
TV Cable Capacitance tubes make "sweeter" music and I'm tired of hearing people
I'm new to electronics, so maybe that transistors make harsher, praising the CD to the skies, and
you can help me out on what's more "grainy" sounds. What's the claiming LPs are no good. We
going on with coaxial TV cable. real story? -Raymond Whitney, record collectors must stand
I've been told that can get better
I Evanston, Illinois. together and fight to save the LP
reception of weak TV signals, with Transistor sound is today record. Join with me in this fight.
less noise pickup from electronic largely a matter of wishful thinking Time is running out! Don't let the
motors, microwave ovens, etc. If I on the part of some audio fanatics. LP recording become the next
use shielded coaxial cable It is true that many early transistor endagered species. If you would
between the TV antenna on top of amplifiers (in the Sixties) like to make people aware of this
our house and our TV sel. produced sound that had more by wearing a red and black "Save
Fair enough, also understand
I distortion than the best tube the Record" silk-screened shirt,
the shield (outside) of the cable amplifiers produced. That was join me and many others. To get
will keep the inside wire conductor because transistor designs were your shirt; ($12 postpaid.) State
from picking up local interference new, and in addition there weren't your size, S,M,L, or XL.
which can cause problems with any transistors available at -L.A. Schwarts, Glendale, CA.
the weak TV signals. But see that
I reasonable prices that could
this coax cable has so many pF handle much power. Today that's If you agree with Mr. Schwartz,
(picofarads) of capacitance per all changed because plenty of and want to show your support of
foot. And need almost a hundred
I high-powered transistors are his viewpoint you can send your
feet of leadin cable. Now won't all available at reasonable prices. In $12 to him at Suite 458, 249 N.
that extra capacitance weaken the addition, engineers have learned Brand St. in Glendale 91209.
already -small TV signals more how to design amps which
than the pickup of local interfering produce much lower distortion
VOLUME XI 7
 NEW
PRODUCTS PARADE
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transformer.) important to wire cutters. This
With 14 programmable Input/Out- flush cutter's extra -thin profile,
put Ports (16, if RS -232 communi- due to its non -protruding spring,
cation is not needed), the 70691C allows for snag -free manipulation
is the Single Board Computer of in tight areas, making it ideal for
choice for the hobbyist needing an the electronics hobbyists who are
assembled and fully tested com- involved with PC board assembly.
puter engine. For more details contact HMC
Priced at only $49.00 plus $2.50 (HUB Material Company), 33
shipping/handling ($3.50 for Cana- Springdale Avenue, Canton, MA
dian shipping), the 70691C is an 02021 (617) 821-1870 and ask
economical means of bringing that about their Model M170 "shears".
microcontroller idea of yours to life.
RUST REMOVER
The kit is also available without the
Suncoast Technologies, Spring RS -232 Interfacing Circuitry for
Hill, Florida introduces an econom- $41.00 plus $2.50 shipping/han-
ical version of the Single Board dling ($3.50 Canada).
Computer. The 70691C is an 8051 For more information and/or de-
based computer engine designed tails about the 8051 Single Board
for hobby use. With the addition of a Computer, write to Suncoast Tech-
large prototyping area, the 70691C nologies (EH), P.O. Box 5835,
is a very versatile piece of elec- Spring Hill, FL 34606.
tronic hardware.
Completely assembled and HANDY WIRE CUTTER
tested, the 70691C computer board
contains the popular 8051 micro -
controller chip with its standard
128-byte internal memory. Also in-
cluded is the circuitry for RS -232 Pro Motorcar Products introduces
communication between the 8051 a new multipurpose tool, the
and its host computer. Using a stan- ELIMINATOR Glass Fiber Rust
dard 4 -conductor module type tele- Remover, which brushes away
phone linecord, the 70691C easily rust and get into areas that other
connects to the host computer's se- tools can't reach.
rial interface, using a 24 -pin female The ELIMINATOR brush has a
connector (Interface Cable Op- narrow tip composed of glass
tional)-
handling.
$4.95 plus shipping and
fibers, each smaller than a human
hair. The glass fibers combine to
Designed to address an 8K out-
produce a concentrated scrubbing
board EPROM, the 70691C pro- power of hundreds of pounds per
vides the means for the beginner square inch.
In less than a minute, the
hobbyist to understand complex
ELIMINATOR brush can clean out
computer theory, an area of inex- all surface rust, wax, and film. The
pensive experimentation with inter- From HMC, an inexpensive 5 - ELIMINATOR's glass fibers also
facing more elaborate circuitry to inch flush wire cutter for get into hard to reach corners,
the 8051. electronic/electric assembly and grouting, tooling and engraving.
Operating from a standard 5 volt repair applications. It features The glass fibers provide a new and
DC, the 70691C draws only 100mA tempered high -carbon steel better way of cleaning electrical
of current, thus allowing the use of blades that are precision ground to contacts and connectors, degloss-
the available prototype area for the deliver a unique light -touch ing parts before gluing, preparing
construction of a small Power Sup- shearing action for cutting soft parts for soldering or welding.
ply. A preassembled and tested 5 wire to 20 gauge. The cushioned The ELIMINATOR brush comes
volt DC Power Supply is also avail- full-length molded handles are with two additional glass fiber

8 / ELECTRONICS HANDBOOK
cartridges, which are stored inside cord and a 1 -year warranty. A Here is the best investment in
the handle, readily available for complete selection of soldering tip protection and long term amplifier
use. The price for the ELIMINA- shapes and sizes is available to reliability you will ever make: the
TOR brush is $6.95 post paid. meet the demands of any Ameritron InRush Current Protector.
To order, or for further soldering application. It works with any and all linear am-
information, contact Pro Motorcar For further information or plifiers, it protects both expensive
Products, Inc., 22025 US 19 North, answers to questions, contact tubes and costly power supply com-
Clearwater, Florida 34625, HMC, 33 Springdale Avenue, ponents from excessive current at
(800/323-1090). Canton, MA 02021, Phone (617) turn -on, and its cost is less than a
821-1870, FAX (617) 821-4133. single repair bill. Installation is a
cinch: simply plug your amplifier's
AC cord into the Ameritron InRush
Current Protector box, then plug the
protector's plug into the wall socket.

FUME EXTRACTOR
SOLDERING IRON
These new soldering irons
HIGH CAPACITY remove harmful fumes at the
SOLDERING STATION source while you solder. Designed
The Ungar Model 2110 is a high to be used with existing fume
capacity, ESD-safe station that removal systems, these irons have
performs virtually all soldering an adjustable stainless steel
tasks. Its 60 -watt, 24 -volt micro exhaust tube with a 3/16" diameter
handpiece has zero crossover, for precise positioning over the
closed loop electronic control of work area. They also have a
the ceramic heating element overa cushioned grip for increased
temperature range of 550 F to 850 comfort. Two models are available.
F. Features include a soft -touch Model TC201FE plugs into Weller The Ameritron ICP-120/ICP-240
cool -grip handle, burn -resistant WTCPS or WTCPR soldering step -starts your amplifier through a
cord, and replaceable long-life stations and comes with a PTA -7 high power current limiting resistor.
ceramic heater. The soldering iron tip. Model EC120FE plugs into The resistor is then shorted with a
comes standard with a thermal Weller EC1001 or EC2001 solder- relay to give a start-up sequence
thrust, high capacity soldering tip ing stations and comes complete that is easy on the tube and power
which is used to handle thick with an ETA tip. Both irons come supply components. This stops
multilayer boards, heavy ground complete with 7 feet or 3/16" vinyl damaging inrush current, allows
planes and other difficult tasks. An tubing. your cold tube to warm up slowly,
optional tip retainer allows the For more information, call or and maximizes life. Excessive in-
soldering iron to accept standard write to Contact East, Inc., 335 rush current to cold tube filaments
micro tips for general purpose Willow Street, North Andover, MA is the leading cause of tube failures.
soldering. Easily calibrated at the 01845, (508) 682-2000, FAX (508) The second most common failure is
station without disassembly, this 688-7829. shorted diodes caused by high
CMOS-safe unit is fully grounded charging current to filter capacitors.
LINEAR Both of these problems are elimi-
from tip to plug. (tip temperature
AMPLIFIER PROTECTOR
±10 F). The station comes nated with the Ameritron ICP-120/
complete with static -dissipative Ameritron announces the new ICP-240. All Ameritron amplifiers
power unit, on/off switch, power - ICP-120 or ICP-240 InRush Current have this critical protection. Now
on LED indicator, sponge, iron Protector for linear amplifiers... you can add the protection to your
holder, soldering iron tip, 3 -wire $79.00. own amplifier without complicated

VOLUME XI 9
 NEW
PRODUCTS PARADE
wiring. Momentary high voltage
The MFJ-1730 Roll -up antenna
"spikes" can also cause damage to The HP 48S is part of the HP 48
really adds big-time performance to
your amplifier. The Ameritron In - family of high -end calculators
your handheld. It is omni-directional
Rush Current Protector has built-in aimed at students and professio-
and does not need an awkward
varistors to absorb these spikes be- nals who solve complex problems.
ground plane. Works indoors and
fore they cause damage. Many am- It contains all the features of the
outdoors. Works with all 2 Meter
ateurs are unconsciously aware of HP 48SX with the exception of the
handhelds. Good gain characteris-
"turn -on" wear to amplifiers and RAM/ROM memory -card slots.
tics. Class half-wave "J" design.
seldom use them. Install an Ameri-
It comes with MFJ's one full year
tron InRush Current Protector, and
unconditional guarantee.
you can enjoy switching on your
For more information or to order,
amplifier anytime desired and using
contact any MFJ dealer or MFJ En-
it to your heart's content! Works
terprises, Inc., P.O. Box 494, Mis-
with nearly all linear amplifiers.
Ameritron ICP-120 for 120 volts up
sissippi State, MS 39762, or call
(601) 323-5869, Fax: (601) 323-
to 12 amps: ICP-240 for 240 volts
6551, Telex: (601) 323-6551, or or-
up to 20 amps continuous.
der toll -free at 1-800-647-1800.
To order, contact any Ameritron
dealer. For more information or for
the location of your nearest Ameri-
SCIENTIFIC CALCULATORS
tron dealer contact Ameritron, 921
Louisville Road, Starkville, MS For a follow-up to their HP-42S
39759, telephone (601) 323-5869; (reviewed in a previous issue of the
FAX: (601) 323-6551; or toll free at "Handbook"), Hewlett-Packard
800-647-1800. now introduces two new scientific
calculators: the HP 48S and the HP
POCKET ROLL -UP ANTENNA 32Sll RPN.

The HP 32SlI features HP's RPN

entry system combined with
algebraic -formula entry and
s.a evaluation and the HP Solve
Y' i/x rE+
application. Its scientific functions
MFJ Enterprises, Inc. an- xem ñ &We'A.041Áï7%UM4 .,. include fraction -math, unit
nounces the new MFJ-1730 SíN 'cos 'TAN
conversions, complex arithmetic,
Pocket Roll -up "J" 2 -Meter
,.,. )

r*
CUM; base -conversion statistics and
Antenna...$14.95. numeric integration. For more
MFJ's new 1730 2 Meter half - «NM* information and/or details on
wave vertical J antenna is ideal for S
' FAEü these two new scientific calcula-
traveling, vacationing, and motel tors, contact: Hewlett-Packard
use. You can roll up this half -wave 2 Co., 3000 Hanover Street, Palo
Meter gain antenna, stick it in your Alto, California 94304, P.O. Box
pocket, and go! Using the MFJ- «
10301, or Hewlett-Packard
Company, 1000 Northeast Circle
1730 is a cinch: just hang it in a
convenient spot, plug the handy
B1Fatl

`fl
WM
_ 'Rrs '}ttno
Boulevard, Corvallis, Oregon
97330-4239, Telephone (503) 757-
BNC connector into your handheld, big WU&

and enjoy base station perform- 2000.

ance almost anywhere!

10 / ELECTRONICS HANDBOOK
 The Archer Experimenter Plug- the LED stays unlit, the device is
RADIG SHACK
in card sells for $29.95 at over 7000 de -energized. Unlike an oscillos-
CIRCUIT BREADBOARD
Radio Shack stores and participa- cope or voltmeter, the Mag -Probe
ting dealers nationwide. operates without making a direct
For further information, check electrical connection. Two models
your local Radio Shack outlet or are available. The standard

.t
Mt*

'd
» 'Iti..
aaa,
sax urt.
.._.
WO>

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111:1M
.111W
sszt
.
.
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-ssae

10,010WM,
write to Radio Shack, 700 One
Tandy Center, Fort Worth, Texas
76102, (817) 390-3300.

MAGNETIC SENSING PROBE

sensitivity model tests large and
standard -sized solenoids and
relays. The high sensitivity model
tests the full range, from the
largest to sub -miniature devices,
,a=. ;;a, entlre including most reed relays.
;;
WV.tat,
MOM
MEW AMIN . ass
For more information and/or
s
AIM"
;OW
maleMMa
details, contact HMC (Hub
31,

se
..
WIre
Mss
aaa aaa
SHUR 31.163t,
x.s.. Material Company.) P.O. Box
MIS>
taa,
sao
.»
é=
aaar- -
Issa:.
aa-
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.Wt:
sasaaM-
#526, Canton, MA 02021 (617) 821-

tat*._
.
lM1rIr- a:s,. :
`:: 1870.
TS.
eal( .a
41111: : .11fflt
W- sts pR ..
THIRD HAND
aaa aaa aaI
ssa .
ass ANNUL

me".*MAP

aa .11.11C
aas
ear sa-
MME
YtS-
3rR ºt
.aaa. asa
ssa Ills
u:: ,
a£;
1M
Ira
Zf
taT

VCR
NY.
10 At

By sensing the presence of

magnetic fields, the "Lil Devil"
Radio Shack is now oftenng the Mag -Probe lets you test any A Third Hand, offered by Jensen
new Archer Experimenter's Plug - electrical/electronic device for Tools Inc., has two adjustable arms
In CaRD (Cat. No 276-1598) current or "glitches" without the anchored in a heavy base to pre-
designed for use by technicians, use of schematics. It detects vent movement. Firm alligator jaws
students and hobbyists to residual magnetism and/or hold small parts to free the user's
breadboard digital and analog transient current pulses as fast as hands for soldering and fine adjust-
circuits. Its unique bus grid design 10 milliseconds and identifies ment work. This is an extremely
allows easy access to power and north and south poles in AC and versatile tool that can be adjusted to
ground hook-up points. DC -powered solenoids, relays and almost any position. It is a good
Made of sturdy epor.y glass any other device that uses a coil. value from Jensen at $13.92 (sub-
composite material, the board has You can safely and easily identify ject to quantity discounts).
a card -edge compatible with XT and separate electrical and The Third Hand is featured in
style microcomputer expansion mechanical problems accurately Jensen's 1992 Master Catalog. The
bus connectors. In addition, it has and inexpensively. With this catalog guarantees complete satis-
an input/output port designed to trouble -shooting instrument, faction and offers free shipping to
hold a right-angle DB25 connector. there's no need to refer to a
It measures 3&7/8 x 10&1/16
any location in the Continental
schematic of the device being U.S.A. For a free copy, write or call
inches. tested. Just place the probe tip
Board holes are plated-thru for Jensen Tools Inc., 7815 S. 46th.,
close to the coil in the device. The Phoenix AZ 85044. (602) 968-
electrical continuity and measure LED in the Mag -Probe's handle
0.042" in diameter spaced 0.100" 6231.
lights if the device is energized. If
on centers.
VOLUME XI 11
NEW
BOOK REVIEWS
ringer, an electronic ringer, and a
melody ringer. The latter is
particularly interesting, in that it is
based on a chip capable of playing
twelve different tunes.
Other worthwhile projects
include a phone sentry (which
screens out unwanted calls), a flip-
flop hold button, and a music-on -
hold adapter. Also included are
three projects that provide digital
displays of the number you've
dialed. Though essentially similar,
these three projects differ in
complexity and the nature of the
display they provide. Finally, for
THE TALKING TELEPHONE anyone who has been trying to
by Steve Sokolowski stave off the unauthorized use of a ELECTRICAL WIRING
Anyone who's ever had the urge telephone, the author presents an by Arthur C. Seale, Jr.
to supercharge his home tele- ingenious digital telephone lock You're a typical electronics
phone system will welcome author that will foil even the most enthusiast. You've studied circuit
Steve Sokolowski's new book, The determined interloper. theory, you're hip to the fine points
Talking Telephone. In it, Steve of solid-state theory, and your
describes fifteen telephone - In addition to the main projects friends all say you're a wizard
enhancement projects ranging in just discussed, the book contains a when it comes to repairing
complexity from simple to collection of telephone -circuit electronic equipment. So there's
advanced. Three of the most building blocks which the reader no reason why you couldn't do the
complicated projects incorporate can incorporate into his own electrical wiring in your own
National Semiconductor's Digi- designs. These circuits include a home, right? Perhaps, but
talker voice synthesizer chips, surge suppressor, polarity guard, remember that for safety's sake,
which are relatively inexpensive common -ground converter, off - your wiring must conform to the
($27) and readily available. One hook detector, ring detector, tone National Electrical Code, and a
speech project replaces a detector, phantom power supply, qualified inspector must verify that
telephone's bell with a voice that and universal telephone interface. it does. You can't just run wires
shouts "Hello!" or some other Since most readers are apt to willy-nilly through the walls. So
attention -getting phrase. Feeling know little or nothing about the before you start, you'd better bone
more ambitious? Well, Steve also theory of telephone communica- up on the proper techniques of
presents a circuit that verbally tion, the author thankfully electrical wiring. To do that, you
announces the digits you dial, provides in his first three chapters might want to check out Arthur
thereby providing immediate a detailed introduction to Seale's new book, which does an
confirmation of a correctly dialed telephone circuits and systems, excellent job of explaining all
number. Such a project would be including digital telephony. He aspects of electrical wiring.
especially useful to a visually also provides practical construc- The book begins by explaining
handicapped person. The third tion hints and advice on making the nature of the electrical power
and final speech -related project printed circuits. (By the way, each system, including generation,
shows how to make the Digitalker project is accompanied by PCB transmission, and distribution. It
speak complete phrases by artwork.) All things considered, progresses to Ohm's Law (easy for
stringing together words contain- Steve Sokolowski has done an you) and such mundane matters
ed in the Digitalker's ROM chips. outstanding job of making the as splices (perhaps not so easy,
Not interested in speech? Well, mysteries of the telephone until you've had a bit of practice).
maybe you'd like to replace your accessible to all of us. The importance of proper
phone's annoying bell with The Talking Telephone, 337 grounding is stressed, along with
something more soothing and pages, softcover: $16.95, hard- the need for ground fault circuit
pleasant. Four of the projects do cover: $25.95. TAB Book Co., Blue interrupters (GFCIs) to protect
just that. You can take your pick Ridge Summit, PA, 17214-9988. against electrical shocks. We also
from among an English -style Telephone 1-800-822-8138. learn how to set up an electrical
telephone ringer, a two-tone service entrance panel.

12 / ELECTRONICS HANDBOOK
 Since this is a book on electrical and how improper electrical
wiring, much of the discussion is grounding in a power -distribution
about wire. We learn how to select system can exacerbate the deadly
the right type and gauge of wire for effects of these power -line
a particular branch circuit, based disturbances. He next discusses
upon the anticipated current that computer power supplies, both
the circuit will carry. We also learn linear and switch -mode, and
about the myriad kinds of shows how these two types of
electrical hardware available, supply differ in their susceptibility
including conduit, connectors, to transients and noise.
couplings, and boxes to house Having established the need for
switches and outlets. Metallic and PC power protection, the author
non-metallic hardware is avai- proceeds to show how it can be
lable, and we learn where each is accomplished. Transient suppres-
best used. The book devotes sors and power -line filters are the
ample space to the actual business cheapest and least effective means
of running wires and making The danger lies not with the 120 - of protection, but for the hobbyist
connections. It shows the proper volt, 60 -Hz sine wave that your who uses his computer only
way to use wire -nut connectors power outlet supplies, but with all infrequently, they are probably
and crimp connectors. And we see the garbage that accompanies it. sufficient. The problem with surge
illustrations of the various kinds of The switching on and off of motors suppressors is that, after a
switches and receptacles that are and other inductive loads impres- sufficiently strong jolt, they may
available. ses high -voltage, short -duration fail-and do so without warning,
Special attention is given to transients on the normal line leaving the user with a false sense
outdoor home wiring, which must voltage. Nearby lightning strikes of security.
be waterproof, and outdoor do much the same thing, but with Better protection can be
security lights, motion detectors, far greater fury. Transient voltages obtained, albeit at a higher price,
etc. The author even discusses and other power-line aberrations with a so-called power condi-
wiring in connection with outdoor can do two things to your tioner, which is essentially a
pools and hot tubs. The book's computer: they can destroy it shielded isolation transformer that
coverage extends beyond electri- outright, or they can cause it to very effectively eliminates spikes
cal power per se to include lose valuable data. Neither and noise. In the opinion of the
consideration of the wiring outcome is a pleasant one, and so author, the power -line conditioner
associated with security and alarm it makes sense to do as much as provides all the protection the
systems, television antennas, possible to ensure that power -line average user will ever need,
telephones, and cable TV. The aberrations never reach your particularly if used in conjunction
book concludes with advice on computer. PC Power Protection with a surge suppressor. But a
fishing wires through walls (easier offers advice on how to do exactly power -line conditioner will not
said than done, I'm afraid). that. protect against the absence of
To answer the question that was The book opens with an power, which may be either
posed at the beginning of this introduction to basic electrical momentary (in which case, it's
review: Yes, you can do your own principles, and then proceeds to called a dropout) or longterm (i.e.,
electrical wiring, with a minimum document the various kinds of either a brownout or a blackout).
of hassle, provided you've done power -line aberrations that can To guard against the loss of
some study in advance, and Arthur wreak havoc on a computer: voltage, you need an uninterrup-
Seale's book is an excellent source impulses, noise, drop -outs, tible power supply, or UPS. Such a
for the information you'll need. surges, and sags. According to a device uses a battery and an
Electrical Wiring, 274 pages, survey published by IBM in 1972, inverter to generate AC power for
softcover: $19.95. Howard W. the typical business can expect an the computer when line voltage is
Sams & Co., 11711 N. College average of two such disturbances low or absent. The UPS is a
Ave., Carmel, IN, 46032. Tele- per day. Not all of these will be worthwhile investment primarily
phone 1-800-257-5755. killers, but such statistics point up for businesses that use computers.
the need for adequate power PC Power Protection, 220
PC POWER PROTECTION
protection. pages, softbound: $19.95. Howard
by Mark Waller W. Sams & Co., 11711 N. College
Author Mark Waller goes on to
The biggest threat to the well- discuss how lightning, motors, Ave., Carmel, IN, 46032. Tele-
being of your computer is the and other culprits can induce phone 1-800-257-5755.
electrical power that you teed it. power -line transients and noise,
VOLUME XI 13
NEW
BOOK REVIEWS
author discusses surface -mount brator, clever engineers soon
components and the new manu- found dozens of other uses for the
facturing methodologies that they device. In fact, it got to be so that
demand. New strategies of board you couldn't pick up an issue of
layout and design are required, Electronic Design or EDN without
and the author covers these in finding yet another application for
considerable detail. Quality the 555 timer. Author Walter Jung
assurance, always an important has compiled all those diverse
consideration in PCB fabrication, applications into one handy
gets good coverage too. Specific reference book.
applications of surface -mount in The book begins with a
different types of equipment discussion of timer ICs-not just
appear throughout the book, thus the venerable 555, but the XR-
giving the reader a feel for what the L555, the ICM7555, the 556, the
state of the art is today. 558, the 322, the 3905, and the
James Hollomon has written a 2240, too. The relevant design
comprehensive, 500 -page refe- equations are presented along
SURFACE -MOUNT with a discussion of circuit
rence on the techniques of PCB
TECHNOLOGY FOR PC BOARD operation. After that, we are
DESIGN
design and manufacture using
surface -mount technology. The treated to a whole slew of timer
By James K. Hollomon, Jr. applications-too many for me to
book is heartily recommended to
Electronic devices keep getting engineers, manufacturers, and list all of them, but here are some
smaller and smaller. Today, anyone else interested in high - highlights: one -shots, ramp
camcorders fit in the palm of your density circuit fabrication. Surface generators, square -wave oscil-
hand; a television set takes up no Mount Technology for PC Board lators, time -delay circuits,
more room than a notebook in Design costs $49.95 and is function generators, burglar
your shirt pocket. It's a trend we all published by Howard W. Sams, alarms, switch debouncers, edge
seem to take for granted, but how Division of MacMillan Computer detectors, flashers, tone genera-
is it done? Some off the credit goes Publishing, 11711 North College, tors, logic probes, a capacitance
to large-scale integration, which Suite 141, Carmel, IN, 46032. meter, a pulse generator, burst
packs transistors with ever- Telephone 1-800-257-8247. generators, and an A/D converter.
increasing density onto IC chips. Careful descriptions accompany
But that is just part of the magic. At each circuit, making this book
the board level, a relatively new useful as a textbook or as a
phenomenon called surface - reference.
mount technology has changed No technical library is complete
the way components are pack- without something on timers, and
aged. The new surface -mount this second edition of the /C Timer
packages have leads that are Cookbook is as good a reference
spaced more closely; consequen- as you're likely to find. It costs
tly, the packages themselves are $17.95 and is published by Howard
smaller. Furthermore, the leads W. Sams, Division of MacMillan
are no longer inserted into holes in Computer Publishing, 11711
the PC board; instead, they rest flat North College, Suite 141, Carmel,
against the surface of the board, IN, 46032. Telephone 1-800-257-
thus allowing components to be 8247.
mounted on both the top and
bottom of the board. The net result
of the adoption of surface-mount DESIGNING, BUILDING &
techniques is to reduce circuit - IC TIMER COOKBOOK TESTING YOUR OWN
board area by a much as 60%. By Walter G. Jung SPEAKER SYSTEM, 3rd Ed.
James Hollomon's new book is a by David B. Weems
professional guide to PCB The introduction of the 555 timer
fabrication using surface -mount by Signetics in 1972 was a Back in the Dark Ages of high
technology. After reviewing the watershed in the history of circuit fidelity, the fifties and sixties,
advantages and disadvantages of design. Although the data sheet speaker design was something of
surface -mount technology, the said simply that you could use it as a black art, practiced by wizards
a monostable or astable multivi- with names like Kloss, Klipsch,

14 / ELECTRONICS HANDBOOK
 required volume, such that the not a textbook. Rather, it surveys
ratio of depth:width:length equals work currently being done in
0.62:1.0:1.62, or thereabouts. This various areas of industrial
eliminates unwanted resonance of robotics, and directs the interested
the air in the box. Choose a reader to books and research
compatible tweeter, and perhaps a papers which further explain the
midrange driver as well, build a subject. As such, this is a book that
crossover network, put it all will primarily appeal to persons
together and-voila!-you've got a already familiar with robotics and
speaker system that sounds as computer science.
good as a store-bought system Chapter describes the
1

costing two or three times as components that make up a

much. Suspicious because it all robotic system, things like
sounds so easy? Well, don't be. hydraulic actuators, electric
After you've read this book, you'll motors, pneumatic actuators, and
be building speakers like a pro. jointed arms. Chapter 2 describes
Designing, Building & Testing the components of a typical
Your Own Speaker System, 224 machine -vision system: hardware
pages, softcover: $16.95, hard- such as cameras, and software
cover: $24.95. TAB Book Co., Blue designed to recognize images.
and Bose. Gradually, however, Ridge Summit, PA, 17214-9988. Chapter 3 goes on to describe how
authors like David Weems began Telephone 1-800-822-8138.
to spread the word that speaker
two-dimensional images are
analyzed, and Chapter 4 does the
design wasn't such a scary thing,
same for three-dimensional
and that even amateurs could
images.
build their own speaker systems
and achieve good results, too. Sensors and their use are
Today, many people enjoy covered in Chapter 5. Examples of
building their own speaker the application of various sensors
systems, and it's a safe bet that a in an assembly -line robot are
goodly percentage of those people presented. Chapters 6 and 7
got their inspiration from Design- discuss artificial intelligence, by
ing, Building & Testing Your Own which is meant the ability of a
Speaker System, a classic that's machine to emulate human
now in its third edition. thought-specifically, by making
inferences, learning new types of
The book begins with a behavior, and recognizing pat-
discussion of drivers and their terns. The final chapter discusses
characteristics, such as frequency applications of artificial intelli-
response, transient response, gence in manufacturing.
impedance, compliance, and INDUSTRIAL ROBOTICS, Because the level of presenta-
damping. It then surveys the MACHINE VISION, AND tion is fairly advanced, this is not a
various types of enclosures ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE book that will appeal to the
currently in use, with particular Ken Stonecipher, Editor hobbyist eager to learn about
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You then build a box having the the field of industrial robotics. It is

VOLUME XI 15
 SHORTWAVE LISTENERS GUIDE
FOR APARTMENT/CONDO DWELLERS
By Ed Noll
Instructions help you to layout thin hook-up wire into
Shortwave Listener's Guide effective antennas. Accessory items can be added to
for Apartment/Condo Dwellers further boost weak signals. Information in this book will
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The hobby of Shortwave Listening has been revo-
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16/ ELECTRONICS HANDBOOK

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VOLUME XI 17
 UNDERSTANDING

ELECTRICITY
Johnson,By Ron C. C.E.T.

PART III
Well, here we are again in this land of great potential,
charging upwards, full power. Though significant
currents continue to oppose our forces I remain
steadfast in my resistance to their rise. In fact, I
charge you...
Sorry. Just practicing my speech for the Electronics
Club electrons, I mean elections, next week.
Where were we?
Ah, yes! Last issue we learned about Scientific
Notation, Engineering Units, and the resistor color
code before we looked at series and parallel circuits.
This time we'll put series and parallel together as well
as looking at some practical aspects of meters, how
they work and how to use them.
Alright then! Let's get series, I mean serious.

SERIES AND PARALLEL equipment have probably run into the situation where
a number of speakers were to be connected together
Up to this point we have been learning about the to one power amp output. The power amp specs say
very basic concepts of electricity and how we that the amp is rated to drive into eight ohms. How
deal with the quantities involved. As we get into should the speakers be connected to provide the
series-parallel networks we are finally talking about correct load to the amp? This is an important
some practical aspects of the field, We can actually consideration, (often ignored), and the consequen-
apply some of this stuff to real life situations. Here is ces of doing it wrong range from inefficient operation,
an example. to distortion, to outright damage to the amp.
Those of you who have an interest in stereo We don't worry about the technical reasons why it is

18/ ELECTRONICS HANDBOOK

so critical to keep the load resistance close to the
specified value, our job is make sure it is done.

AMPLIFIER

111 8 OHM
SPEAKER

Figure 2. Four 8 ohm

speakers in parallel

111 8 OHM

Figure 1. Four 8 ohm SPEAKER

speakers in series

8 OHM
SPEAKER

8 OHM

i SPEAKER
Figure 3. Four 8 ohm
speakers In series -parallel

If we redraw the diagram substituting the

Let's assume that the available speakers are all equivalent 160 resistances we now have them in
eight ohms and that we have four of them to connect. parallel (Figure 4). Combining them we get
Obviously, one of them connected to the amp by itself Again adding conductances
would be easy. To connect four is a little more
GT = 1/RT = 1/160 + 1/160 = .125 Siemens
complex. Connected all in series, (Figure 1), they
would be additive as we saw in the last issue's and
segment. The total resistance would be: RT=80

80+80+80+80=320
This is obviously too much.
On the other hand, if they were all connected in
parallel (Figure 2) the equivalent resistance seen by
the amplifier would be:
Adding conductances in parallel

GT=1/RT=1/80+1/80+1/80+1/80=-4/80=.5 Siemens
or

RT = 20
And this is much too low.
Now let's mix the two up. In Figure3 we see a series -
parallel combination where the two speakers in series
are connected in parallel with two other speakers in Figure 4. Four 8 ohm
series. Each brand of two speakers will have: speakers In series -parallel
80+80=160
VOLUME XI 19
 The same could be accomplished by configuring
the speakers as in Figure 5 where two sets of 80
speakers in parallel are connected in series. Each
parallel set has an equivalent resistance of 40. When
the two equivalents are added together we get 80.
IT - á.61c

- 5.6k
E

12 y

Req
E

12 y
12 R3
R2 13
2.2k
3.3k
Figure 6. The parallel combination
replaced by an equivalent resistance.

Figure 5. A basic series -parallel circuit

R3 a2.2kQ. (These are all standard EIA resistor values
so you could set this up and confirm that it works.)
SOME THEORY The voltage source is a 12 volt battery but practically
So series-parallel networks can be useful and, in any low voltage DC source would do for experimenta-
fact, most practical circuits have complex combina- tion. We said we would have to determine the
tions of series and parallel branches. Quite often we equivalent resistance of the parallel branch first.
need to be able to analyze these networks so we can Using the "product over sum" rule we get
predict the voltages across components, currents
through them, power dissipated in specific devices or 3.3 kO X 2.2 kO =
Req 1.32 kí2
the equivalent resistance of a combination of 3.3kO+ 2.2kí2
components.
And most of it can be done with the help of our old We then put the Req in series with R, and add them
friends, Ohm and Kirchoff. together.
Figure 5 shows a basic series-parallel circuit with a
DC voltage source. The total current flowing out of RT = R, + R eq = 5.6 ka + 1.321(0 = 6.92 k0
the voltage source is IT. All of this current flows
through R1. It then splits and some flows down We could now redraw this again as a simple series
through R2 and some through R3. We will call these circuit: a voltage source, one resistance and a current
currents I, and 12 respectively. carrying path. But let's just calculate the total current
The sixty-four thousand dollar question is: How flowing out of the voltage source:
much will flow through each resistor? Also, how do
we calculate RT, IT, the power dissipated in each IT= E/ RT= 12v/6.921(0= 1.73 mAmps
resistor... Okay, so it's more than one question. What
is the approach? So now we know the source voltage, the total
Usually the first step is to find the total resistance in resistance in the circuit and the total current drawn
the circuit the total load presented to the power from the supply. The purpose of our analysis will
source. This will allow us to determine the total determine where we go from here. We could find the
current flowing in the circuit. The trick is to combine total power dissipated in the circuit using P = IT X E
the resistances in the correct order. Any time the and the information we have so far. Quite often
current in the circuit splits we must have a parallel though we want to know how the current splits
section in the circuit. In this case it is R2 and R3. We through R2 and R3. There are a couple of ways of
can't combine R, with them until we know their finding this. We know one way using the tools we
equivalent resistance. So we either add their already have. You can check out the Rules and
conductances and then convert back to resistance or Formulas section for another way called current
we can use the "product over sum" rule described in divider rule.
the Rules and Formula section. Once we have an Take a look at Figure 6, again, where we have
redrawn the circuit diagram showing the R2 -
-
R3
equivalent resistance we can redraw the circuit
(Figure 6) with the R2 R3 combination as a single parallel combination as an equivalent resistance. We
resistor and place it in series with R1. From there we have seen this circuit before and know how to find the
simply add the two resistances together to get RT. voltage across Req. VReq would be equal to Req times
Try this example. It's easy and it will help yo -u get the current through it since Req is the equivalent
comfortable with the procedure. Again referring to resistance of the parallel section and IT flows into that
Figures let's make R, a5.6 k0 resistor, R2 a3.3kf2 and combination.

20/ ELECTRONICS HANDBOOK

 If VReq is across Req then that same voltage is across bench and portable test meters used various kinds of
the parallel combination of R2 and R3 which means electromechanical meter movements for indication.
that each resistor has the same voltage, VRec across it. Many were excellent pieces of test equipment
To determine the current through either one of those considering the delicacy of their meters movements,
resistors we just use Ohm's Law: difficulty of interpreting scales and limited specifica-
tions. (More on that later.)
IR2 - VReq / R2 Digital meters, which have replaced analog for
most applications, have benefited, not just by their
and solid state displays but also by the improved
technology used in their input sections. In addition to
IR3 = VR., / R1 being more rugged, generally, they can fit more
functions in a smaller package and give better
These two values of current should add up to IT specifications.
which was calculated before. (Just for practice, go We'll take a look at some actual products and their
ahead and calculate these currents and check). use in another segment.
All of this brings up some rules which, while they The important concept that must be understood is
are not absolutely necessary to know, can be useful in that although the equipment available is generally
this process of circuit analysis. very good, meters do have an effect on the circuit they
I know, more rules and formulas, but they are pretty measure. Figure 7 shows a simple series circuit with
simple and can help streamline your analysis two resistors, R1 and R2 and a 20 volt source. Let's
technique. imagine that you have been asked to measure the
voltage across R2 with the meter shown. If the meter
KCL was perfect it could be connected across R2 and it
No, this doesn't stand for Kentucky Cooked Lizard. would indicate the voltage dropped there. We could
Actually Kirchoff had two good ideas. Kirchoff's predict what that voltage should be by using voltage
Current Law states that the algebraic sum of all the divider rule to calculate it.
currents entering and leaving a node will equal zero.
What this really means is: "what goes in has to come
out." A node is an electrical connection of two or more
components. If current flows in from one branch the
same amount has to flow out somewhere. In our
previous example the current, IT flowed into Node A,
where R1 connects to R2 and R3. The same amount of
current-the total of 12 and 13-must equal IT. Another
way of calculating how much flows in each branch
(Current Divider Rule) is shown in the Rules and
Formulas section along with a method of finding the
voltage across a resistor in a series circuit (Voltage
Divider Rule).
METERS
Probably most of you have had an opportunity to
use a meter at one time or another. Perhaps you have
one of your own. Our purpose here is not to cover the
use of meters as much as to talk about how meters
relate to this subject of series-parallel circuits. Even
so, we'll take a general look at meters as a way of A perfect or ideal meter would look like an infinite
introduction. resistance and so would draw zero current from the
We could categorize meters in several ways. We circuit and consequently have no effect on it.
could differentiate between, analog and digital However, meters are never ideal. Such is life. In reality
meters, bench meters and portables, specialty meters meters have an internal resistance which, while very
versus general purpose, or high accuracy versus high, is a finite value. So in order to use ourown meter
economy units. intelligently we need to know under what conditions it
For our purposes let's talk about functions. The will "load down" the circuit. If it loads down thecircuit
basic meter we are considering measures voltage, it will give significantly erroneous readings.
current and resistance,the quantities we have been For example, digital meters often have an input
dealing with in this series. In addition to DC values resistance specification of over 1 MO which is very
most meters of this type will measure alternating high-much higher than most analog VOM's. If R1
currents and voltages. Older units were called VOM's and R2 in Figure 7 were 1000 resistors we could
(Volt Ohm Meter) while others were TVM's (Transis- calculate VR2 to be 10 volts. If the meter (1 M0) were
torized Volt Meters), VTVM's (Vacuum Tube connected across R2 we would have to consider a
1 MO resistor to have been connected across R2. We
Voltmeters), and more recently DVM's (Digital
Voltmeters). In all cases, though, the same quantities would then recalculate VR2 based on an Req of 1000 in
were measured. Before the advent of digital parallel with IMO. In this case the change in Req would
technology and the availability of digital displays, be negligible.

VOLUME XI 21
 But what if R, and R2 were IMO each?
In that case VR2 should still be 10 volts, because the
ratio of the resistors is still the same, but now Req
would be a 'MO resistor in parallel with a 1 M0 meter
resistance which would equal 500kO. Using the
voltage divider rule and the equivalent resistance we
would get

VR2 = (500k0/1.5M0) X 20 volts = 6.67volts

So the meter would read 6.67 volts even though it
should be reading 10 volts. This is a case where the
meter is loading down the circuit. Sometimes this is
difficult to avoid but at least being aware of the
problem helps to understand why you are getting
unexpected readings. This will happen when
measuring voltages across high values of resistance.
A similar situation can come up when measuring Figure 8. Ammeter insertion loss.
current. We have been saying that we always talk With the ammeter in the circuit we are adding 100
about the current "through" a component so it makes to the total resistance. Ten ohms is small compared to
sense that in order to measure current we have to the 1k0 resistor and will make practically no
break into the circuit and route the current through difference to the total current. On the other hand, if
the meter. Ideally the meter, when measuring current, the circuit resistance was 200 (which would give a
would have zero resistance, thereby contributing current of 1 amp) adding the ammeter to the circuit
nothing to the total circuit resistance. Practically would change the total resistance to 300 instead of
speaking, the resistance of an ammeter is very low, 200. This would limit the current to 667 mA instead of
usually just a few ohms. This presents no problems in 1 amp so the meter would be affecting
the operation
some cases but, again, there are circumstances of the circuit.
where it becomes a problem. Again we must be aware that when connecting an
Figure 8 shows a simple series circuit with an ammeter in series with a circuit which has a low total
ammeter connected in series. The resistance in the resistance that the meter will affect the circuit
circuit is 1 kO and the power source is a20 volt supply. noticeably.
Without the ammeter in the circuit the current would Well, that about wraps it up for this issue. Next time
be: we'll talk about ideal and practical DC energy sources
before we move on into some basics of Alternating
IT=20 v/ 1k0=20 mA voltage and current.
Hope we didn't load down your circuits.

22/ ELECTRONICS HANDBOOK

 UNDERSTANDING
ELECTRICITY
SOME USEFUL RULES AND FORMULAS
In last month's segment we talked about how to calculate equivalent resistances. We said that
resistances in series are just added together but to determine the equivalent resistance or
resistors in parallel the simplest way was to use conductances. So:

GT = 1/RT = 1/R, + 1/R2 + . . . 1RN

where GT is conductance in Siemens, S, and N is the number of resistors.

This will calculate the equivalent resistance for any number of parallel resistors. But if you have
just two resistors in parallel it may be simpler to use what is called the "product over sum"
method. (This is just a derivation of the conductance method.)

R, X R2
Req 191 + R2

If you have more than two resistors in parallel, any two can be reduced to an equivalent which
can then be combined with the third.
In the case where resistors of the same value are in parallel the value of the resistors divided by
the number of resistors will give the equivalent:

Req = R/N

Voltage Divider Rule

Kirchoff tells us that around any loop the voltage rises must equal the voltage drops. Last issue
we calculated the total resistance in a series loop and found the total current. We then multiplied
the value of a particular resistor times the current to find the voltage drop across that resistor.
Voltage divider rule is just a quicker way to do the same thing.
Given a series circuit with two resistors (R1 and R2) we can find the voltage across either one by
using the following formula:

VR, E X R,/(R,+R2)
or
VR2 E X R2/(R,+R2)

What the formula is saying is that the voltage across the resistor will be proportional to the ratio
of that resistor to the total resistance of the circuit.
Current Divider Rule
Current divider rule is used to determine how much current splits down the branches of a
parallel circuit and as in VDR it uses a ratio. In this case, however, the current through a resistor in
one branch is proportional to the ratio of the resistance of the other branch to the total resistance.

IR1 - IT X R2/(Ri+R2)
and
IR2 = IT X Ri/(R1+R2)

VOLUME XI 23
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 A VOICE IN
THE OUTBACK
By Tony Lee
In this era of momentous electronic breakthroughs in
communications and medical science, it might be
understandable that we could forget that not many years ago,
people in many parts of the world struggled to survive.
While it is true that some of these people still struggle to
overcome their adversities, it is worth noting here, the part
that early radio communication and the indomitable
perseverance of pioneers in radio communication, like John
Flynn, Alf Traeger and others led the way to a new world of
hope and development in the Australian "Outback".
ohn Flynn, the founder of the Australian Flying message to a Perth doctor through 2,283 miles of tele-
Doctor Service, envisaged a "Mantle of Safety" phone wire.
over the entire outback-a sunburnt, inhospitable Because of the inferior batteries of that period, mes-
region covering an area of 5,000,000 square miles. sages had to be relayed through several telegraph sta-
In 1918, he knew little of aviation and still less about tions at the maximum permissible speed of 25 words a
radio communication but he was quick to realize that minute. The recipient listened to the telegraph sounder
without a radio network in the outback, it would be vir- and recorded the message in long -hand. No priority
tually impossible to administer medical assistance to was given to emergency messages over regular
the isolated cattle and sheep stations (ranches), and telegrams.
other outposts. Joe Flynn's plan was to establish a radio network
In those days, it wasn't uncommon for a ranch hand across the outback, using base stations attached to
to travel two or three hundred miles on horseback to hospital and aerial transport facilities. Each base or
summon help, only to find the doctor out of town attend- mother station would reach out to a number of isolated
ing another patient at another far-flung outpost. habitations installed with tranceivers.
In many cases, medical advice alone would have
He reviewed the state-of-the-art as it was at that time
been sufficient to prolong the life of a sick child until and three major systems emerged, each at a different
professional help arrived. But health and safety were state of development. Communication began with the
not the only concern of Flynn. On his frequent visits to electric telegraph which relied on miles of wire to trans-
the outback, he saw the crushing effect of isolation and mit and receive messages, and used a Morse key, a
loneliness on the outback community. Women in partic- sounder and a battery.
ular suffered from deprivation and fear when their
menfolk were away for weeks or months at a time, mus- Simple though it was, the installation of wires con-
tering or driving stock to the railhead. necting hundreds of outlying communities was not a vi-
Quite often, calls for medical help arose from nothing able proposition. But much progress had been made in
more than a debilitating aberration. Sturdy, healthy the field of radio telegraphy. Although it still depended
bush men broke down. Some found escape in alcohol, on Morse code as the means of transmitting and re-
others in suicide...all for the sound of a human voice! ceiving a message, the system dispensed with wires
Radio telephony was in its infancy in the early twen- which proved a quantum leap forward in the search for
ties. Throughout Europe and Britain, there were only the ideal "outback" communication service.
six radio telephone stations in operation. Some out-
back Australian towns had telegraph offices, and tele- The earliest designs employed spark transmission.
phone lines had been installed along railroad tracks but Hertz, Marconi and others had demonstrated how the
for long-distance communication, the transmission of a low -voltage primary winding of an induction coil could
message was agonizingly slow and tedious. produce a high-tension spark in the secondary coil.
This in turn could produce electro -magnetic waves in
When a young ranch-hand sustained serious internal an aerial coil which radiated out from the aerial like the
injuries when he was thrown from his horse, he was ripples from a stone thrown into a pond.
taken in a buckboard the forty-seven miles to an out- A receiver at some distance away could pick up the
post telegraph office. The operator could not contact signals by using an aerial of similar length. Later exper-
the nearest doctor 250 miles away so he tapped out a iments enabled the receiver to be tuned to the same

26/ ELECTRONICS HANDBOOK

wavelength using adjustable aerial coils, and this was backyard hobbyists. It wasn't long after Marconi sent
further refined with an adjustable condenser his first Morse signal across the Atlantic that the "back-
The spark -gap transmitter was later replaced by the yarders" were communicating with each other across
far more efficient oscillator design which employed Lee the length and breadth of Australia. Perhaps it was
De Forest's triode, the first amplifying vacuum tube in- Australia's geographical isolation that placed it in the
vented, and Edwin Armstrong's regenerative circuit. forefront of communication development.
Not only did it produce a purer tone for Morse reception Whatever the reason, tribute must be paid to the am-
compared with the staccato buzz of a spark gap, but it ateurs who, with the restrictions placed on them by the
required far less input power to achieve a greater trans- "professionals", made such strides in the 100-Meter
mission range. This was indeed another step forward of band. While the professionals grappled with their me-
major significance. dium and long wavebands of 300 to 3000 Meters, using
The third and unquestionably the most important de- massive power to achieve the greatest distance, the
velopment was the radio telephone, capable of voice shortwave brotherhood with their low -power, less com-
transmission but fraught with obstacles. plex home-made equipment, were getting remarkable
results. Max Howden, a "ham" operator in Melbourne
In 1918, the radio (or wireless) telephone was limited
was the first to send a radio signal to be picked up in
to the armed forces, some merchant shipping and a England.
few amateur experimenters. The 'wireless" enthusiasts
had reported to Flynn that equipment was available
with a range of 300 miles. Sadly, this was not the case.
The best portable equipment developed by the R.A.F.
had a range of only thirty miles.
Another published report stated: "There are now on
the market some very compact machines, capable of
transport on the backs of two horses!" This was cer-
tainly not what Flynn had in mind. His goal was to pro-
vide the outback folk with a long-range, low powered
sturdy, cheap set, easy to operate and easy to main-
tain. He was ahead of his time.
The first Atlantic broadcast by radio telephony in
1915 used 300 vacuum tubes! The apparatus was
clumsy and fragile, prone to breakdown and consumed
enormous power, and electric power was one commod-
ity the "outback" folk didn't possess. A "portable" radio
telephone of that era required the equivalent of six car
batteries to power it. It also needed a stable high-ten-
sion supply for its continuous carrier wave to ensure re-
liable transmission.
Joe Flynn had to contend with all these issues and
decide on the best approach. If he was to gain support
and raise funds for his ambitious program, he would
need to demonstrate the practicality of it. His immedi-
ate objective therefore was to set up a mother station
capable of servicing several outposts.
Because of the complexity of radio telephony, he
opted for radio telegraphic equipment for the outposts
and radio telephony at the base station.
It would be difficult enough for the amateur operators
at the homestead (ranch -house) to send Morse code,
let alone receive it. This made sense since it would en-
able the Flying Doctor or other personnel to speak di-
rectly to a patient using headphones or a loudspeaker, Alf Traeger about 1930, demonstrating his pedal generator
and give comfort and advice. and transceiver. The equipment can be seen in the Flying
Doctor Museum at Alice Springs in Central Australia.
Flynn had made many friends amongst the wireless
fraternity, many of whom were amateur radio operators Amateurs around the world were in contact with each
and backyard hobbyists. It wasn't long after Marconi other well before the professional stations, notwith-
sent his first Morse signal across the Atlantic that the standing the limitation imposed of 25 Watts maximum
"backyarders" were communicating with each other output. With clever aerial arrays and transmitting at
across the length and breadth of Australia. Perhaps it night when the Heavyside layer supposedly comes
was Australia's geographical isolation that placed it in closer to Earth, they achieved maximum range.
the forefront of communication development. But in the early 1920's, the wireless devote3's could
Flynn had made many friends amongst the wireless not provide Flynn with a tranceiver suitable for outback
fraternity, many of whom were radio operators and conditions.

VOLUME XI 27
 The problems relating to portability, power supply There was no time to lose before the wet season set
and reliability seemed insurmountable. And then Flynn in, and with the help of the newly appointed radio op-
met Alf Traeger, a gifted young electrical engineer and erator, Harry Kinzbrunner, he installed the base station
holder of an amateur radio operators license. He joined at Cloncurry. A Lister gasoline engine in a shed at the
forces with Flynn and together they made several sor- back of the small church ran the generator for the 200
ties to the outback, with Flynn's battered Dodge truck watt telephony transmitter, which was installed in the
weighed down with radio apparatus, aerial masts and vestry. After carrying out some tests, he left Kinzbrun-
spare parts. But their experiments were unsuccessful ner at the base station and headed for the first outpost,
and Traeger returned to his workshop in Adelaide. Augusta Downs Station 180 miles north of Cloncurry.
First he made extensive modifications to the receiver
and came up with a low -powered design using only two
vacuum tubes. The low voltage batteries were light-
weight and had a life expectancy of at least four
months. Clarity through headphones or a loudspeaker
was excellent under "normal" outback conditions. The
difficulties previously encountered appeared to be
resolved.
Clarity through headphones or a loudspeaker was ex-
cellent under "normal" outback conditions. The difficul-
ties previously encountered appeared to be resolved.
But there was still the seemingly insoluble problem of
power for the transmitter. Batteries were out of the
question and most outposts could not afford the luxury
of a generator driven by a gasoline engine. Traeger had
already experimented with a hand -operated generator,
using a quartz crystal to smooth the manual input but
although it performed reasonably well, it required two
operators; one to crank the generator, the other to op-
erate the Morse key and adjust the receiver.
And then came the breakthrough he had been
searching for-the pedal -operated generator that was
to give a voice to the outback. He built an oil -filled gear-
box to which he attached the cranks and pedals from a Traeger's complete "outback" transceiver. Note the keyboard
on the left of the cabinet. It dispensed with the need to learn
bicycle. At the top of the gearbox he mounted the gen- and transmit Morse code.
erator which supplied the twenty watts required by the
transmitter. It was a resounding success. With no more Accompanied by George Scott (a Patrol Padre from
effort than riding a bicycle on a flat surface, an operator the Inland Mission) as his assistant, Traeger installed
could generate the power while tapping out the the pedal radio, as it became known, and erected the
message. sixty -foot aerial mast. Then he taught the wife of the
station manager to use the Morse key and operate the
controls.

Above: the pedal radio generator, developed by Alf Tfaeger,

which solved the power problem at remote habitations in the
early twenties.
Armed with six sets of radio tranceivers and pedal
generators, Traeger set out for Cloncurry, a remote
town in far -north Queensland, to establish the first radio The little girl waits with the pedal generator while her mother
jots down a message from the "Flying Doctor." The photo
network for the Flying Doctor Service-an area of was taken in the early 1940's after the radio telephone had
90,000 square miles. replaced radio telegraphy.

28/ ELECTRONICS HANDBOOK

 The expression says it all! A visiting "Flying Doctor" immunizes a child on a cattle station.

Ten days of preparation and Traeger was ready to Nevertheless, the pilot project proved a huge suc-
contact Kinzbrunner who was standing by. The excited cess and the first Flying Doctor aircraft, appropriately
family and ranch -hands crowded around the tranceiver; named "Victory" went into service. News of the incred-
Mrs. Rothery waiting with her hand on the Morse key. ible pedal radio spread through the outback in a very
She turned nervously to Traeger and asked, "What short time and orders came pouring in from far and
shall send?" Try sending `Hello Harry,- he suggested.
I
wide.
The story goes that Kinzbrunner received the mes- It wasn't long before the radio network was being
sage: "Hell OHell OHarry!" It caused much amusement used for other purposes as Flynn had intended. Out-
among the outback community but it was an historic back communities could listen to talks, music and news
moment and one that Flynn would have been proud of. broadcasts besides the essential medical advice. In
Unfortunately, he was on a world tour at the time; fi- fact, the outback folk often received news from America
nanced by his aviation and radio friends. But before he and Britain before the city newspapers got it!
left, he agreed that it would be advisable to instruct the But Alf Traeger wasn't content to rest on his suc-
womenfolk on the operation of the radio equipment be- cesses. While constructing, installing and servicing the
cause they seldom left the homestead and were often equipment, he was forever trying to improve the effi-
left alone with the children. ciency and reliability of it.
Between bickering with the bureaucrats at the Post
Traeger went on to install the other five pedal radio's Office about not keeping up with written specifications
at outposts hundreds of miles apart, and it was after on each outpost station (even though they were all the
leaving the fourth that tragedy struck. Sister Gilbert, a same), and teaching the ladies to send Morse code, he
nurse working on one of the most remote outposts in was, in his own words, "Running around the country
Australia-Birdsville, became ill. She and her col- like an agitated ant!"
leagues had been teaching themselves Morse code for
weeks prior to Traeger's visit but when they went to use Many of the pedal radio operators were not proficient
the transmitter, they found it defective. at sending clearcut, unambiguous messages which
They drove Sister Gilbert to the nearest telephone
250 miles away and called Cloncurry. But the weather
- caused considerable hardship for the base radio oper-
ator who had to decipher them or ask for a repeat.
conditions made it too hazardous for flying so they Traeger thought long and hard about the problem
drove the 150 miles to Cloncurry where she was oper- and the feasibility of building an "automatic Keyboard."
ated on but died soon after. The rigors of the journey Using the principle of a typewriter, he cut the lettered
along bush tracks had taken its toll; 400 miles of heat key bars to correspond to the dots and dashes and in-
and dust... tervals of Morse code. When the keys were pressed,

VOLUME XI 29
 The ' outback" radio network enabled the establishment of the "School of the Air," the world's largest classroom.
These children on a cattle ranch chat with their teacher and classmates hundreds of miles away.

they energized a relay which opened or closed the nent. And there are now a dozen or more base stations
transmission circuit. to service them.
Whether a portable typewriter was modified for the There is no place in Australia where the Flying Doc-
prototype of his ingenious invention, is not clear but it tor Service can't reach a sick or injured person within
worked very efficiently, if rather slowly. Operators no two hours. Only the old-timers can reminisce about the
longer had to learn the tedious Morse code and labori- days when the women -folk had to travel several hun-
ously tap out messages. dred miles by camel through floods, dust storms, tor-
By 1934, Traeger had built and installed approxi- rential rains and incessant heat to have their babies.
mately seventy of his keyboards but by then, he was Thanks are due to the founder, John Flynn and his
busily converting telegraphic stations to telephony and many helpers and advisers, not the least Hudson Fysh,
they were swiftly phased out from then on. the aviation pioneer and co-founder of Qantas Airways;
The Flying Doctor Service now provides a "Mantle of Harry Kauper, chief engineer of the Australian Broad-
Safety" across the vast interior of Australia, using the casting Commission; and the intrepid band of ama-
most up-to-date single sideband radio transmission teurs, the unsung hero's of short wave communication
equipment available. development. But above all, Alf Traeger who was
The old pedal generators have long been supplanted awarded the Order of the British Empire for his "unstint-
by electrical power or generators that can charge bat- ing contribution" to the Flying Doctor Service. Almost
teries or directly power the tranceiver. The compact, up to his passing in 1980 at the age of 85, he continued
low -maintenance SSB tranceivers can now be found in working in his Adelaide factory, advancing the science
several thousand outposts scattered over the conti- of communication.

The "Flying Doctor" radio network is now used for many purposes. An early photo of an isolated well -borers camp
shows a pupil "attending" the School of the Air...the worlds largest classroom. Mom looks on with pride.

30/ ELECTRONICS HANDBOOK

 WORKBENCH
PROJECTS
(11111111111131311111111111111111111111311M

With any electronics assembly and/or project

construction, it is important that you understand how
the various parts of the circuit work together and the
objective of each component before you start gathering
the components together and assembling them.
With any project that requires Integrated Circuits (ICs)
or transistors, be careful to observe precautions about
overheating their leads. If possible, use sockets
designed for the IC chip required, instead of soldering
directly into the chip's wire leads. If you don't have
sockets available, be sure to protect the IC and/or
transistor lead wires by using long -nose pliers as a
"heat -sink" when soldering these leads.
LED ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT TESTER
Typically, this kind of electrical power tester will light. If nothing lights, there is no power. Check for
use Neon lamps to indicate completed circuits or wiring errors or an open ground if some other
faulty circuits...why not LEDs? You can build this combination of LEDs light.
tester in a minimum of space. Wiring is simple but you This tester will trip GFCI outlets if used to test them,
must remember that you will be applying 120 volts to since the LEDs draw more than 6mA through the
the circuit, therefore, it is prudent to encapsulate the ground.
completed circuit in silicone, such as caulking. PARTS LIST FOR LED ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT
The "hot" lead will be a golden brass color, TESTER
"neutral" will be chrome colored and the ground pin is
R1, R2, R3 -15K ohm. 2 watt resistors.
u -shaped, usually with a green screw.
L1,L2-Green LEDs.
To test your device, plug it into a receptacle that L3-Red LED.
you want to test. The receptacle is good if L1 and L2 Misc.-Suitable enclosure.

L3

VOLUME XI 31
FUNCTIONAL CAPACITANCE VERIFIER
There are often situations in which a capacitor 3)Capacitor O/C: -No pulse output hence neither LED
needs to be checked in order to ascertain whether it is lit.
functioning or not. The circuit shown here gives a The circuit functions over a wide range of
quick indication of the condition of the capacitor, by capacitance, typically 100pF to 1000pF.
using its most basic property i.e. the ability to block do
voltages. The ubiquitous 555 timer is used to provide
a train of non critical positive pulses. These pulses PARTS LIST FOR FUNCTIONAL
pass through the device under test, onto a bi -color CAPACITANCE VERIFIER
LED sensor. In case of difficulties locating this LED,
two standard separate LED's are fine. The pulse IC1-555 Timer (any type)
characteristics appearing across the dual LED are R1 -10K ohms
R2 -4.7K ohms
interpreted as follows: R3-100 ohms
1) Capacitor OK: -Negative and positive pulse train C1-1000pF
illuminates both colors. C2-10nF
2) Capacitor S/C:-Positive pulse train only illuminates LED-Bi-color (single) or two separate LED's (any
one color. color)

o +9V
R1
10K
CAPACITOR UNDER TEST
a 4
s
1[1
100
a
I I

4.7K 2
555 a

R2
IC1 R3
e
e

1000pF
10nF
Z`!
SI -COLOR LED

T C2 T

AUDIBLE INDICATOR FOR HF PULSES

PARTS LIST FOR AUDIBLE INDICATOR FOR
HF PULSES
When experimenting with high frequency pulses
just outside the audio frequency band, e.g. 20k Hz to C1-.01uF Capacitor
50kHz used commonly for ultrasonic range finding D1 -1N4148 silicon signal diode (or Equiv.)
and motion detectors, a simple verification is often SPKR-Miniature Piezo buzzer or audible warning
needed for the presence of such pulses. An device
oscilloscope is a nice luxury, however failing to come
up with the funds, a much easier option is available.
The circuit albeit simple, provides an audibly output 0.1uF
in the presence of HF pulses. Alternatives such as an
LED indicator cannot differentiate between HF pulses
H..
and a latched high state and using just a loudspeaker T.T.L. C1
will not give an indication outside the audio frequency PULSE SPKR
band. This circuit works on the basis that the
capacitor blocks any latched high signals and passes 1N4148 D1
pulses only. The clamp diode provides a signal DIODE
capable of activating the piezo buzzer. CLAMP

32/ ELECTRONICS HANDBOOK

A SIMPLE LOGIC PROBE
alternate red and green. When a signal above 50 Hertz
Here is a quick and simple logic probe that works is applied to the input, the LED will flash red and green
great with low speed digital signals. It can be built very quickly and the color will appear to be some
with a few simple parts: one chip, a bi -polar (two shade of yellow. The particular shade of yellow will
element) LED, a capacitor and a few resistors. The depend on the duty cycle of the input signal. Mostly
schematic shows a quad two input Nand gate chip but high or mostly low signals will show a slightly
any HC or HCT chip that contains several inverters or discolored red or green, respectively.
inverting gates will work fine. (HCT chips are HOMOS As shown in the schematic this probe is intended to
chips that have inputs compatible with TTL logic be used with logic on a +5V supply only. The input will
levels. Using an HCT chip will allow this probe to work draw very little current from the circuit under test, but
with most types of TTL and CMOS logic.) the appropriate logic levels must be maintained to
The circuit is pretty simple. Gate "A" of U1 senses ensure proper operation. The LED is similar to the
and buffers the signal under test. The input resistors, XC-5491 available from your local Radio Shack store
R1 and R2, limit the input current and pull it down so it as part #276-012. This circuit could also be
is stable when not in use. Gates "C" and "D" of U1 constructed with one of the three leaded two element
provide the current to drive the bi -polar LED. One LEDs or even two separate LEDs by tying one of the
"sources" the current while the other "sinks" the anodes to the output of Gate "C", the other anode to
current depending on the logic level of the input. The the output of gate "D" and the common cathode
220 Ohm resistor, R3, limits the LED current to about through the 220 Ohm resistor to ground.
23 milliAmps so the gates and the LED do not burn up.
(For you techno-buffs, this method of driving a load is
similar to the idea behind "H -Bridge" motor drivers PARTS LIST FOR SIMPLE LOGIC PROBE
but on a smaller scale.) The capacitor in the circuit, C1-1 of to 10 of
01, helps supply the switching currents for the CMOS LED1-DualColor or Bi -Polar LED similar to Radio
gates and helps suppress noise. Shack part #276-012
The logic indication goes as follows: When a "High" R1-1000 Ohms
is applied to the input, the LED is red, When a "Low" is R2-22,000 Ohms
applied to the input, the LED is green. When a slowly R3-220 Ohms
changing signal is applied to the input, the LED will U1-74HC00 or 74HCT00 (see text)

4-5Vo ts R3 LED
G\R
I 1

7\

0 0
VCC
0 0
)3, ID)D--
U1
f31A), GN D

,o 6 o o 0 o 0
INPUT C1
\Mg
R2

VOLUME XI 33
 CAPACITOR TESTER
Here is a simple little device that can be used in lower position, you increase the time interval the
conjunction with awatch or clock, capable of LED1 will remain on by a factor of ten.
measurements in seconds, that will measure the value The circuit theory is quite simple. The 555 timer IC
of any electrolytic or tantalum capacitor. is set up as a one shot. When S1 is depressed, the
With the capacitor to be tested connected to the timing cycle is started and LED1 is turned on until the
binding posts (watch polarities), press and release timing cycle is completed.
S1; then time how long LED1 remains on. Multiply the
time by the appropriate scale factor and divide by 1.1. PARTS LIST FOR CAPACITOR TESTER
You now have the capacitance in microfarads. For
example, suppose S2 is in position B and LED1 has BP1, BP2-Binding Posts
remained on for 11 seconds. The capacitance is then C1-.01uF Capacitor
IC1-LM555 Timer
equal to: LED1-Light Emitting Diode
R1, R6 -10,000 -ohm, Watt, 5% Resistors
1/4

11 seconds x 10 (scale factor) R2 -100,000-ohm, Watt, 5% Resistor

1/4
= 100uF R3 -1,000,000-ohm, 1/4 Watt, 5% Resistor
1.1
R4 -10,000,000-ohm, 1/4 Watt, 5% Resistor
R5 -1,000 -ohm, 1/4 Watt, 5% Resistor
When testing an unknown capacitor, always start at
S1-Normally open mini SPST momentary switch.
position A. If the time interval LED1 stays on is too (Radio Shack #275-1547 or Equiv.)
short to be accurately measured on your watch, move S2-Single Pole 12 position rotary switch. (Radio
S2 to the next position. Every time you move S2 to a Shack #274-1385 or Equiv.)

9 VOLTS
O

RI
X 100

R2
X 10
RS
B
R3 XI C A

Z
0 0 2
8
7
R4 X 0.1 p

S2
SI ICI
+^
1 6 VBPI
3 5 I+ CAPACITOR
:$: UNDER
TEST
CI
LED I

-
BP 2

THE TELEPHONE LINE PROTECTOR

Lightning hits telephone lines and even though the Should you be protecting multiple lines, a MOV
lines may be protected by arrestors, enough of the en- should be installed from each wire to ground.
ergy from the strike may get through to do damage. It An important point is that the MOV used here is rated
is both simple and inexpensive to gain an extra meas- the same as those used on 110 volt power as voltages
ure bf protection for your phone lines. on the phone lines are fairly high. Also, the ground
As shown in the schematic, a Metal Oxide Varistor is must be good and solid, and wired with #16 wire or
connected from each wire of the line to a good electri- larger.
cal or earth ground. This is best done at the block Protect your phone lines with this circuit and the only
where the phone wires connect where they enter the shocks you'll get from the phone will be what may be
building. said over it!

34 / ELECTRONICS HANDBOOK
 THE. TELEPHONE LINE PROTECTOR
SCHEMATIC OF TELEPHONE PROTECTOR

RED GREEN

PARTS LIST FOR THE TELEPHONE LINE

PROTECTOR
TERMINAL BLOCK
M1,2-Metal Oxide Varistor. Radio Shack #276-568 or
equivalent.
2

EARTH OR ELECTRICAL GROUND

TV ANTENNA PROTECTOR

So much has been said about lightning protection of

power lines that any other avenue of lightning entry is
virtually ignored. One of these is not a good idea to ig-
nore, and that is lightning protection for your TV PARTS LIST FOR TV ANTENNA PROTECTOR
antenna. X1,2-Type F connectors. Radio Shack 278-212 or
Most antennas that mount outside on any kind of equivalent.
metal mast should be mounted with the mast grounded L1-10 turns of #22 solid wire on 1/2" form or 6 turns on
to an earth ground and with a lightning arrestor on the 3/4" dia. toroid core.

lead before it enters the house. Normally the arrestor M1 - Metal Oxide Varistor. Radio Shack 276-568 or
used has an air gap that arcs over with a lightning equivalent.
strike. Air gap arrestors will pass surges of thousands
of volts before they arc over and short the strike to
SCHEMATIC OF TV ANTENNA PROTECTOR
ground.
A better way to handle the surges is to use a Metal
Oxide Varistor that shorts surges above 170 volts to
ground. A problem exists in that the MOV has the char- X1
acteristic of capacitance, and connecting it to RF may
weaken, distort, or totally eliminate the incoming RF 1

signal.
As you can see in the schematic, the coil L1 is in se-
ries with the MOV. This coil behaves like a resistance
in excess of 75 ohms at even the lowest TV frequencies
but will pass the surge energy to the MOV without any
delay or attenuation. This device must be built in a M1
metal box for shielding and grounding purposes, and
the box must be grounded to an earth or electrical
ground with a wire of at least #16 gauge or heavier.
Someday, this inexpensive little protector may save
your TV from destruction. EARTH OR ELECTRICAL GROUND

VOLUME XI 35
 THE FUN WAY TO LEARN ELECTRONICS

ftiCS
het
Of course, wo can't make you a
el on
master electrician overnight. But we
can show you the fundamentals of
CTes
oui5e
repair plus maintenance tips.

itA$p{ IF
GET

It
YOU'RE NEW TO ELECTRONICS YOU
A "BASIC COURSE"!
gives you a complete, ground -
floor lowdown on a variety of
important electronic subjects. For
example-Understanding
Transistors...How Radio Receivers Pull
In case you're not all that familiar in Signals...Cathode Ray Tubes
with us, we're not a publication for Explained...How Capacitors
electrical engineers and other Work...Using Magnetism in
wizards. No way, ELECTRONICS Electronics, and much, much more!
HANDBOOK is expressly for people
who like to build their own projects TRY A FEW ISSUES AND EVALUATE OUR...
and gadgets-and maybe get a HOW -TO -DO -IT HELP. Tips and
little knee-deep in tape, solder and pointers that add up to money
wire clippings in the process. saved. For example- tuning up your
In fact, we have a sneaking tape player...all about radios ...whys
suspicion that our readers like us and hows of turntables...care and
because they think we're just as (coding of speakers.
bug-eyed and downright crazy over EXCITING DISCOVERIES. Whatever
great new project ideas as they are. your particular interest in electronics,
And guess they're right!
I
you'll be entering a world of
discovery in the pages of the o
e...:
`°
'
ELECTRONICS HANDBOOK thinks of
you who dig electronics as the last ELECTRONICS HANDBOOK \eca.'
of a special breed. It's more than
Just the "do-it-yourself" angle- it's ear o
also the spirit of adventure. In this
4 a
TODAY e'Çe f' b

r,,
fie. ' O C55g1e\'449c)o
b
pre-packaged, deodorized world, ! 1-e>

building your own stereo system, *e -e

shortwave receiver, darkroom timer
or CB outfit is like constructing a y
e+ **+, Je40.e5. ar
fine-tuned little universe all your
own. And when it all works
perfectly- it really takes you to
0 0 i`4
.

o4,e c;'
another world. ,.';i
:'ti 4;` ` aao
ELECTRONICS HANDBOOK
knows the kinds of projects
& ot 4 tiet,,
y`'
o
40
a
you like-and we bring 'em \,!*
`Q. r 2>6
04e

to you by the truckload! 4eyaeeo` x,44` wSy

36/ ELECTRONICS HANDBOOK

 PASSIVE ALARM
CIRCUIT
By James C. Work

The AL -08 Alarm is a Passive type Auto Alarm logic needed at the unused input. Let's take a look to
System that can be expanded into Home and see what happens once the door goes from closed to
Workshop security. Its features include Key and open, assuming the 12V to OV (pin 1) is being used.
Door activation, On and Off Chirp, Fixed or variable Assuming that the ignition key is in the "Off"
Entry/Exit Time Delay, Glass and/or Motion Detector position and a high is present on pin 3 of U1A (CLR),
capabilities. Armed LED Indicator Output and as the door is opened the input makes a 12V to OV
Automatic Reset. transition. The One -Shot's output (pin 13) Q changes
The heart of the circuit uses a 74C221 (U1) Dual from OV to 12V, approximately one second after the
Non-retriggerable Monostable Multivibrator (One - door transition occurs. (Note: the output to input
Shot) and a 73C73 (U2) Dual J -F Flip -Flop. For the delay is created from the RC time constant R4 x C2).
remainder of our discussion we will reference the The output level remains high for approximately 20
schematic diagram. seconds, if you use the RC FIXED time constant
Both IC's contain a Clear (CLR) input which is which contains R5A and C3 of U1A (pins 15 and 14).
active low, therefore, a high must be present to allow To use the variable time constant replace R5A with
the IC's to function. The circuit is active through the the resistor combination R5b and R5B.
Accessory (ACC) input. With the ignition in the off During this transition a high will also be present on
position a high level is present via the pull-up resistor U2A clock line (pin 1) and will proceed to charge C4
R6 which provides a 12V (BATT) level to U1A pin 3 through R9 thus holding J (pin 14) and CLR (pin 2) of
and U2B pins 6 and 7, allowing them to be active. U2A at a high state. Once the time constant runs out,
Once the ignition is switched to "ACC" or "On" from U1A pin 13 high state returns to a low state. On this
the "Off" position a OV to 12V transition occurs at the high to low transition U2A's clock triggers the output
point marked "ACC" on the schematic. This applies Q (pin 12) to a high which proceeds through CR1 to
voltage to the base of Q1 through the current limiting the base of Q2, thereby supplying the BATTERY
resistor R8, thus turning on the transistor and sending voltage to +S (+ Siren). At the same time UA2 pin 12 is
the 12V level to ground and disabling the circuit. R7 is also providing a high level to the clock (pin 5) of U2B.
a pull -down resistor which holds the base of Q1 to Keep in mind that the output of UA2 occurred at the
ground. high to low transition of U1A's output so the output of
With "ACC" in the "Off" position, the alarm is armed U2A will remain at a high level only as long as U2A's
by opening a door. Note that there are two door CLR (pin 2) remains high. This will remain high as
triggers on U1A. If you use the existing door switch in long as C4 discharges through R9. This RC time
your vehicle, you may note that on one side of the constant of R9 and C4 creates the "ON" and "Off"
switch (when the door is in the closed position) a 12V chirp.
level occurs. Once the door is opened a OV level Once the clear line of U2A is ata low level, its output
occurs. If this is the case with your vehicle then you pin 12 changes from high to low turning Q2 off. This
will use the 12V to OV input (pin 1) of U1A. If the pin high to low state triggers the Clock line of U2B thus
switch reads OV (Door closed) then 12V (Door open) changing the output of U2B (pin 9) to a high level.
use the OV to 12V input (pin 2). NOTE: USE ONLY Once U2B has been triggered, it will remain in this
ONE OF THE DOOR INPUTS. state until "ACC" clears it.
The output of U2B pin 9 provides a high level to the
The 2.2M resistors (R2, R4) and the 0.47uF LED OUTPUT and to U1 B's B input (pin 10) and CLR
capacitors (C1, C2) are used to eliminate the effects (pin 11), thus enabling this part of the IC. Now the
of switch bounce oscillation and will create alarm is armed and ready to be triggered.
approximately one second delay for U1A's output to The next time the door is opened U1A and U2A will
respond to the change of the door input transition. perform the same sequence of events, only this time
The 220K resistors (R1, R3) at the inputs are used the alarm will be activated for approximately five
for pull-up and pull -down resistors for the proper minutes. At the output of U2A pin 13 (Q not) is tied to

VOLUME XI 37
pin 9 of U1B through a resistor R10 (we will discuss Approximately 5 minutes later U1B will time out
this later), once U2A is triggered again, pin 13 goes and reset itself. Note the purpose of CR 1 and CR2 is to
from a high to a low transition (don't forget you are prevent sinking the current from one part of the circuit
going through your door delay again) thus triggering to another. The instant trigger is activated simply by
U1 B's output to go through CR2 and once again pulling GLASS input from a high level at U1B pin 9 to
turning on 02. This time 02 will remain on for the a low level. R10 is used to prevent an excessive
period of the RC time constant (R11 x C5) of U1B (pin loading to U2A pin 13.
7 and 6).

FIXED TIRE VARIABLE TIRE

BATT BATT

RSA R5b
C2
330K BATT

i-
0.47uF
C9
47,F -
100K

R50
VAR.0-lA CRI
Rl1
2.2A
R9 1N4004
R4 cs
220K 14 15 13 ta 220 Is
o CLOCK D CR2
12V to 0v
R9 1N4004
UM 220K L4 U2A 8 7
5
C4
11'1C-1 al/ o
cue 0.47.E 2 RIO LIB 12
3
10K -13,2 0
BATT BATT L1R
ü
1
AABTA05-TL
R6
220K
GLASS 11

02
el 5
CLOCK
P
J U2Bo 9 BATT S
6 -C CLR
R7 K O
12K 10
220K 6 LED
GUTPL.fT

ACC . CRILFD1
CC.4001

FILE: AL -OB TITLE: ALaRA

NOTES: ALL RESISTORS ARE 1/6V
BATT SCIE1lAT C
DRAFTER: J,v
I

T-
ALL CAPACITORS ARE AT LEAST 16V C6
0.01
UI IS A 74C221 ( ONE-SHOT I
APPROV: COAPANY:
U2 IS A 74C73 (J -K FLIP-FLOP) DATE: 4/28/90
VP EIELTRL2JICS

PARTS LIST FOR PASSIVE ALARM

SEMI -CONDUCTORS
U1 -74C221 One Shot
Suggested source for parts to construct the
U2 -74C73 -J -K Flip Flop "Passive Alarm Circuit" is Digi-Key Corp.,
Q1-MMBTA05-T1 NPN Driver Highway #32 South, Box #667, Thief River Falls,
02-TIP120KS NPN Darlington 60V 5A MN 55701.
CR1, CR2-1N4004 Diodes
The author has circuit boards available, plus
CAPACITORS assembly instructions with board drawings.
Cl, C2-0.47uF, 63V Axial Send $6.50 (Money -Orders only) to:
C3-47uF, 25V Min. Alum. Elect., Radial WP Electronics
C4-0.47uF, 50V Min. Alum. Elect., Radial P.O. Box #908
C5-100uF, 25V Min. Alum. Elect., Radial Gardner, MA 01440
C6-0.01uF, 50V Add $4.00 for each additional circuit board
(Includes shipping & handling).
RESISTORS Note: All resistors are 1/8W
R1, R6, R7, R9 -220K, 1/8W, 5% All capacitors are at least 16V
R2, R4, R11 -2.2M, 1/8W, 5% U1 is a 74C221 (One -Shot)
R3 -220K, '/8W, 5% U2 is a 74C73 (JK Flip -Flop)
R5A-330K, '/8W, 5%
R5b-100K, 1/8W, 5%
R5B-0 to 1M Adj. Pot., 6MM Dia. Cermet
R8 -101K, YoW, 5°/o
R10 -10K, 1/8W, 5%

38 / ELECTRONICS HANDBOOK
 POWER SUPPLY
BASICS
By Steve Sokolowski

Power supplies have been an intricate part of

electronics products since the first electron tube was
invented in the 1800's but very few authors have taken
the time to tackle the seemingly complex chore of
explaining just how to convert a large AC voltage into
a form that is more palatable to the more conventional
electronic components used in today's super
computers, space shuttles and let's not forget the tiny
LCD televisions that can easily fit into a shirt pocket.
No matter what the nature of your project, some sort of
outside energy is needed to excite microscopic
particles called electrons, more affectionately called
"Little Joe Electron" by my high school electronics
teacher (Mr. G.E. Brown). By applying a force, Little Joe
will either be attracted or repelled by the source of
energy. With enough Little Joes' flowing from the
negative to the positive supply, an electrical current is
said to be present. This current is measured in
Amperes. (Amp, milli -Amps, micro -Amps). The more
electrons flowing within a conducting medium with the
least amount of resistance, the higher the current.
A Typical Power Supply
If enough force is present within a conducting path
of little or no resistance, another form of energy is A power supply is a circuit that can come in a
created. This secondary energy is called HEAT. variety of sizes and shapes. From a small 5 volt' Amp
And heat IS AN ENEMY to delicate electronic unit to devices that can deliver voltages in excess of
components. To control the obvious destruction of tens of thousands of volts with a deadly current of 100
parts, we must have some means of governing the Amps or more. No matter how complex the supply is,
amount of energy created by an electronic circuit. it can be broken down into five functional blocks: The
This circuit is called a "Power Supply" and power AC input, the transformer, the rectifier, the filter and
supplies are what this feature is all about. the regulator. Figure 1 illustrates a typical power
supply in a form called a block diagram. For any
Power Supply Basics power supply to function, we need a primary voltage
In broad terms, a power supply is a circuit that takes source. Here, this voltage can be obtained from the
the normally available AC (alternating current) standard household AC outlet. Due to differences in
household line voltage and transforms it into a DC wiring and your location within the United States, this
(direct current) voltage usually of a lower value (if voltage can range anywhere from 105 to 125 volts.
working with transistorized circuits). Power suppliers Even with this 20 volt variation, a power supply can
are the "silent partners" of all electronic projects. operate efficiently as long as the input voltage
Every circuit requires some sort of "energy" to fulfill remains at some reasonable value. If the input AC
its intended function. The power supply does just voltage drops too low, the supply might not be able to
that. sustain its rated DC output voltage and current to the
load (electronic circuit).

VOLUME XI 39
 RECTIFIED DC (Pulsating DC)

g g
r-v--Y-.rTh
FILTERED DC

9
SECONDARY AC
VOLTAGE PURE DC OUTPUT

AC 0
TRANSFORMER
STEP-UP RECTIFIER FILTER REGULATOR
CIRCUIT CIRCUIT CIRCUIT
OR
STEP-DOWN
DC
OUTPUT

PRIMARY AC AC LINE VOLTAGE

115V P -P TYPICALLY 115V RMS
VOLTAGE
AT 60 Hz

FUSE HIGH CURRENT PROTECTION

FIGURE 1
Conversely, if the AC input voltage is too high, the within the rated value of the breaker, the internal
power supply will produce an output DC voltage that switch will remain closed. Thus providing a path for
is higher than needed. Subsequently, this higher electrons to flow, If, on the other hand, the current
voltage can easily destroy electronic parts because flow exceeds the rated value, the trip sensor will open
the suggested operating voltage has been exceeded. the breaker's contacts, thus disrupting the flow of
At the primary AC voltage input line, you will notice current. The breaker's contacts will remain open until
a device called a "fuse." A fuse is a component that is an outside force (your finger) re -sets the sensor.
placed in series with one side of the input AC voltage Once re -set, the circuit breaker will, again, silently
line. Here any excessive flow of "Little Joe" Electrons protect your valuable investment until the next surge
caused by a short circuit placed across the load will of unwanted high current.
generate heat as mentioned above. This heat will
literally melt a small fine wire located within the fuse at Transformers
a predetermined current. Hence, if the fuse "opens", A transformer is a device that converts the high AC
all AC voltage flow will be abruptly halted and power voltage into an even higher or lower AC voltage. By
to the circuit will be broken until the fuse is replaced. using the principle of "magnetic coupling", NO direct
Fuses have the unhealthy reputation of being connection is made between the input and output
thrown away after each and every high current surge. voltage. A transformer of this type can be called an
One way to save a few dollars and to provide "Isolation Transformer." The AC input voltage
maximum protection to the circuit, is to replace the (placed on the transformer's PRIMARY windings) is
standard fuses with a device called a "circuit breaker." isolated from the usually lower AC output voltage
These components are basic switches that will (secondary winding), thus preventing a deadly shock
automatically open with the presence of excessive hazard.
current flow. If we take a look inside a circuit breaker,
we will see a "trip sensor" connected in series with the For a transformer to make use of the phenomenon
breaker's switch. As long as the current flow is well called magnetic or inductive coupling, a varying

40/ ELECTRONICS HANDBOOK

 that found in the primary, the induced voltage will be
TRANSFORMER LESS than that in the primary. This transformer is said
STEP-UP to be a "STEP-DOWN" transformer (See Figure 3). If
the number of turns in the primary is equal in number
to the secondary, the voltage at the secondary will be
equal to the primary. What good is this? This
transformer isolates the deadly AC primary voltage
from the secondary. Remember earlier, we mention-
ed "Isolation Transformers?" Well, this is how it is
accomplished. Figure 4 illustrates the electronic
schematic of an "Isolation Transformer."

115V AC 230V AC ISOLATION

INPUT OUTPUT TRANSFORMER

FIGURE 2 115V AC
voltage, like the one found in an AC voltage must be 115V AC
INPUT OUTPUT
placed on the primary winding of the device. Here the
voltage swing from positive 57V to negative 57 volts
creates strong magnetic fields. It is this field that
induces an alternating current in the secondary
winding of the transformer. Just how strong this
induced voltage is depends on the number of copper
wire turns in the windings. If the number of turns on
the secondary of the transformer is greater than the
number in the primary windings, the inductive
coupling will induce a voltage that is GREATER than FIGURE 4
that found in the primary. This transformer is said to
be a "STEP-UP" transformer (See Figure 2). If the AC WALL TRANSFORMER
number of wire turns in the secondary is LESS than PLASTIC HOUSING
lnnnunnnnuuunmunnuuunnim
TRANSFORMER
STEP-DOWN Co

L
AC PRONGS (2)
115V AC

115V AC 12V AC
INPUT - OUTPUT STEP-DOWN
-- 5111111 II IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIlu llt Itl

STRAIN
RELIEF

LINE CORD

FIGURE 3 FIGURE 5
VOLUME XI 41
 FIGURE 6

Since the novice electronics hobbyist may have Wall transformers come in a variety of output
limited knowledge relating to transformers and the voltages and current ratings. Depending on the
potential dangers of wiring an AC line cord, we amount of current required, pricing of these devices
strongly recommend making use of a device that does also vary widely. Surplus electronic suppliers sell wall
away with all the potential dangers of using line transformers for as little as $1.95. Surely, your safety
transformers. These devices are called "Wall is worth $1.95? We think it is. Make use of Wall
Transformers" (See Figure 5). Wall transformers are Transformers wherever possible.
step-down transformers that are completely encap- Rectifiers
sulated in plastic with only two connections showing.
One being a twin lead wire where the lower secondary After the AC input voltage is brought down to a
voltage is delivered. And the second is the familiar AC lower level by a step-down wall transformer, the next
male prongs. By using a device such as this, the step is to somehow convert the AC voltage into a raw
potential danger that might be encountered in wiring form of DC (Direct Current) signal. Even though the
a line transformer is eliminated. Also, all soldered voltage output of the rectifier varies greatly, the
connections on the primary and secondary windings polarity of the signal remains the same. Thus the term
are protected by the plastic cover, thus eliminating "pulsating DC."
the shock hazard associated with standard board Stages of rectification are often composed of
mounted transformers. semiconductor diode networks or solid state bridge

D1
LOAD
PRIMARY LSECONDARY
DIODE

115V AC
---
---
-; { vPK
LOAD
vRMS

r l
STEP DOWN
D2

DIODE
TRANSFORMER
W/CENTER TAP

FIGURE 7

42 / ELECTRONICS HANDBOOK
 f
PRIMARY

115V AC
.-a

LOAD
STEP DOWN
TRANSFORMER
W/CENTER TAP

FIGURE 8
rectifiers. There are three basic classifications of By focusing your attention on Figure 8, you can see
rectifier circuits used in power supplies. The HALF that the bridge rectifier provides, not only full wave
WAVE (Figure 6), the FULL WAVE (Figure 7) and the rectification of the secondary AC voltage, but it also
BRIDGE shown in Figure 8. furnishes its own ground reference without the need
The simplest of the three is the Half wave rectifier of an expensive center-tapped transformer. The FULL
since the circuit requires only one diode and no secondary AC voltage applied to the bridge will
center tap on the transformers secondary winding. appear as pulsating DC at its output. As an example, if
The principal disadvantage of the half wave rectifier is an AC signal of 12 volts is applied to the bridge, you
that only one half of the available secondary voltage is can expect an output of a pulsating 12 volts. Bridge
rectified. Rectifying only half of the signal produces rectifiers are the choice of equipment designers. You
gaps in the output voltage (See accompanying wave can find them in the more expensive unregulated
form at Figure 9). These gaps produce an output power supplies and in almost all types of regulated
voltage that has a lower average value and a higher supplies.
amount of AC ripple riding at the output. With a high
AC ripple content at the output, heavier filtering will When choosing rectifiers of any power supply
be required, thus increasing its overall cost. Because design, two important factors must be considered; the
of the high ripple content, Half wave rectifiers will not forward current and the peak inverse voltage (it used
be found in commercial power supplies. to be called Peak Reverse Voltage PRV). The forward
Full wave rectifiers provide a significant advantage current is the maximum current that can flow through
over its predecessor (See Figure 7). With the wiring the diode in its forward biased (conducting state)
arrangement as shown in Figure 7, two diodes are direction without causing harm. This forward current
used instead of one. Two diodes are allowed to value of the device should be equal to the maximum
conduct on BOTH halves of the secondary AC signal. expected load plus another 50% for safety sake. Many
The resultant waveform can be seen in Figure 7. As circuits that you will be building will, without a doubt,
you can see, the number of DC pulses has been operate well under 1 Amp. To provide a pulsating DC
increased by a factor of two. With almost no time output with a current under 1 A, the 1N4401 diode is
delay between the conduction of the first and second my choice. With a PIV (Peak Inverse Voltage) rating of
diode, the AC ripple content of the output is greatly a whooping 500V at 1 Amp, the 1N4001 diode will
reduced. Also, a power supply using the full wave perform in virtually any power supply circuit that you
configuration can provide a steadier DC voltage can think of. And best of all, the diode can be
output and it can also support heavier loads. The main purchased for about $.02 each.
drawback of using the full wave is the use of the
center -tapped transformer. This circuit requires a Filters
ground reference point and it is provided by the Filter capacitors used in power supplies have the
center tap. function to smooth out the pulsating DC signal to a
Constructing center -tapped transformers is an somewhat steady DC output. Even with heavy
expensive proposition, and its cost is a reflection of its capacitor filtering, the effects of AC ripple can still be
manufacturing complexities. Even the price of wall - seen in the output. Even with a capacitor with a value
mounted transformers, making use of center taps, are in excess of 1500uf (1500 micro farads) can not
quite expensive. So, for our needs, let's skip full -wave eliminate all the undesired ripple associated with any
rectifiers and go right to the last classification of of the three rectifier classifications. Basically, a filter
rectifiers; the "Bridge." capacitor is an energy storage device that will charge

VOLUME XI 43
to the peak voltage rating of the pulsating DC. Then, Ripple voltage can be measured by placing an AC
in the absence of an applied voltage, will discharge
voltmeter across the now filtered DC output. The
slowly to provide energy to the load. The amount of voltage can be read directly in volts. In a well designed
discharge depends on two factors. The first being the and filtered power supply, the ripple should not
physical size and the amount of current drawn by the exceed 0.1% of the input AC voltage.
load. If the circuit requires a large amount of current, At this stage, the output of our imaginary power
the capacitor will discharge more rapidly than if the supply is called UNREGULATED. For driving lamps,
circuit used less current. This heavy current use solenoids and relays, unregulated power supplies,
causes a large amount of AC ripple to appear at the will handle the job quite well but when it comes to
output of the supply (See Figure 9). A lighter load, powering amplifiers or computer circuitry, unregu-
obviously, will draw less current, resulting in a much lated voltages will create havoc, from producing an
lower ripple content. To provide substantial filtering annoying AC hum in amplifiers to developing
of the pulsating DC, capacitors are often wired to the unwanted pulses on computer Data Busses.
output in parallel. This will, in effect, double the Unregulated power supplies should not be consider-
surface area of the capacitor plates, increasing its ed. For well regulated, inexpensive power supplies,
capacitance. For example, a filter capacitor needed manufacturers have developed miniature circuits that
for a supply must have a value of 3000uf (3000 micro provide a pure DC output over a wide range of
farads). If two 1500uf capacitors were placed in voltages. These devices, as you might have guessed,
parallel, the effective capacitor value would be are called Voltage Regulators.
3000uf. Adding capacitors in parallel to achieve as
pure a DC voltage as possible has its drawbacks. DROPPING RESISTOR
t f
UNREGULATED REGULATED
VOLTAGE VOLTAGE
INPUT 4'ZEN ER OUTPUT
FILTERED DC DIODE
(HEAVY LOAD)

FIGURE 10
Regulators
Voltage regulators are devices that allow a precise
control and adjustment of the DC voltage output. By
adding an inexpensive regulator to a power supply's
output, AC ripple can be almost completely
eliminated. Enough so that the output can be
FIGURE 9
considered to be equal to the DC output of a standard
Capacitors in the range of 1500 to 3000uf are 9 volt transistor radio battery.
relatively large in size. And the larger the capacitor, This simplest form of voltage regulator is the Zener
the higher the price tag. Using capacitors with a value diode with a current limiting resistor in series. as
of 10,000uf or more can become dangerous. As shown in Figure 10. The unregulated voltage from the
mentioned earlier, capacitors are energy storage output of a filter is delivered to the resistor-Zener
devices. Even if the power is disconnected from a circuit. Often called a "clamping" circuit. As with any
capacitor of this size, electrical energy IS STILL electronic component, Zener diodes come in a variety
PRESENT. This energy potential can easily create of voltage and current ratings. For a particular voltage
serious shock hazards to the user. To reduce the output, any Zener diode with a rating less than the
possible shock risk, a high value resistor called a unregulated input voltage can be used in the design.
"bleeder resistor" should be added in parallel to the The series resistor will dissipate the extra voltage and
filter capacitor. A 1 to 2 meg ohm (1,000,000 to help reduce the unregulated voltage to the desired
2,000,000 ohm)resistor is used to bleed the excess level. The value of this resistor depends on the voltage
electrical energy stored by a charged capacitor, to drop across it. This drop can be considered to be the
ground, helping to eliminate any shocking experience. difference between the unregulated voltage and the
Choosing a capacitor to be used as a filter, select a regulated voltage desired (Zener diode voltage). Also,
capacitor with a working voltage that is about 50% the current required by the circuit must be taken into
above the peak voltage that will be encountered by consideration. For example, let's take an unregulated
the component. For example, say a bridge rectifier 12V power supply. We need this circuit to be reduced
delivers a pulsating DC of 12V, the filter capacitor to 10 volts. With this example, the series resistor must
should be rated on or about 15 volts. Higher voltage be able to withstand a voltage drop of 2 volts across it.
capacitors can also be used without any adverse If the maximum load current is to be 1 Amp, then by
effects on circuit performance. using Ohms law, the value of the resistor has to be 2

44/ ELECTRONICS HANDBOOK

 78xx SERIES VOLTAGE REGULATOR

CONSTANT
THERMAL
CURRENT
SHUTDOWN
SOURCE

L
PASS
START DC XSISTOR
CIRCUIT REFERENCE

i
SHORT
CIRCUIT
CLAMP

COMMON REFERENCE LEAD

UNREGULATED REGULATED
VOLTAGE VOLTAGE
INPUT OUTPUT

FIGURE 11
volts/1 amp or 2 ohms. The power dissipated by the and then makes the appropriate corrective action to
resistor is also related to the amount of current drawn keep the output voltage at a constant level.
by the circuit. In this example, the power dissipated Voltage drops and loading current are also
by the series resistor will be (1 amp x 1 amp) x (2 important in the choice of IC voltage regulators. The
ohms) or current squared, times resistance. We come unregulated input voltage must exceed the regulated
up with an answer of 2 (Watts). By addling a safety DC output by several volts if IC regulators are to
factor of 50% to the wattage value we just calculated, function properly.
the Zener's series resistor should be 2 ohms with a
wattage rating of 3 Watts. Common Voltage Regulator Case Styles
As with any electronic component or circuit, there
are drawbacks. If the load were to be disconnected,
the full load current would be impressed across the
Zener, blowing it out. Zeners don't cost that much but
accidental removal of the load should not place any
component in a position of over-stress or inevitable
destruction. To eliminate this, let's take a look at
integrated circuit type voltage regulators.

IC Regulators
Integrated circuit voltage regulators, such as those
in the 7800 and the 7900 series family are excellent
alternatives to Zener circuits. Internal regulator
circuitry compares the output voltage to an internal
reference (See Figure 11). Any difference between
the two will create an error voltage that causes the
current flow of the IC to change at the output
transistor. By making use of this scheme, the error
amplifier keeps track of all output loads across the IC FIGURE 12
VOLUME XI 45
 Table 1 Table 2

7800 Series Voltage Regulators 7900 Series Voltage Regulators

Part # Regulated Output Part # Regulated Output

7805 Pos. 5.0 Volts DC 7905 Neg. 5.0 Volts DC

7806 Pos. 6.0 Volts DC 7906 Neg. 6.0 Volts DC
7808 Pos. 8.0 Volts DC 7908 Neg. 8.0 Volts DC
7810 Pos. 10.0 Volts DC 7910 Neg. 10.0 Volts DC
7812 Pos. 12.0 Volts DC 7912 Neg. 12.0 Volts DC
7815 Pos. 15.0 Volts DC 7915 Neg. 15.0 Volts DC
7818 Pos. 18.0 Volts DC 7918 Neg. 18.0 Volts DC
7824 Pos. 24.0 Volts DC 7924 Neg. 24.0 Volts DC

Table 1 and 2 list a number of IC Voltage that we use an IC regulator from the 7900 series of IC
Regulators. These devices can be easily purchased in chips. Any regulator with the starting number 79xx
any Radio Shack or mail order electronic house at a will deliver an output of negative voltage, while a 78xx
surprisingly small cost. Depending on the type and number will deliver an output of positive voltage. The
manufacturing procedure used, IC voltage regulators last two numbers determine the output voltage of the
can withstand currents from as little as 100mA to as device. Both the 7800 and the 7900 regulators are
much as 5 amps. A dead giveaway to the current basically the same, except for output polarity.
handling capability of an IC voltage regulator is its
case style. Figure 12 illustrates the three most DIODE
commonly used regulators on the market. Figure 12A
shows a regulator in a TO -92 configuration. This TO -
92 case style is similar to a small three lead plastic AC INPUT C1 C2
REGULATED
OUTPUT + VOLTAGE
transistor. Its small size reflects that it can supply only
small 100mA currents to the load. On the other hand, GND
Figure 12B shows a regulator in the larger TO-220
case. When used with the appropriate heat sinking
capabilities, the TO -220 can deliver currents up to 1A,
with 500mA the more typical current output. Finally,
Figure 12C shows the ever popular diamond shape of
the TO -3 regulator. Regulators of this type can deliver
up to and exceeding 5A of continuous current. But for DIODE
the hobbyist, TO -3's delivering 1.5A will more than
satisfy your needs. REGULATED
AC INPUT +OUTPUT - VOLTAGE
Negative Voltage Output
Once a transformer, rectifier, filter and regulator are GND

assembled to form a single output regulated power

supply, several other features can be added to make
the circuit more versatile. For example, sometimes
you may need a power supply to deliver a Negative FIGURE 13
voltage rather than the standard positive. The polarity Multiple Voltage Outputs
of the power supply is determined by the rectified
network. If the diodes in all of the rectifier circuits that There will be times that a circuit design requires two
we have discussed were reversed, the normal positive or more different voltages. A second output voltage
voltage would be inverted to a negative output. Also can easily be added to a power supply by tapping into
note that the filter capacitor(s) must be reversed. the filtered DC to provide an unregulated voltage for
the second regulator. Figure 14 depicts a simple
Otherwise the capacitors will heat up and literally
explode. In a negative voltage power supply, the now
multi -output power supply. Here, a common
reversed diodes will pass the negative half of the unregulated voltage is filtered by the usual capacitor.
From here, the voltage splits ùp into two branches.
secondary AC voltage. The output, will produce a
negative pulsating DC signal with negative AC ripple. Branch one feeds a voltage to the input of a 7805
Figure 13A shows a typical positive power supply positive voltage regulator, while the other voltage is
branched to the input of the 7812 regulator. At the
using a half wave rectifier for simplicity. The output of
D1 is filtered by Cl with the results regulated by a
outputs, the 7805 will deliver a regulated +5 volts,
while the 7812 will output a regulated +12 volts. To
7800 series voltage regulator. Figure 13B shows how
provide a multiple output, the filtered DC output must
to convert the circuit in 13A to deliver a negative
be higher than the highest desired regulated output.
output. Note that, in this case, D1 is reversed. This
feeds negative voltage to filter C3, which is also For supplies requiring both a negative and positive
reversed. The only abnormal thing about this circuit is output, the circuit in Figure 15 can be considered. By
using a half wave rectifier, D1 will pass the negative
46 / ELECTRONICS HANDBOOK
 power regulator that is ideally suited for variable
supplies. Figure 16 is a schematic of an adjustable
power supply using the common LM317 regulator.
The ADJ or the center pin is connected to a voltage
divider network formed by R1 and potentiometer R2.
As the value of R2 increases, the reference voltage on
the ADJ pin also rises, this in turn, will raise the output
voltage. The output voltage from the LM317 can be
varied from 1.25 volts up to the limit set by the value of
R2. For the proper values of the components used in
Figure 16, check the regulator's application notes for
the equations you'll need to determine the values.
FIGURE 14 Voltages below 1.25V can not be obtained because of
half of the secondary AC voltage, while D2 will pass the minimum voltage required across R1 to maintain
only the positive half. Since D1 delivers a negative the correct bias that the LM317 needs for normal
voltage, filter capacitors Cl and 02 must be operation.
connected to the circuit to reflect this polarity. Note The LM317 comes in the TO -3 diamond shape case
that the negative terminals of both Cl and C2 are style and it was designed to deliver upwards of 1.5
connected to the 7900 voltage regulator. Capacitors amps of load current. Due to its high current potential,
C3 and C4 are fed a positive voltage from D2 so the a TO -3 type heat sink is highly recommended.
positive terminals are both connected to the 7800 To use, just connect a voltmeter across the two
series voltage regulator. With this arrangement, a output pins, while under load conditions, adjust R2
WALL
TRANSFORMER D1

I
+
7900 NEG. VOLTAGE

OUTPUT 1

AC INPUT +

>COMMON GND

OUTPUT 2
+
T+
7800 1 POS. VOLTAGE
D2

FIGURE 15
negative voltage determined by the 7900 IC
used will until the desired voltage level is indicated on the
be present at output 1, while a positive voltage,
again meter. For the novice electronics hobbyist, it is a good
determined by the 7800 IC used, will be present
output 2. As stated before, the input pulsating at idea to get into the habit, when connecting any
DC project to an adjustable power supply, to adjust the
voltage must be at least 2 volts higher than the
highest potentiometer voltage output down to OV, or in the
output regulated voltage.
case of the LM317, to read 1.25V on the meter. It
Variable Voltage Regulators
would be one heck of a mistake if you connect a
So far, we've discussed voltage regulators with a project designed to operate at 5 volts, to a power
fixed output voltage level. Variable voltage regulators supply that has been adjusted to 30 or more volts. Oh!
also exist. The LM317 is an example of an adjustable what pretty smoke.
AC
INPUT LM317 +VOLTAGE
D1

--~J 240 GND

SHOCK
HAZARD ADJ
tRi 12.0VDC
ì
TO

r/i D2
2000uF
l1
.1uF R2
2K
1.25VDC

32 VAC
CENTER -TAPPED

FIGURE 16
VOLUME XI 47
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NO CHARGE FOR ZIP CODE...NO CHARGE FOR CAPITALIZING FIRST

WORD...ADDITIONAL WORDS IN CAPS -40e
To run your own classified ad, put one word on each of the lines below and send this form along with your check

2 3 4 5 6

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Your Zip and State are one word each, there is no charge Firm Address
for your ZIP. Code numbers for keying count as one Street Address
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There will be regular headings and when no heading is Telephone Number (
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Ads are set in uniform style with the first word in CAPS-
Extra CAPS are 40¢ per word. Date Of Order
Proofs are not submitted on classified ads-correct 5% discount for the same Ad placed in 3 successive
insertion is guaranteed. There is no deduction for Key issues. 10% discount for the same Ad placed in 6
Number error due to illegibly written copy. successive issues.
We reserve the right to refuse objectionable copy and
revise copy to conform to our standards.
We also reserve the right to request literature and No. of words rate per word equals remittance,
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ad. Advertisers using a P.O. Box must furnish complete Remittance of $ is Enclosed.
V11
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48/ ELECTRONICS HANDBOOK

 DON'T GAMBLE WITH
IMPEDANCE MISMATCH
By Hugh Gordon

AII Bill wanted was to have a single extension

speaker in his workshop. He decided to connect
it to his stereo and reasoned that one channel
would be enough. So, using a simple 'Y' connector, he
tapped onto the rear of the left, channel speaker OUTPUT
upstairs, fed the lead down through the floor and over IMPEDANCE
to his bench. To the lead, he connected an old
speaker he'd had around for years. Now, he could LOAD
enjoy the music right where he worked. SIGNAL
But not for long. It came with the suddenness of
switching off a lamp. The sound stopped. Not even a
hint of static could be heard from his extension
speaker. Bill ran upstairs to check the stereo. The left
channel was dead.
At the service shop, he nearly cried as the
L- -- F G.I
I

technician told him with a voice of doom, "The large

scale integrated circuit that drives the left channel is Changing load impedance that upsets the
burnt out. It'll cost you about eighty dollars." matching can produce different results, depending
What caused such a catastrophe? Bill had severly upon the design of the
final output stage. Sometimes
mismatched the impedance on that channel. people create a mismatch and get away with it. Then,
Attention must be paid to matching impedance. they tell a friend. Result: their
friend may have a
When properly matched, two things happen: sudden surprise.
1. Maximum power is delivered to the load, which, in
Let's examine the effect of changing load
this case, was a speaker or a set of speakers. impedance from its design value.
2. The optimum design current flows through the All sources driving a load have an internal
output transistors whether they are discrete or resistance or impedance, expressed
in ohms. A
included in an IC. simple and familiar source is a dry cell or battery. It

LOAD FOR TRANSISTOR

BUT SOURCE FOR
SECONDARY

SIGNAL 41.
LOAD FOR
.111.
OURCE SECONDARY

LOAD FOR PRIMARY

\I/cc SOURCE FOR SPEAKER

FIG. 2

VOLUME XI 49
has an internal resistance, which is a result of the
electrode materials and the chemicals used. It's very
small, but you can observe its effect. As the cell ages,
its internal resistance increases. This is observable in
a flashlight when the lamp becomes dim as the
battery ages.
A transistor amplifier stage also has internal
`resistance', although when dealing with AC signals, it
is referred to as impedance. In Figure 1, the simplified
NOM.Z
equivalent circuit of an output transistor is shown
within the dotted lines. The output impedance
indicates the opposition to the AC signal between the
emitter and collector. The load shown with a resistor
FREQ. -; FIG.4
symbol, represents the speaker.
Impedance is defined as the total opposition to AC
current flow offered by a device or circuit at a The transformer -coupled stage is not as common
particular frequency. Impedance is a combination of as it once was but is still seen in older car radios,
resistance, inductive reactance and capacitive portable radios and public address systems. A
reactance, and is analyzed using phasors or vectors simplified schematic is shown in Figure 2. This is
and complex Math. Since impedance is frequency single-ended, but the reaction to a load impedance is
sensitive, it varies as frequency changes. similar to the push-pull design.
The transistor is the source of the signal while the
speaker is the final load. The transformer couples the
transistor to the speaker as well as matching the
different impedances.
The primary of the transformer is the load for the
signal source (or transistor), while the secondary acts
not only as the load for the primary but the signal
source for the speaker. The speaker, then, is the load
for the secondary windings.
To be properly matched, the impedance of the
primary windings should be the same as the output
impedance of the transistor and the impedance of the
secondary windings should be the same as the rated
impedance of the speaker.
How is this accomplished?
Well, it's really up to the designer, but a brief
explanation here will help you understand the
process. You must be aware, however, that for
simplicity, transformer efficiency, which is a result of
its various AC losses, is not being considered. We'll
leave that up to the engineers designing the
equipment.
Recall the formula:NP Np/Ns = ./ Zp/Zs? Sometimes
it is expressed as (&)2 = iP. In this formula, Np/Ns is
the turns ratio of the transformer and Zp/Zs is the
impedance ratio required of the transformer.
Now, if the output impedance of the transistor is
1000 ohms and the speaker impedance is only 8
ohms, the match is obtained by application of the
formula. Inserting the values above for the im-
pedances, where Zp is the transistor output
impedance and Zs is the speaker impedance, we
have:
Amplifier stages have both an input and output
impedance. With load or impedance matching of an
amplifier to speaker, the output impedance is the
Np 127 /1000
N175-= 11.2
V
Ns Zs 8
important factor.
There are two basic output amplifier designs, and This tells us that the turns ratio of the transformer,
each exhibits its own impedance matching character- neglecting losses, should be 11.2 to 1 for a proper
istics. match. Or, that the primary windings should have 11.2
One design uses a transformer to couple the output times as many turns as the secondary. Although we
stage to the speaker, while the other uses no have ignored the various losses that would be
transformer but couples either directly or through a considered by a design engineer, you can see the
large value capacitor to the speaker. approach.

50/ ELECTRONICS HANDBOOK

 Using a transformer which can handle the currents Figure 4 illustrates a typical graph of speaker
involved and which has the correct turns ratio will impedance vs frequency. The nominal impedance
properly match the output transistor's impedance chosen by the manufacturer is usually at the low dip in
with the speaker impedance. the graph. This curve can effectively be flattened by
The second circuit is the common transformerless good speaker cabinet design and a proper crossover
type which gives superior sound reproduction, network.
especially if no capacitor is included in the output Nevertheless, all amplifiers should be terminated
circuit. A typical transformerless circuit which with a speaker of the correct nominal impedance. To
includes the coupling capacitor is shown in Figure 3. vary far from this value could have disastrous results.
The coupling capacitor has been included to simplify There are two types of mismatch and each has a
the explanation of the circuit. Here, transistors 01 different effect. Mismatching by connecting a lower
and Q2 are connected in the common -collector than recommended load impedance would imply that
configuration to provide the low output impedance you have either connected a speaker with too low an
needed to match the speaker. impedance or perhaps paralleled speakers. For
These two transistors work together to supply a example: connecting two 8 -ohm speakers in parallel
signal to the speaker. The inputs to Q1 and Q2 are 180 produces a total of 4 -ohms, and connecting this
degrees out of phase so that as Q1 is conducting, Q2 combination to an 8 -ohm, tap on your amplifier,
is either cut off or almost cut off. To reduce crossover mismatches downwards.
distortion, the output transistors are usually operated Should you lower the impedance with a trans-
with a small amount of bias current which flows former -coupled amplifier, Figure 2, the impedance of
continuously. the output transformer primary windings is also
When a positive -going signals is applied to 01, a lowered because of the reflection of impedance
negative -going signal is applied to Q2. This causes through the transformer. This has the effect of
Q2 to be cut off while 01 conducts. The signal current decreasing the AC signal voltage seen across the
then flows in the path shown by the solid arrows- primary windings and hence also across the
from ground, up through the speaker, Cl, R1, and Ql, collector -emitter of the transistor. Power output to the
charging Cl in the process to the polarity shown. speaker is reduced.
When the signal reverses, and Q2 is positive -going, Should the load impedance be reduced to the
Q2 will conduct, while Q1 is cut off. The signal current extreme value of zero ohms, there will, of course, be
now will flow in the direction of the dotted lines, from no output.
Cl, through 02, R2 and the speaker.
Thus, both halves of the signal are produced. The other type of mismatch is when you increase
Speakers are rated at a nominal value of the load impedance above the design value. If you do
impedance, expressed in ohms, with typical common that in the transformer -coupled circuit, the im-
values being 4 and 8 ohms. However, because a pedance of the transformer primary increases. Then,
speaker reacts somewhat as an inductor, where the AC signal voltage across the primary as well as
impedance varies with frequency, the actual across the transistor also increases, even though the
impedance of the speaker may often be three to five power output to the speaker again decreases. It may
times its nominal value, and seldom is exactly 4 or 8 even be possible, in some circuits, for the signal
ohms. voltage across the transistor to reach a value large

SERIES CONNECTION PARALLEL CONNECTION

FOR 8 OHMS TOTAL FOR 4 OHMS TOTAL
FIG.5 FIG.6

VOLUME XI 51
enough to damage the output transistor, especially if designed output circuit.
the speaker was disconnected and the set turned on.
Should you still want to connect a load impedance
that differs from its design value, here are two rules for
In some older car radios that use a transformer -
you to follow:
coupled output, a shorting speaker jack is used. Pull
1. Transformer -coupled amplifier: never increase the
the speaker plug and the transformer secondary is
load impedance.
shorted, effectively providing a load impedance of
2. Transformerless or direct -coupled amplifier: never
zero ohms, thus protecting the output stage should
decrease load impedance.
the set be turned on with the speaker disconnected.
However, it is more advisable to try to match the
Impedance mismatching in a transformerless
impedances as closely as possible. In many instances
circuit has just the opposite effect. Lowering the
you won't know what type of amplifier output stage is
impedance of the speaker will result in an appreciable
in your set. Don't chance guessing. It could be like
increase in collector current. The output transistor(or
playing a game of Russian Roulette. Although some
transistors) has a low output impedance, in the order
of you may have connected speakers in such a way
of about 8 ohms, and, with an 8 -ohm speaker in series
with it, the total impedance seen by the signal is 16 that opposes the rules above and had no nasty
surprises, you're probably reaping the benefits of
ohms. Now, should you reduce the speaker
impedance to 4 ohms, the total impedance drops to good design by an engineer who included a large
just 12 ohms, a change of 25%. safety factor.
If you really must connect multiple speakers to a
As the collector current increases, the power
system that is not designed for these additions, try to
dissipation in the transistor also increases, for power
is proportional to the square of the current. Double
connect them in such a way, series, parallel, or series -
parallel, so the sum of the impedance equals the value
the current and power dissipation increases by four
needed for that amplifier.
times! This extra power can sometimes generate so
Figures 5, 6 and 7 show three possible multiple
much heat that the poor overworked transistor or IC
quickly burns out. Unless, of course, it's your lucky speaker arrangements. There are many more. Be
aware, however, that power delivered from the
day and the fuse goes first.
amplifier divides between the speakers proportiona-
Should you increase total impedance in the
tely to their individual impedance. For example:
transformerless circuit, all you do is effectively lower
assuming 20 watts is delivered from the amplifier,
the collector current and the speaker power output,
then each speaker in Figure 5 or 6 would receive 10
but there will normally be no damage to a well -
watts and those in Figure 7 only 5 watts.

SERIES -PARALLEL CONNECTION

FOR 8 OHMS TOTAL

52/ ELECTRONICS HANDBOOK

 cone by 8v üv
e,:dr,,..._.._ .....

CHOOSING THE
RIGHT CABINET
By Holmer L. Davidson
Today, there are many different kinds of cabinets that
can be used to enclose your favorite electronic project.
They are available at reasonable prices, in various
sizes and shapes, (Figure 1) from numerous electronic
parts suppliers.
Small projects are usually built in plastic cases, since
they are easier to drill and otherwise adapt to the
project. Large electronic projects, however, may be
enclosed in large plastic, metal or a combination
plastic and metal cabinet.
A Touch of "Class" all components without stacking them on top of one
Unfortunately, we often take the easy way out by another. Sometimes when the parts are all jammed
purchasing a cheap plastic case. If you take a to ether, you end up with shorted components that
little extra time and select a metal or a plastic
case with a metal front cover, the project can look like
a commercially constructed unit. It's amazing how a
polished aluminum front panel dresses up an
electronic project. Just add a few decals, letters and
numbers and you are in business, you have a finished
project that you can be proud to show your friends
(Figure 2).
Choosing The Cabinet
When choosing a good cabinet, a good rule of
thumb is to spend as much for the cabinet as the total
cost of the project. This may sound a little steep, but in Figure 1: Project cabinets and enclosures come in many sizes
the long run you end up with a professional looking and shapes. Plastic, metal front panels and plastic sides and all
project. Select a cabinet that is large enough to hold metal cabinets.

VOLUME XI 53
 Figure 2: Dress up that front panel and make it look professional
with decals, rub -on letters and numbers. Here the test Figure 3: Select ai cabinet big enough for all parts. Here pmts are
instrument case has a plastic body with satin finish metal front jammed tog?ther in a project case that is too small.
panel.

provide unreliable and/or intermittent operation.

(Figure 3).
Make sure the cabinet is shock proof. Do not
choose a plastic cabinet when real high voltage or
power line shock hazards are built in. Do not choose a
plastic cabinet for electronic projects that may have
RF radiation, such as generators or high voltage test
equipment. Keep battery operated projects in the
plastic cabinets.
Choose a metal or metal front cabinet for a
professional appearance. Plastic cabinets with
aluminum thick front panels are easy to drill and make
a finished project look good. Admittedly, they cost a
few more bucks, but they are worth it. In choosing a
cabinet for your favorite project, make sure it's big
enough. Take a peek inside a commercial test
instrument and note all the room around the various
components (Figure 4). Next, choose a cabinet that is
safe and shock proof. Last, choose a cabinet with a Figure 4: This cabinet is large with plenty of room around the
professional looking finish. It's worth it! components and plastic standoffs to mount the pc board.

Figure 5: Plastic project cases may come with metal or plas:ic front co+ers.

54 / ELECTRONICS HANDBOOK
 Plastic Cabinets For a dollar bill you can purchase a satin finish
The plastic cabinets are usually cheap, easy to work aluminum front panel that gives your project the
with and frequently electronic suppliers nave them for professional touch (Figure 6). This panel is easy to
sale. Plastic cases and boxes come in sizes from 21/4 drill and parts mount solidly on the front panel. When
inches up to 8 inches in length. Some of the plastic the switch or control clicks on you know it's solid, and
enclosures have metal aluminum covers, while others the parts will stay in place. Nothing dresses up the
cabinet more than a satin aluminum finished panel.
Metal Cabinets
Although metal cabinets or enclosures may be
more difficult to work with, and may take a little longer
to put together, they give a professional finished
appearance. Metal cabinets come in pressed, cast
and bent metal units (Figure 7). The metal enclosure
may have plastic sides and metal front and back
panels. Of course, the metal cabinet also costs more
than any other cabinet.

Figure 6: With this ABS plastic cabinet, a metal satin -aluminum

front panel was purchased extra for one dollar.

have screw mounted plastic covers (Figure 5). You

will find some plastic boxes with internal slots for
mounting a pc board.
The typical cabinet is low in price, can be drilled or
large holes can be cut to make a quick project. Select
the plastic high -style pro case for projects like RF or
infrared transistors, garage door transmitters or any
RF project. Some of these deluxe plastic enclosures
Figure 8: You can order out manufactured test instrument
are made of polycarbonate material which is impact enclosures, just like the commercial test instruments from
resistant and can be dropped without breaking. Global Specialties and Elenco Electronics.
The deluxe plastic case may come in two sections
where the top half lifts off and is bolted to the bottom The first metal cabinets had a black crinkled finish.
section. Some are made for special test instrument Some still do. It may appear with a slanted front,
enclosures. They are flame retardant and come in a recessed front panel, desk top console and/or a
variety of different colors. The ABS instrument perforated cabinet. We recommend a metal cabinet
enclosures have front and rear matching panels. for your favorite test instrument. Not only do they
Integral pc board mounting standoffs and two sets of have a professional appearance, they stand up longer
vertical mounting slots for front and rear subpanel pc and are quite durable.
boards are provided.

Figure 7: This large metal grey painted cabinet comes with Figure 9: You can pick up surplus cabinets from $1 to $5.00.
plastic ends and feet. Some have colored plastic cabinets with a few control holes
stamped in them.

VOLUME XI 55
 Figure 10: Dress up the front panel with decals or rub -on letters and lines. Prepare the front panel, drill, mark and spray on
clear art spray to prevent scratches.
Surplus Cabinets
Test Instrument Cabinets Brand new cabinets with a few blemishes may be
purchased in the surplus electronic parts market. You
Commercial test instrument cabinets may be can pick up project boxes or factory enclosures for
purchased from some test equipment manufacturers. only a few dollars (a fraction of their original value). Of
Many of these cabinets are exact units that the course, many of these cabinets were designed for
manufacturer uses for their test instruments. Some manufactured test instruments and electronic
cabinets have plastic cases with satin aluminum front projects. Some cabinets have smoked gray dizels,
panels, while others have a solid aluminum brush that will show up LED's or pilot lights, when mounted
anodized finish, front and back panels included. behind the front panel (Figure 9). A lot of the cabinets
Small grey plastic impact probe cases are available. have control mounting holes. You can usually
Both Global Specialties and Elenco Electronics have purchase these surplus cabinets from $1.00 to $5.00
project cabinets at fairly reasonable prices (Figure 8). each.

1
0
-r ` 9
0
Figure 11: Lay out the switch and control decals with rub-on
lines found at electronic part stores. These are the same lines Letter and number the front panel with rub -on letters
and numbers found in pc board layout kits. Make a few different and numbers, that come in black or white to show up nicely on
ones and copy what you want or need on a photocopy machine. dark or black cabinets.

56 / ELECTRONICS HANDBOOK
 Layout The Front Panel
Before drilling the new cabinet, lay out the front
panel on a piece of white typing paper. Make a rough
sketch where each control or component will stick
through the front panel. Center and balance up each
hole with a ruler. Mark cross ("X") where each hole
will go.. Scotch tape the layout sheet over the front
panel. This will help prevent scratching and marring
the satin aluminum and plastic finish. No matter how
careful you are in drilling the cabinet, scratches often
appear.

-;ENOUGH ROOM IN
THIS CASE FOR `+r;
Drilling The Cabinet A 9V BATTERY

Start with a 1/8 inch drill when starting holes in the

Figure 12: Place rubber grommets in metal or plastic holes for
front cabinet. Then enlarge the hole with a larger drill power cords. Prevent shorts and shocks with grommets.
bit. Sometimes when starting with a large drill bit it
may leave a ragged hole or pull the cabinet out of your
hands. The cabinet or front panel may run up the drill
bit and whirl around dangerously, if not held securely
while drilling. Conclusion
A drill press is ideal for all cabinets and front piece
drilling. Use a block of wood covered with a cloth to Here are some constructive hints that may make
drill those slick finished front panels. After drilling a project building a lot easier and a lot more fun. When
couple of holes, tap the panel to dislodge small metal choosing the right cabinet, make sure you have plenty
pieces that may mar the front panel. Of course, a hand of room to mount those parts. Dress up your project
drill will do a nice job but hold the cabinet or front with a nice cabinet or enclosure. Start all holes with a
panel securely when drilling. Plastic and metal small drill bit. Prepare the front panel with a sheet of
enclosures have a tendency to spin up the drill bit typing paper scotch -taped to the front panel. Use
when it completes the penetration. extreme care when drilling or mounting parts on the
front panel to prevent nicks and scratch marks.
Dress up that front panel with rub -on letters and
Dress Up The Front Panel numbers. Finish the front panel "dress-up" after
drilling all holes and before mounting parts. Spray
Make that front panel look like a commercially several coats of clear finish on the front panel for
manufactured unit by dressing up the front panel. protection. Place rubber grommets in holes where
Letter all components with rub -on transfer lettering. power cords come through metal or plastic (Figure
You can purchase small, medium and large letters, 12). Play it safe and shock proof. Mount plastic or
with numbers, for any front panel. Pick them up at rubber feet on the finished project. Above all, make
electronic wholesale parts houses, stationery, hobby your project shine and look professional-it's worth
and art stores. They come in plastic sheets. Prepare it.
the front panel before mounting any parts.
Make those dial decals out of direct etching dry
transfer lines and numbers. Black solid transfer lines LIST OF ELECTRONIC PARTS SUPPLIERS
can be placed directly upon the aluminum or plastic WITH CABINETS AND ENCLOSURES
front panel. Variable control decals can be made up All Electronics Corp. Global Specialties
P.O. Box 567 P.O. Box 1405
directly on the metal surface. Use a razor blade to trim Van Nuys, CA 90408 New Haven, CT 06505
the ends squarely. Rub on numbers can be placed on
Circuit Specialists, Inc. Hosfelt Electronics, Inc.
the control decal (Figure 10). These control decals P.O. Box 3047 2700 Sunset Blvd.
can be placed on a white piece of typing paper and Scottsdale, AZ 85271-3047 Steubenville, OH 43952
copied with a photocopy machine. Likewise, decals D. C. Electronics Mouser Electronics
found in various electronic magazines can be copied P.O. Box 3203 P.O. Box 699
and glued on the front panel. Scottsdale, AZ 85271-3203 Mansfield, TX 76063
Keep all numbers and letters as square as possible. Digi-Key Corp. Elenco Electronics, Inc.
Keep lettering in line by lightly drawing a horizontal 701 Brooks Ave. 150 W. Carpenter Ave.
pencil line or a layer of scotch tape. Seat the "rub on" P.O. Box 677 Wheeling, IL 60090
Thief River Falls, MN 56701-0677
numbers and letters up to the line or tape edge to keep
Radio Shack Stores
them level. After the front panel is completed, spray (locally)
on 3 or 4 coats of clear art coat finish. This prevents
damage to the lettering and protects the front panel
(Figure 11). Now, mount those front controls and
meters.

VOLUME XI 57
 SURROUND SOUND DECODER KIT

Watch your favorite movie the way it was meant to be seen. Experience
the sounds of Navy fighter planes and the thunderous roar of the crowd.
By building your very own "Surround Sound Decoder" (with noise
reduction & rear speaker amplifier) you can experience the sense of
being there.
This easy -to -assemble kit contains all the parts (less AC Transformer &
Housing) printed circuit board and step-by-step instructions to build this
exciting electronic project.
The "Surround Sound Decoder" is the perfect classroom construction
project that will provide years of enjoyable television viewing.

$39.95
Plus $1.50 S/H

SUNCOAST TECHNOLOGIES
P.O. BOX #5835
SPRING HILL, FL 34606

The 80-Tune Computer is a project which is not BO TIME COUPUTZR SONO UST
only easy to build but also fun to use. Its uses are 0 AMERICA í71N HEAVEN IS NO BEER 13 RUCKLE DOWN WINSOCKI
ANCHORS AWEIGH CHARGE
many and are limited only by the imagination of 1

2 BATTLE HYMN REPUBLIC

21 JIMMY CRACK CORN
21 JINGLE BELLS
SE
SS DEAR OLD NEBRASKA U.
CAISSONS GO ROLLING 1$ THE EYES OF TEXAS
the builder. This is an excellent beginner's project 3
4 CALL TO COLORS
30 KING OF ROAD
21 LA CUCARACHA t7 ABOVE CAYUGA'S WATERS
S CAVALRY CHARGE FIGHT ON USC
because of its simplicity. A masked microprocessor S DIXIE
32 LONE RANGER
33 MODEL T
S1
St GO, NORTHWESTERN
7 HAIL BRITTANIA SO HAIL PURDUE
(special Integrated Circuit, or IC) does all the work. S YANKEE DOODLE DANDY
34 THE OLD GREY MARE
3$ rOPEYE t/ HEY LOOK ME OVER
42 HOLD THAT TIGER
Any of the 80 songs can be selected by the S LA MARSEILLAISE
10 MARINE HYMN
34 RAINDROPS
37 SAILORS HORNPIPE 63 ILLINOIS LOYALTY
II REVEILLE M INDIANA, OUR INDINA
telephone -style keypad. A push of the Play button 11 S STRIPES
31 SAN ANTONIO ROSE
31 SEE THE USA N FM A JAYHAWK
13 TAPS 40 OUT TO THE BALLGAU! U IOWA FIGHT SONG
makes the selection. The Stop button resets the 11 WILD BLUE YONDER 41 TUUANA TAXI 67 LOVE YA BLUE
IS ALOUETTE U MICHIGAN STATE 110117
microprocessor. The selected tune will start each time IS AIILVLULIICIII 11OMA
42 TWO BITS
43 WABASH CANNONBALL St MINNESOTA MOUSER
17 CAUTOWN RACES 00 70 NITTANY LION
the Play button is pushed as long as power is on and no I1 CANOE SIAN
I1 CHATTANOOGA C11OO-CI40O
44 SAINTS MARCHING
41 WOODY WOOPECKEN 71 NOTRE DAME FIRNT
7I OLE MIM
44 YELLOW ROBE OF
Reset (or Stop) occurs. 70 CLEMENIINE
21 U LIEUE
47 ACROSS THE FIELO 75 ON, IRATE ARMY TEAM
71 ON WISCONSIN
S1 AOOIE WAR HYMN
22 EL PASO 41 ARKANSAS FIGHT SONO 71 WRECK FROM GA. TECH
73 THE ENTERTAINER 10 RE SAAR 76 ROLL ON TULANE
Complete plans to build the "80 -Tune 74 JOIST (100111 ET.LUW
33 FUNERAL MARCH
II SWAMI SUUNEII J7 111E MI olio
71 WASHINGTON/LEE SWING
Computer" $2.95 20 NAVA NAOIL All
62 BOW DOWN WASHINGTON
71 YEA ALABAMA

U1 Custom Microprocessor $9.00 O Payment enclosed. to: C&E Hobby Handbooks

PCB Printed Circuit Board $4.95 PLEASE PRINT v11
Add $2.00 for postage & handling NAME.
ADDRESS
For each combination of the above items, CITY
send check or money order (U.S. funds) to: STATE: ZIP
C&E Hobby Handbooks, Inc.
P.O. Box #5148, North Branch, N.J. 08876 Foreign Postage add $8.00...Ú.S. Funds

58/ ELECTRONICS HANDBOOK

 IC TESTBENCH

We have said before but it bears repeating. the

beginning project builder, it would be wise toFor polish
your skills on some of the simpler projects in this issue
before you tackle the projects in this section.
For those of you who feel ready to try some of the
following projects, we offer some suggestions and
precautions. Unless you are using a commercially
made breadboard, it would be wise to invest in some
sockets, whose holes will accommodate the IC pin
spacings for the particular ICs which you are planning
to use. Through the use of sockets, solder connections
can be made without the danger of damage to the IC
and voltage and input signal tests can be performed
without the IC being exposed to their hazards.
When debugging a circuit, or testing for signals
voltages, prior to firing up your project for the and/or
time, it is important that you remember to NEVER first apply
an input signal to an IC unless the circuit is powered
up. Damage will almost certainly occur. Also, in those
projects which require a separate input signal, such as
a clock source, which is not an integrated part of the
circuit you're building, it's a good idea to use a power
switch which is capable of controlling the supply to
both circuits. This will minimize the possibility of
applying a signal to a non -powered chip, both in
turning the circuit on and turning it off. If you
don't use
this method, remember to remove the input signal
before turning off the power to the IC circuit...Have fun,
and use caution!

VOLUME XI 59
 MINI -MICRO METRONOME
PARTS LIST FOR MINI -MICRO METRONOME
C1--2 to 5-uF low -leakage mylar or tantalum
Transforming IC pulses into sound, this tiny ticker capacitor, 15 VDC
goes both tick and tock at a rate of about 2 seconds C2-2.2 to 10-uF electrolytic capacitor, 15 VDC
per tic to 6 tocks per second. The timing capacitor, D1, D2, D3 -1N4148 diodes
Cl, should be a low leakage mylar type of about 2-uF IC1-4011A quad NAND gate
or else a quality tantalum of about 4.7-uF. Although 01-2N4401 transistor
the reversed flow of current through the transformer's 02-2N4403 transistor
primary winding causes a different sound in the R1 -47,000-ohm, '/-watt resistor
speaker from the positive-going inrush, diode D3 and R2, R3 -500,000 -ohm linear-taper potentiometers
potentiometer R5 can be added to make the "tock" R4, R6- 10 -ohm, 1/2-watt resistors
R5 -1,000 -ohm linear -taper potentiometer
more definitive in its sound quality.
T1-audio output transformer 1000-ohm center -
tapped primary/8-ohm secondary (Radio Shack #273-
1380 or equivalent)

R5
TI
CI

R2 R3 D3 SPKR
DI D2

TAKING THE COUNT 777777

digits one -by -one. The display makes a good

The type 4026 and its companion 4033 CMOS teaching aid for the pre-school set, letting them "learn
counter -decoders are so versatile and useful, that the their numbers" by pushing the switch five times for
IC experimenter should make their acquaintance "5," etc.
without delay. What they do is to count incoming
pulses (positive -going) and directly drive those PARTS LIST FOR TAKING THE COUNT
seven -segment LED (or other) digital indicators. The
4026 and the DL -750 display provide a particularly IC1-4001 AE quad NAND gate
happy pair as no interfacing drivers or current- IC2-4026 decade counter
limiting resistors are needed for voltages in the 5 to 8 LED- DL -750 7 -segment common cathode display or
volt supply range. equivalent
For an introduction to this most useful IC, connect 01 through 07-2N4401 transistors
R1 through R10 -1,000 -ohm, 1/2 -watt resistors
as shown below. Reset the display to "O". Using a
S1-SPOT slide switch
bounceless push-button switch, step through the S2-SPST momentary -contact push-button switch

60/ ELECTRONICS HANDBOOK

 TAKING THE COUNT
PULSE

C
C
2

3
RI

13D-
12..
5-8v
---C
--C2
-C
6
3
15MS2
I4
a
RESET
-ri
_
R3

01-07
5 T0 8V

R4
1 TO
LED
PIN

C4 ICI Ila C 4 IC213 2

C 5 IOC C S 12 ,}1
--E 6
C6
C 7 8
9D..
3- -C
--C
7
8
10
9
-
II D_.,03

D..

8/ /12
LEDI OL -750
GROUND PINS 3,5,9,14

NINE VOLT NEON LAMP

PARTS LIST FOR NINE VOLT NEON LAMP
C1-0.01 to 0.1-uF ceramic capacitor, 15 VDC
High voltage, sufficient, at any rate, to power a type C2-10-uF electrolytic capacitor, 25 VDC
NE-2 neon bulb, can be obtained via an interstage C3-0.47-uF ceramic capacitor, 400 VDC
transformer with the high -turns side feeding the lamp. D1 -1N4002 diode
(The transformer used here is one with windings of 75 IC1-4011A quad NAND gate
ohms and 1000 ohms impedance.) One kHz or higher Q1 -2N4401 NPN transistor
frequencies from the pulse generator are stepped up 02-2N4403 PNP transistor
and rectified as shown. (Possibly other transformer NE-NE-2 neon lamp
R1 -500 -ohm, 1 -watt resistor
combinations could be obtained to fire the lamp
R2 -10,000 -ohm linear-taper potentiometer
directly.) R3, R4- 10-ohm, 1/2 -watt resistors
R5-10,000 to 22,000 -ohm, 2 -watt resistor
T1-audio output transformer 1,000 -ohm primary/75
ohm secondary

8
+9VDC
16
IC lc
5
4
I

3 9
-ICIa ICIb
12
2 6
IC Id
RI CI = 13 DI R5

R2 NEC

C3'T`

VOLUME XI 61
 DO IT YOURSELF LOGIC 7771
Sometimes the integrated circuits taken for granted obtained. If it is about doubled, then the circuit will
are not always available, and one must fall back on function, but will hold one output high (or low) when
more basic components. We do not go quite as far as the clock signal drops out.
discrete transistors here, but show how a frequency
divider flip-flop can be improvised from simple gates. PARTS LIST FOR DO-IT-YOURSELF LOGIC
The following divide -by -two circuit was used for
dividing a 60 Hz square wave, but should work well at Cl, C2-0.01 to 0.1-uF ceramic capacitors, 15 VDC
other frequencies A 7400 or 74LS00 quad NAND gate IC1-7400 quad NAND gate
was selected, with the two extra gates employed as R1, R2-50,000 to 100,000-ohm, 1 -watt resistors (see
buffers to keep the input toggle clock from appearing text)
when the flip-flop was biased off. If the cut-off resistor R3-50,000 to 200,000 -ohm, 1/2 -watt resistor (see text)
R3 is the same value as R1 and R2, a lock-out will be
S1-SPDT toggle switch

RI
OUTPUT INDICATES
POSITIVE PULSE
LOGIC = "L"
12
O
CI

OPTIONAL 0 13
14

l
I.Sv f
SI I
INPUT

iLfln
+5V

SEE TEXT 9
0
C2 8
IO
7

OUTPUT INDICATES
R2 NEGATIVE PULSE
LOGIC = "0"

SIMPLE TRIAC TESTER 77'M

A triac, often used in lamp dimmers, interfaces,
and AC control circuits, can't be checked directly PARTS LIST FOR SIMPLE TRIAC TESTER
with an ohmeter like a diode. An ohmeter would
show a good triac as open or very high resistance
-110 Vac neon lamp
Rv1-2M Ohm control pot
between terminals MT1 and MT2; open or high PB1-normally open momentary pushbutton
resistance from the gate to MT2, and as two diodes
in "reverse parallel" from the gate to MT1.
Therefore, those measurements would not show
accurately whether a triac was open, shorted, or
conducting properly. NEON LAMP
In this simple circuit, closing PB1 applies gate
current, set by Rv1. With Rv1 at minimum
resistance, the triac should be fully on and the MT2
neon lamp lit brightly. With Rv1 set to maximum, RVI
the lamp will be very dim. 110 VAC MTI
If the triac is open, the lamp will never come on TRIAC
PBI
and if it is shorted, the lamp will be fully lit even with UNDER
PB1 open. TEST
A standard incandescent bulb can be substituted
for the neon lamp as long as its wattage doesn't
exceed the power rating of the triac.

62 / ELECTRONICS HANDBOOK
 PULSE DELAY CIRCUIT
goes high again. Op -amp A3 squares off and inverts
This circuit is useful for clock and digital the widened pulse. The output of A3 is inverted, and is
r77
applications. It can be used to delay a clock pulse by then delayed compared to the input signal.
as much as one pulse width (or any part of one pulse). Transistor Q1 inverts the output of A3, buffers it,
The output pulse can be no longer in duration than and adjusts its level to (almost) the level of the power
the spacing between input pulses. supply. Note that the input signal can be any voltage
The length of the delay and the pulse width are which is less than the supply voltage. Thus this circuit
varied by changing the R1/C1 time constant. Op can also function as a level shifter.
amplifier Al, half of a 1458 dual op amp, inverts the
input pulse and charges up capacitor Cl. Time
constant R1/C1 sets the Delay time. The slower PARTS LIST FOR PULSE DELAY CIRCUIT
capacitor Cl discharges, the longer the delay time
will be, but it must discharge fully before the input Al, A2-1458 Duel Op -amp
pulse goes low. A3-741 Op -amp
Op amp A2 inverts the signal again, forming a D1, D2-1 N914 Diodes
narrow pulse whose width depends on time constant 01-2N3906 PNP Transistor
R1/C1. The output of A2 charges C2 to widen the Cl, C2-0.1 of Capacitors
R1, R2-variable, try R1 = 27K, R2 = 22K Ohms
pulse. C2 must discharge fully before the input pulse
R3, R4 -1KOhm
+V (5-12V DC)
+V +V
o

PULSE > 2 8
INPUT
A
2
j D2
I
R2
7
QI
We R3
6
CI 3
TC2 4
-0- DELAY
PULSE
OUTPUT
R4

IN -CIRCUIT RESISTANCE VERIFIER

Simple low dc voltage audible testers are
commonly used for checking the continuity of wiring,
giving an audible indication of continuity. There are
applications, however, where both low resistance 0+9V
paths (e.g. PCB tracks, transformer windings, etc) R1
and high resistance paths (greater than a few kilo 5 kohm
ohms) have to be verified. The circuit shown allows
such paths to be checked using the well known 555 8
timer IC. Varying resistances applied across the test Test probes
probes cause a resultant change in output frequency .M 6 555
from the speaker. 3kohm ICI
R2 2 55

PARTS LIST FOR IN -CIRCUIT RESISTANCE 1.. 0.01uF

VERIFIER
IC1-555 Timer (any type)
0
T C2
SPKR

R1 -5K ohms Í 0 oV
R2 -3K ohms
C1-0.1uF
C2-0.01 uF
SPKR-Miniature replacement speaker (any Type)

VOLUME XI 63
HOME/AUTO BURGLAR ALARM 777
This alarm circuit uses four common digital IC's to chassis is the common, and only one wire need be run
monitor up to nine switch inputs. Aswitch closure will to each switch. Using the CMOS equivalents of the
actuate the siren and indicate the input number on the IC's will allow you to use the car's 12 VDC instead of 5
display. Inputs could be "limit switches" and/or volts, although some "pin -outs" will be different. The
"photoswitches" for windows and doors, or, for car siren and relay will operate with a 12 volt supply, and
use, "pin" switches for the doors and trunk and a the LED display can be omitted or the pull-up resistor
mercury switch for motion detection. This circuit was R1 increased. The circuit as shown requires 5 volts at
originally designed to monitor liquid high level using 500 mA.
float switches, so the alarm will turn off when the input
is reset. Add a latch circuit to the inputs or the siren
relay to keep the alarm on. PARTS LIST FOR HOME/AUTO BURGLAR
IC1 is a 10 -to -4 encoder, producing a BCD output ALARM
for each input. The inputs, are "active low", so the
alarm is actuated by the closing of switches IC1-74147 Decimal -to-BCD encoder, CMOS =40147
IC2-7406 Hex Inverter/Buffer, CMOS-4049
connected to the power supply common (-). IC2 IC3-7447 BCD -to-7 -segment decoder/driver,
inverts 101's output to drive IC3 and IC4. IC3 is a CMOS-4055
BCD -to -7 segment decoder/driver for the display, IC4-7425 Dual Quad input NOR gate, CMOS-4002
and IC4 is a 4 input NOR gate. The LED display DIS1-ECG-3080 1" LED display, 7 segment common
indicates which input is active, with R1 setting the anode
brightness. IC4's output is low if any of it's inputs are CR1-Magnecraft W171 -DIP -9 DIP package relay
high, energizing relay CR1 through IC2 and turning R1-47 Ohm, 1/2 W resistor
on the siren. R2-100 Ohm, 1/4 W resistor
This circuit is ideal for automotive use, since the car Siren-Mura SC -58 8 Ohm, 6-12 VDC

4-5 V
+5 V +5 V

R1
INPUTS
16 16
1 11 13 2
2 12 12 15
3 13 13
11
4 1
11
5 2 IC1 IC3 10
6 3 9 5
7 4 15 3
8 5 14 14
9 10 14
8 8

IC2 DIS1

-E 5 V -1. 5 V

+5 V 14ná
R2
2 11
4
iJ
IC4

III SIREN IC2

CR1
CR1

64 / ELECTRONICS HANDBOOK
 SQUARE WAVE CONDITIONER M777
Here is a circuit that is very simple to build but very cycle was not exactly 50%. However, the Bugbook
effective and precise in its operation. The 1 Hz Square Reference Series, by Howard Berlin, had exactly what I

Wave Generator will fill the bill for every hobbyist or needed. I, therefore, combined the two circuits
professional who needs a precision 1 Hz signal source. and...Voilla!!! A beautiful 1Hz generator with a perfect
Here is a circuit that is very simple to build but very 50-50 duty cycle. Needless to say, my counter -clock
effective and precise in its operation. The 1 Hz Square works beautifully. have timed it over an 8 -hour period
I

Wave Generator fill the bill for every hobbyist or with a commercially sold Digital Clock and it kept time
professional who needs a precision 1 Hz signal source. to the second. The uses for this circuit are far-reaching
This circuit is compatible with TTL and CMOS. It is a and almost endless. It is actually the same effect as a
square wave with a precise 50-50 duty cycle, whose "Schmitt -Trigger".
accuracy is tied to the 110 VAC 60Hz household Here is how it works: In the "Square Wave
electrical system, close enough indeed to supply Conditioner" section, the 555 is set up as "Schmitt
pulses for a clock. The beautiful part about it is that the Trigger". The two internal comparator inputs (pins #2
555 timer section is not operating as a divide by two but and #6) are tied together and externally biased at '/2
as a voltage divider, whose positive and negative cycle Vcc, through R1 and R2. Since the upper comparator at
is very precise. The 60Hz output at pin #3 is fed to the pin #6 will trip at 2/3 Vcc and the lower comparator will
7490, which is set up as a divide by 10. This output, now trip at 1/3 Vcc. the bias provided by R1 and R2 is
6Hz at pin #12, is fed to a 7492 set-up in the divide by 6 centered within these two thresholds.
mode. The output of this stage is a perfect 1Hz square A sine-wave input of sufficient amplitude to exceed
wave, suitable for any TTL of CMOS circuit needing a the reference levels causes the internal flip-flop to
1Hz signal. alternately set and reset, producing a square wave
This circuit is not entirely original. The author output. As long as R1 equals R2, the 555 will
originally built a programmable up -down counter and automatically be biased for any supply voltage in the 5
clock, using the 74190, 7447 and 555. It was almost to 15 volt range. A scope readout reveals that the
impossible to use a 555 time base that was not square wave is out of phase with the 60Hz sine wave.
susceptible to ambient temperature changes. needed However, by 180 degrees, which presents no problem
I

a precise 1Hz square wave. Having a copy of Don at all.

Lancaster's TTL Cookbook, I found a circuit for a Hopefully, this "project" will help some hobbyists,
"single-ended power -line conditioner" but the duty especially beginners, along the road of "Digital
Electronics".
E 1
SQUARE WAVE CONDITIONER RI
SECTION 50% O +5VDC
DUTY CYCLE 418

I
6 3
CI 60HZ
TI
)Ì
2 UI 5
1 -L
U6.3 VAC 2 14
i
I 3
ll
1 R2 II
;C2 1
6
7 U2
IO +10 DIVIDE BY 10
SECTION

5
J

-
L
12
0 6 HZ

I -- ---- - -
PARTS LIST FOR SQUARE WAVE
6 5 CONDITIONER
1HZ SQUARE WAVE GENERATOR
DIVIDE BY U3
T1-120VAC/6.3 VAC 300 mA
6SECTION 1 IO =6
C1-.01 mF MYLAR 16V
I HZ o
8 C2-.01 mF MYLAR 16V
R1 -100K W 5% 1/4

_FL R2 -100K W 5% 1/4

U1-NE555 TIMER
L U2 -SN7490 DECADE COUNTER
U3-SN7492 BASE 12 COUNTER
(All parts available from Radio Shack)

VOLUME XI 65
 Tits.sÿ

DYNAMIC SPEAKERS
Put these old-time speakers back in action

0 ne of the most important parts of any radio is

the loudspeaker, and old-time radios had
speakers which were quite different from the
speakers of today. (Editor's Note: although a
loudspeaker really consists of two main parts, the
Early Speakers
First of all, there are two basic types of speakers
found in radios made between 1920 and 1950. The
first radios only used headphones, sometimes called
speaker driver and the speaker enclosure, when we earphones. Headphones limited the number of
talk about a loudspeaker we are usually referring just persons that could listen to a radio at one time. They
were reasonably sensitive, worked with crystal radio
to the driver.)
Modern speakers have just two connections, which sets, or with 1 -tube battery -operated radios. The
go to the voice coil. The magnetic field that the voice basic design of an earphone consisted of two coils of
fine wire, with laminated cores inside the coils,
coil is suspended in is created by a strong permanent
magnet. But speakers of yesteryear didn't have surrounded by a horse-shoe-shapped magnet.
permanent magnets-magnetic materials at that time Suspended a few thousandths of an inch above the
hand't been developed to the high degree that they coils was a very thin, soft iron diaphgram that vibrated
in unison with the received audio frequencies. The
are today-so the magnetic field for the voice coil had
to be created by an electro -magnet; a coil of wire with diaphgram produced sound waves.
a strong direct current going through it. For that
Quite soon, someone mounted the earphone on a
reason early speakers had four (sometimes five)
horn and the sound was then loud enough for the
whole family to enjoy. Soon manufacturers were
connections. Two (or three) of these connections
went to the field coil. making larger headphone units to be mounted on
This article describes the old -type speakers and larger horns. Distortion was a problem with the
how to repair or replace them. To learn about field - limited power handing ability. The next step was to
coil loudspeakers, which is what radio had between build a cone type speaker, and the center-pin driven
the late Twenties and the early Forties, read on. reproducer. The above types all fall into the category
of Magnetic Speakers. Meanwhile out in California,
How to Do It Magnavox began to build a horn -type dynamic loud
Since electro -dynamic speakers are no longer speaker. This speaker produced more power and
made there are two basic ways to get that old radio to better tone. Since the battery sets of that time used a
play again. 6 -volt storage battery for the tube filaments, the
1. Have the original speaker repaired, i.e., replace speaker field also operated on 6 -volts. The biggest
the cone or have a new field coil installed. drawback to the dynamic horn speaker was its size.
2. Replace the old speaker with a new modern The consumer was asking for radio that was self-
permanent magnet type. contained with speaker and set all hidden inside a
To enable you to make an intelligent choice, will I
wooden cabinet. The dynamic cone speaker was
present a detailed account on how to replace the introduced about the same time that AC operated
original speaker. Having the original rebuilt means radios became popular.
sending it off to a mail order repair shop. But first, let's Dynamic Speakers
review the loudspeaker story, and refresh your
memory on the different types of speakers usually Dynamic Speakers had a paper cone with a voice
found with antique radios. coil cemented to its center. The voice coil was a

66/ ELECTRONICS HANDBOOK

cylinder of paper from 1 to 2 -inches in diameter, will also remember that they were never too good in
depending on the power handling design of the winter.
speaker. One or more layers of insulated magnet wire When the PM (permanent magnet) speaker was
was wound on the voice coil and ultimately introduced, auto radio manufacturers were the first to
connected through an impedance matching trans- use them. Later they were used in portables and
former to the audio output stage of the radio receiver. house radios. Alnico V was the magnet used most
Centered inside the voice coil was a soft iron pole successfully in speakers. Generally speaking, a larger
piece which in turn was surrounded by a field coil magnet will permit the speaker to handle more power.
wound with thousands of turns (except in car radio Thus a small 4 -inch speaker may have a half -ounce
speakers) which when connected into the radio high - magnet while a 15 -inch speaker may have a 2 -to 3 -
voltage circuit produced a magnetic force in the pole pound magnet. Replacing a PM speaker is no
piece. This speaker was called an electro -dynamic problem since replacements are readily available at
speaker. The illustration shows this kind of speaker, all radio parts stores.
plus a typical circuit diagram using an electro- Replacing an EM or field coil speaker is a much
magnetic (EM) speaker. It took a lot of electrical bigger problem. To start with, the field coil had a
power to magnetize the pole piece, so when more certain amount of inductance and therefore it acted
efficient permanent magnets were developed as a filter choke in the "B" power supply circuit. The
manufacturers began to make PM dynamic speakers. resistance of the field coil was also the resistance that
The EM dynamic speakers used in auto radios, at determined the "B" supply voltage supplied to the
this time, had only 4 or 6 -ohms resistance, and it took tubes in the radio. So when replacing an EM speaker
1 to 1.5 amperes to excite the field. If you
remember with a PM we have a couple of important factors to
the automobiles that had 6 -volt ignition systems you consider. The first factor is physical size. Whenever

7B6 6AD7 G
DET.-AMP INV.PWR. AMP. SPKR
cn.l_

C// 1000
SUBSTITUTION
TO DETERMINE TO
UNKNOWN FIELD 1500
COIL IMPEDANCE OHMS
6F6G
PWR. AMP.
.ra

/1 A
-11 C/f
X

SPEAKER FIELD
800 OHMS (HOT)
re IN THE CIRCUIT

T c,J
p[1'9,
cis
Y TO THE LEFT,
L+R SHOULD
HAVE A DC
H
O RESISTANCE
OF 800 OHMS
Power Output 8.4 Watts
Tuning Range
5Y4G 540 Kc. to 1620 Kc.
RECT. 5400 Kc.- 18300 Kc.

To
Phono
Motor

When you want to substitute a modern speaker for an old one that had a speaker field coil,
you need to replace the lost impedance in the circuit. Unlike this schematic of a Zenith
Model 75681/2 many old-time schematics don't always include the value of the coil.
Determine this with the top circuit and replace it with the bottom one.

VOLUME XI 67
possible, always use the largest PM speaker that will resistance. If this isn't done all the "B" voltages will be
fit the allotted space. The larger speaker will too high. Higher than original "B" voltages can lead to
reproduce bass notes more efficiently than a small blown out capacitors, overloaded resistors, and tubes
speaker. If you use a smaller -than -original size being operated beyond their ratings. For example, if
speaker, you will have to make an adapter board with the speaker field measures 750 -ohms and your choke
the proper size hole for your new speaker and make it coil measures 150-ohms, you will need a 500 -ohm
large enough to cover the old hole. Without going into resistor in series with the choke coil. Use a 25 -watt,
acoustic theory, would advise you to never leave an 500 -ohm wire-wound power resistor. If the resistance
I

opening around the speaker cone. To produce the value had turned out to be a non-standard value you
same amplitude and frequency tone range as the could have used an adjustable, wire -wound resistor.
radio did when new, you should try to return the set to If, after you replace the EM speaker in the manner
its original baffle condition. we just described, the hum level is higher than
normal, then you will have to put additional filtering in
INPUT FROM., 3II1 the power supply. Try a 20 uF., 450 -volt DC capacitor
AMPLIFIER iti connected between the junction point of the choke
coil and resistor, and "B-." There will be special
cases in which the speaker field will have a tapped
winding. Use what you have learned and use two
FIELD COIL resistors if necessary. Remember to connect one of
the choke leads to the same point the field coil
CONE
connected to i.e., the rectifier filament or cathode.
(I111111111111111/l4ll`ÍlI
Figuring the Value
There will be some cases where the speaker field
117 coil is burned out and no value is listed on the
VAC schematic drawing or you have no schematic. In this
VOICE COIL case, use a power rheostat of 1000 to 1500 -ohms at
100 watts and connect it in place of the field coil.
EXITATION
NEUTRALIZING Adjust the rheostat until the voltage readings on the
TRANSFORMER audio output tube plates are normal, and then
COIL
connect a choke -resistor combination in the circuit. If
This schematic representation of a dynamic you don't have a schematic that shows the proper
loudspeaker shows how the parts relate to each tube voltages use the data in a tube manual.
other. The field coil energizes the core (now
permanent magnets are used) so that it is a steady
field magnet. The fluctuating magnetic field on the
voice coil moves the cone over the core.
The Choke Coil
The second factor is to introduce some inductance
into the power supply circuit in place of that lost by
removing the speaker field winding. If you are
replacing the speaker in a console radio, you may
have room to leave the field coil connected and place
the coil in an out of the way spot. Mount the new
speaker in the proper place and use the old output
transformer with the new speaker. If there isn't room,
as in a table model radio, then you can use a small
inductor and resistor to get the correct impedance.
The rectifier tube changes the 60 cycle AC voltage
into 120 cycle pulsating DC. The filter capacitors and
inductance (speaker field or choke coil) work
together to smooth out the pulsations so the net result
is hum -free DC. Since the inductance of a speaker
field coil varies according to the number of turns of
wire in the winding it is difficult to place a value on
every speaker field. have found that a 1.5 to 2 Henry
I

choke will usually suffice. If you salvage parts from

old TV sets, you may find a filter choke that will work
fine. The choke should be capable of carrying 150 to If you follow these suggestions, you should have no
200 milliamperes of current. problem replacing the Electro -dynamic speaker in
Since the choke will usually have less resistance your radio with a permanent magnet type.
than the field did, you must add resistance in series
with the choke coil. The total resistance of the choke
and resistor in series must equal the speaker field
68/ ELECTRONICS HANDBOOK
 MAKING PCB's
THE EASY WAY
By Mike Giamportone
Here is a fast and relatively easy way to accomplish one of the
more difficult parts of any electronic project construction. If
you are looking for a technique to give your project a unique
professional look... read on.
This article will explain exactly how you can make your own
PCB's and/or enclosure labels at a relatively low cost.
All that is required is a L2000 Laser/Copier Iron -on Resist
Sheet and follow the procedure explained here and your on
your way...

Do all your project enclosures look the same?

heat fuses it in place. This is done with toner, the mach-
Would you like each one of your project enclo-
ine's dry powder ink. When the L2000 sheet is reheated
sures to look unique, and express you creativ-
by ironing, it releases the toner that now bonds to the
ity? Maybe you're tired of those amateurish -looking
metal surface. In the case of a PCB, the ink becomes
label tapes that eventually peel off. More than likely,
resist.
you have seen a design that would dress up a project
nicely, but lacked an acceptable way to apply it. Resist is any acid -proof material used to protect parts
Do you find creating very populated printed circuit of the board, when submersed in the copper -eating
boards intimidating? How about ones with traces run- etchant. Once soaked in the etchant, all exposed cop-
ning between IC pads? Are you finding that rubbing a per is removed from the board. This leaves only the
pattern down to make a PCB, time consuming, costly, copper under the resist. After rinsing, the resist is then
or frustrating? removed to uncover the copper traces and pads, com-
Well, here may be the answer to your prayers, L2000
prising our printed circuit.
Laser/Copier Iron -On Resist Sheets. This new product Making your own iron -on resist patterns begins by
will give you the quickest and easiest way to make a washing your hands to remove body oils that will inter-
printed circuit board or label an enclosure. Using the fere with any resist and etchants. Handle the laser
latest in iron -on resist sheets, you too can craft elec- sheets and the board or enclosure to be labeled, by the
tronic projects like a professional. All that is required is edges only. If your sheet seems dirty or mishandled,
a L2000 sheet, household iron, and use of a laser
clean it with a little rubbing alcohol and dry with a clean
printer or plain paper copier. paper towel before use.
There are just a few simple steps to make PCBs or When using a computer to generate the printed cir-
great looking enclosures using L2000 sheets. Copy the
cuits or other artwork, you should print the artwork
desired pattern onto the special plastic sheet with ei- flipped, or as a mirror image. This will give you the
ther a laser printer or copy machine. Tape the copied proper pattern when ironed onto the new surface. Most
pattern to your board or enclosure, and iron in place. printed circuit making programs, like PCBoards*, do
Remove the sheet to find your pattern transferred to the this by printing the foil (lower) layer as it appears from
metal surface. For a PC board, it would be ready for the component (upper) side. This will be the mirror im-
etching, that quick! By making several patterns at a age needed when printed. If your PCB program does
time, you can select one whenever needed from your not print the reverse image of the foil pattern, build your
files. This will save even more time and effort espe- foil pattern on the component, or upper layer.
cially when building multiple circuits or enclosures.
If you are using a computer graphics program to
The process starts when the laser printer or copier
dress up an enclosure, (Like First Publisher, Print -
applies a copy of the selected artwork to the sheet, and
magic, Deluxe Paint, Printmaster, and many others),

VOLUME XI 69
you can flip or invert the artwork to get the mirror image table top, place it plastic side up, on an old magazine.
desired. Not all graphic or PCB programs will print the Cover it, with a sheet of paper towel. This assures max-
reverse view. In these cases, treat your art as you imum heat transfer from the iron to the metal surface.
would ready-made work. This is essential to properly remelt the toner.
In the cases when your artwork is not the mirror im- Preheat a household iron for several minutes at 290
age or ready-made artwork, follow these steps: Make a degrees F. or on cotton/linens. Once fully warm, place
paper copy of the pattern to check darkness and qual- it squarely on the assembly while under paper towel.
ity before using the L2000. Take your design or even if Allow the iron to heat the assembly for 20 seconds.
it is a hand drawing, and copy it to a laser sheet. Then Then move the iron around the entire surface with me-
put this copy in the top of a copy machine, ink -side up. dium pressure for about 30 seconds. Remove the iron,
Put a clean sheet of paper on top of the L2000 sheet to turn off and let cool. Never leave the hot iron
prevent a dirty copy machine lid from adding to your fi- unattended.
nal artwork. Copy this flipped image onto another sheet Allow the assembly to cool COMPLETELY before re-
of L2000. Making a second copy this way, gives you the moving the plastic. Peel the plastic from one corner
mirror image needed. This is what has to be done with slowly. You will find any minor toner deficiencies in the
a foil -side PC pattern normally supplied in plans or original artwork vanished when the toner remelts. If any
construction articles. of the ink did not transfer, or the pattern is not com-
Clean the intermediate sheet used to make the mir- pletely black, just draw in with a resist pen. Sanford
ror image with acetone (nail polish remover) or similar brand "Sharpie" permanent markers are the same as
solvent, dry, then wipe with rubbing alcohol. When resist markers. "Sharpies" are available at most de-
working with flammable liquids, wear rubber gloves, partment or office -supply stores and come in several
protective glasses, and do so only in a well ventilated tip sizes. They cost about half as much as other resist
area away from flames or sparks. If the laser sheet be- pens.
comes slightly cloudy after cleaning, it can be reused Scrape any unwanted resist off with a razor or knife.
and has no effect on its performance. If you made a circuit board, it is now ready for etching.
When using a copy machine, be sure it is a plain pa- This type of resist is very tough. But after etching, it can
per type using dry toner. This type of copier is com- be removed in the normal manner using scouring pow-
monly used by libraries, most offices, print and copy der and water, or solvent.
shops. If the machine can copy to a transparency or Enclosures require additional heating to bake the
overhead projector sheet, it will work just fine for mak- toner staunchly in place. Put the metal lid/enclosure in
ing L2000 Laser/Iron-On Resist patterns. a 350 degree preheated oven for 5 minutes. The art-
Load the L2000 sheets where single paper sheets work will be just about impossible to get off after this.
are fed. This is usually on top of the paper feed tray and To further protect the metal and artwork, spray a very
where single sheets of paper are placed to make two- light coat of quick -drying clear enamel on the metal
sided copies. In the few cases where there is no place while it is still warm. This not only protects and weath-
for single sheets, place the L2000 on top of the stack of erproofs the art, but gives a bright luster to the entire
paper in the feed tray. If using a laser printer, turn the piece. Additional coats may be applied after the previ-
paper feed knob to allow the laser sheets to pass ous one dries. Heavy coats may remelt the toner and
straight through, rather than route it back toward you. ruin the artwork.
This produces flatter, better looking patterns. Experi-
ment with darkness whenever possible. The darker the ADDITIONAL TIPS
pattern, the more resist that gets applied to prevent un- Some hobbyists prefer to add one step before ironing
dercutting while etching. resist artwork, by etching their printed circuit boards for
Applying the artwork made with L2000 starts by pre- one to three minutes before applying the pattern. This
paring the board or enclosure you will be putting the makes the copper more sensitive and adhesion easier.
design onto. Cut the blank PC board to size, or drill the This is usually not needed and only necessary if you
enclosure/lid as needed. Thoroughly clean the metal find the resist not adhering well to your boards.
surface with a plastic scouring pad, scouring powder, By warming and agitating the etchant, you can
and plenty of water. speed the etching process. This prevents undercutting
This is very important since the fine scratches will of the resist. Even though this type of resist is tougher
help the toner adhere. Scrubbing should be done in a than dry transfer (rub downs) and other resists, it is a
circular motion and until entire surface is polished good idea to keep etching time to a minimum.
evenly. Aluminum enclosures and lids will require a lit- Print all dot-matrix PC patterns in the 2 times mode.
tle more effort since the metal is harder. Rinse well, dry Then reduce the circuit pattern in a copy machine by
with a clean paper towel, and handle by the edges from 71% and then again another 71% to get the proper size
now on. pattern before copying to a sheet of L2000. The result
Trim the plastic pattern to the same size as the metal will be a cleaner, better looking pattern.
surface. With two pieces of tape, secure the design Any sheet, paper or synthetic, that passes through a
with the toner side toward the surface to be marked. copy machine or laser printer has to withstand the high
The plastic must lay flat. Drag your fingernail lightly temperatures used to fuse the toner to it. L2000 Iron -
over the plastic. If it feels rough where the pattern is, On Resist Sheets are designed specifically for this and
you taped the sheet on upside-down. are not just "coated" as other sheets may be. The new
To insulate the board/pattern assembly from the cool (Continued on page 72)

70 / ELECTRONICS HANDBOOK
 TANDY
TECHNOLOGY CENTER

Tandy Corporation is creating tomorrow's technology today in its new Tandy Technology
Center in Fort Worth.
The new seven -story, 270,000 square foot Center provides a unique work environment
designed specifically for the needs of Tandy's Information Services and Tandy Electronics
Research and Development Groups.
"The Center is where much of the technology that drives our business is housed," said John V.
Roach, Chairman and CEO of Tandy Corporation. "We've built the best technical facilities in the
world to recruit, retain, and motivate the people who will help us win technically in the 1990's."
Tandy Information Services (TIS), which occupies three floors, controls Tandy Corporation's
inventory, payroll, sales data, accounting, networking, and telecommunications. Tandy
Information Services played a major role in designing and installing Tandy's Point-of -Sale (POS)
system used by Radio Shack, McDuff Electronics and Appliances®, and VideoConcepts® retail
outlets. It is the largest POS system of its kind in the nation. The TIS mainframe does more than
300 jobs per hour, issuing about 120 milliion instructions per second. One outstanding feature is
the NASA -style "command center", with banks of computers constantly monitoring TIS
functions.

VOLUME XI 71
 Floors five, six, and seven house the Tandy Electronics Research and Development Groups,
which design Tandy's new consumer and computer products, and produce technical
publications. Research and Development is vital to Tandy's efforts to maintain its competitive
edge in the technology marketplace. It is also essential to insure that Tandy customers continue
to receive the highest quality consumer electronics and personal computer products.
For years, R&D has kept Tandy on the leading edge of developments in audio, video,
telephony, personal computers, and magnetic media technology. Now, Tandy continues to lead
with its developments in Multimedia Personal Computing and digital recording. Earlier this year,
Tandy Corporation became the first manufacturer to unveil fully -configured Multimedia
Personal Computer systems and hardware products. This technology combines text, graphics,
sound, and animation to create an exciting new computing environment. Tandy R&D teams are
developing new products based on Digital Compact Cassette (DCC) technology. DCC adds a
new dimension to sound by combining the quality of digital recording with the convenience of a
compact cassette.
All R&D floors have multiple laboratories dedicated to the research, development, and testing
of new products. The labs are flexibly designed to meet any space, power, communications,
signal, or safety requirements that are needed. All floors, in both the R&D and Tandy Information
Services departments, are raised to accommodate more than two million feet of phone and data
cables.
The Tandy Technology Center provides a totally flexible, productive, energy efficient work
environment. Offices and work zones are equipped with motion sensors that turn off lights and
temperature controls when no movement is detected for a specific time. Interior walls may be
dismantled, so offices can be moved or created as the need arises. Sensitive computer equipment
is protected from power surges by special, color coded outlets designed to provide a clean
source of electrical power.
Construction began January 9, 1990 on a 4 -acre site adjacent to Tandy's headquarters in
downtown Fort Worth. The building is surrounded by an attractive, fully landscaped, multi -tiered
park; a 400 seat outdoor amphitheater for musical or theatrical performances; and an
aesthetically pleasing, tree-lined parking lot. The central core features a glass -domed atrium with
an arboretum that gives the Center's 600 employees a pleasant view and a relaxing break
environment.
The first floor houses the Lewis Kornfeld Conference Room, named in honor of the former
president of Radio Shack®. This attractive, acoustically designed room includes a theater
presentation area with rear screen projection, sophisticated electronic communication
equipment, and worldwide satellite conferencing capabilities.
A satellite transmitter dish, atop the building, is used by the Tandy Satellite Television Network
for sales and training seminars and to pass news and information to employees at 250 company
downlink locations nationwide. "As Tandy continues to grow and expand its operations globally,
this state-of-the-art satellite network will be the key communications vehicle for the corporation,"
said Roach.
To maintain its prominent leadership role in the consumer electronics and personal computer
industries, Tandy Corporation traditionally looks to the future. Carroll Leu, vice president of
Tandy Information Services says, "The work performed in the Center concentrates on the
development and application of tomorrow's technologies. The new Tandy Technology Center
represents our commitment to the future."
Radio Shack, McDuff, and VideoConcepts are registered service marks used by Tandy Corporation.

MAKING PCB's THE EASY WAY

material does not get old and deteriorate in perform-
ance like coated plastics. If past experiences with iron - ville, MI 48040. Costs for L2000 are $1.20 each plus
on resist have been disappointing, try the latest. The $1.50 shipping and handling up to 4 sheets. Quan-
872" x 11" L2000 Sheets carry a 30 day warranty and tities of 5 sheets more are 80¢ each plus $1.75 ship-
come with complete instructions. ping and handling. For technical assistance
Give your enclosures a new look. Save time and inquires, or any remark requiring a reply, please
money by ironing resist artwork to your circuit boards. send a Self Addressed Stamped Envelope.
Inexpensive, yet simple enough for the beginner elec-
tronic enthusiast to use, L2000 Iron -On Laser/Copier *PCBoards is an easy -to -run, menu -driven computer
Resist Sheets are the latest innovation for labeling en- program to generate single or double sided printed cir-
closures and making printed circuit boards. cuit artwork for under $100. PCBoards, 2110 14th Ave.
L2000 Laser/Copier Iron -on Resist Sheets are South, Birmingham, AL 35205
sold by Thumb Electronics, P.O. Box 344, Marys- 1-205-933-1122.

72 / ELECTRONICS HANDBOOK
 MEDICAL ELECTRONICS
A CAREER OPPORTUNITY
By George Williamson CBET

readers who have the aptitude and would

For those
enjoy working with a variety of sophisticated
equipment with the satisfaction that they are helping
people, "Medical Electronics" may be a career worth
looking into for a future livelihood.
NAuchof the equipment used in medicine today Digital Multimeter would be essential. You will soon
is state-of-the-art or close to it. In this mix of learn various tricks of testing to get the maximum use
technology you can find RF, Analog, Digital from your DMM. Other equipment may be added to
and Microprocessor circuitry, sometimes all in one your tool kit as necessary, such as a reliable
device. If you are interested in a career that offers oscilloscope. You will soon learn that you must be
great variety, "Medical Electronics" may be for you. resourceful. It is a do-it-yourself job. The boss and/or
Rarely do you work on the same type of equipment extra manuals and parts are usually too far away to
repeatedly. The exception to this may be in "field help. Field service is for "self-starters." If you enjoy
service." As a "field service" technician or representa- traveling, this may be the place to start your career in
tive, you may be restricted to the repair of one type of "Medical Electronics."
equipment. This is the position held by the author
when he first entered the area of "Medical
Electronics" for a future career. It involved Hospital Service
considerable travel, much of it local but it also Hospital service is a totally different area of medical
provided an excellent opportunity to gain much electronics, devoted to people who work in hospitals
valuable experience. It will require transportation, in various capacities. Unlike field service, the
usually your own vehicle. Some companies provide technician is usually only minutes away from his
one, others pay you to use your own. It is not work. Usually called "Biomedical technicians," the
uncommon to drive as much as 10,000 to 15,000 miles people who maintain the medical electronic
per year, in some cases much more. equipment in hospitals usually receive above average
Planning Your Time pay for their technical skills. "Biomedical Engineer-
ing" is a real challenge. Most biomedical technicians
Field service requires careful planning of your time work on a very broad range of equipment. Their
and you must carry an adequate supply of critical workshops will have much more test equipment than
parts, especially those that are prone to breakdown or carried by the field service technicians. They
failure. The office or home that you wil'' be working sometimes have to troubleshoot to the component
from is invariably too far away to waste time on level. The well-equipped workshop will have service
constant trips for replacement parts. Ideally, you manuals for all of the equipment used in the hospital
should not have to pick up additional stock of repair and, of course, a supply of parts to cope with
parts more than once a week. In some cases, as a unexpected emergencies. You will have access to
"field service technician," you will have to fly to most of this sophisticated test equipment, such as
destinations for on -site repairs. This means having Digital Multimeters, Oscilloscopes, Signal and
tools, test equipment and supplies portable enough to Function generators and Safety Testers. The "Safety
be transported on a plane, therefore, it is not Tester" is of primary importance. This instrument is
uncommon to see a "Tech" wheeling a stack of used to test every electronic device allowed into the
suitcases with a collapsible baggage cart. Usually the hospital. It checks each device for electrical leakage.
repairs done in the field are at the "board" level. The Leakage above 100 microamperes could be hazar-
defective circuit is located and replaced. The dous, especially to patients with heart problems. All
defective board is then returned to a service center for electrical and electronic devices must, therefore, be
repairs. In some cases, the boards are disposed of checked thoroughly as a protection for the patients.
when they are not repairable. Another electronic device that is used frequently in
Field Service Technicians usually have at least a todays' modern hospital is the "Simulator," which will
minimum of test equipment. A small but reliable produce waveforms that mimic various signals that

VOLUME XI 73
are picked up by a monitor from the patient. Most Power Meters, Ultrasound Power Meters, Tachome-
common is the signal produced by the heart. This is ters for testing centrifuges and Thermometers for
the EKG signal, sometimes called the ECG, an testing incubators and baby warmers.
abbreviation for Electrocardiogram. This signal is
normally picked up by pad electrodes that are placed Monitors
on the patient in a proper configuration. There are The Biomedical Technician will work on a variety of
several ways to place leads on a patient and each has monitors, mostly for monitoring a patient's heart.
its special purpose. Each combination of 3 leads is They also monitor a patient's temperature and blood
one configuration. For example, a 12 -lead configura- pressure, respiration, blood oxygenation and other
tion will have Lead #1, Lead #2, Lead #3, AVR, AVL, parameters. A considerable portion of the techni-
AVF, V1, V2, V3, V4, V5, and V6. An electronic machine cians' time is spent maintaining monitors. These
switches through all 12 lead configurations as the test monitors can be simple little boxes with lights to
progresses. A 12 -lead EKG gives the most compre- indicate functions or very large and complex systems
hensive picture available of the patients' heart that monitor multiple functions. Many monitors will
function. have a CRT screen that will display the information
recorded, including waveforms. The more sophisti-
ECG WAVEFORM: ORS COMPLEX cated heart monitors will detect and flag arrhythmias,
R
which are defects in the heartbeat. This enables
doctors to detect problems with their patients easier
and quicker.
Transducers
All monitors connect to the patient with a
transducer, which connects a non -electrical device or
a person to an electrical device. An example of a
transducer would be the strain gauge blood pressure
transducer. This device has a metal membrane that is
thin and sensitive to the pressure of blood pushing a
BASELINE water column against it. The shift in the mechanical
O S
position of the membrane is converted to electrical
signals in the strain gauge and relayed to the monitor.
This is the normal signal produced by the heart on an EKG.
Typical signal Ievel'of "R" wave; 1.0 millivolt. Defibrillators
Rate is time from R -wave to R -wave.
When a patient has a heart stoppage (cardiac
Simulators are connected to the monitor with arrest), the Defibrillator is used to shock it back into
cables and take the place of the patients' signals. action, typically delivering a burst of energy at 3120
Besides the EKG signals, simulators can produce volts. Needless to say, it is extremely important that
blood pressure signals, respiration signals and this device is functioning properly.
temperature signals. Most of the technician's testing Infusion Devices
will involve either the "Safety Analyzer' or "Simula-
tors." These devices deliver controlled amounts of fluids
intravenously to a patient. A needle is inserted into a
Defibrillator Test Load vein, typically on the hand and tubing is connected to
This relatively simple device shows how much it. Control of the fluid going into the patient is critical,
energy is released by a "Defibrillator" under test. since these devices are used for intravenous feeding,
Other test instruments include ESU testers, Laser fluid replacement and administering drugs. As a
Biomedical technician, you will test these devices for
proper operation. You will also be called upon to
BLOOD PRESSURE WAVEFORM repair them when they are defective.
Incubators and Warmers
These are obviously used to keep babies, usually
new-born, at a correct temperature for proper growth
and health. Your job will require you to verify the
correct operation of these devices periodically.
Laboratory Equipment
Most hospitals today have a wide range of
laboratory equipment to be periodically checked and
BASELINE~
_ . maintained and you will usually be called upon to
service at least some of it. They can vary from "Tube
3 WAVES SHOWN Rockers" to "Centrifuges" to sophisticated analyzers.
They can all be yours to work on.

74/ ELECTRONICS HANDBOOK

 Electrosurgical Units (ESUs) Training will be a part of your life. As new
equipment is introduced, the manufacturers will
These devices are used instead of scalpels and
provide inservice training on site for qualified
knives to make incisions in surgery. Radio frequency
technicians with additional training and technical
energy is used and the ESU can be set to coagulate
small blood vessels as the surgeon makes the
support at their offices.
Most employers are looking for technicians with at
incision. You will be required to periodically test the
least a 2 -year Associates degree in Electronics or in
output for accuracy. You may also be called upon to
repair the ESU if it fails to function properly.
Biomedical Engineering. For the better (more
advanced) positions or to progress to Clinical
Engineering, a 4 -year degree is required. Clinical
Nurse Call Systems Engineering is above Biomedical Engineering and
These are really "Paging" or "Intercoms" systems involves more of the medical application. Clinical
and are frequently the responsibility of the Engineers work very closely with the doctors and
Biomedical technician for proper operation and nurses who use this sophisticated equipment,
maintenance. The newer systems are computerized assisting them to get the maximum use from the
and quite sophisticated. equipment. They are also frequently involved in
supervising Biomedical departments or in Research
Computers and Development.
Many Biomedical departments are maintaining Salary ranges from entry level positions can be as
computers on site. Computers are everywhere and low as $5.00 per hour or as high as $10.00 per hour,
are used extensively in hospitals today, ranging in depending, to a great extent on the applicants
size from laptop units to huge mainframes. An experience and qualifications. Trained technicians
expertise in computer technology is certainly a plus. can attain annual incomes of $40,000 or more.
Some other devices that you might work with Clinical Engineers can exceed $60,000 per year.
include: Anesthesia machines, Analyzers, Blood Gas Medical Electronics is an interesting and rewarding
Machines, Electrocardiographs, Electroencephalo- career. Maybe it is a career for you.
graphs, Echocardiographs, CAT -scan equipment, About the author: George Williamson is a Certified
Magnetic Resonance Imaging equipment, X -Ray Biomedical Engineering Technician. He first became
machines, Gamma Cameras, Linear Accelerators, interested in electronics in 1959 and has worked in the
Lasers. Ophthalmoscopes, Fundus Cameras, Slit Biomedical Engineering department of a major
Lamps and Microscopes. medical center for the past 12 years.

DIGITAL COMPASS KIT

The perfect assembly project for school or that budding
electronics hobbyist.
The "Digital Compass" is a hand-held device that senses all eight
compass headings by lighting the appropriate LED.
By making use of the highly advanced Dinsmore Sensor, your compass
kit can also provide accurate headings for your car or boat.
Kit comes complete with ALL parts, compass sensor, PC Board
(2)(3112 in.), memory chip and assembly instructions
(Less Housing & 9V battery).
$26.50
Plus $1.50 S/H

SUNCOAST TECHNOLOGIES
P.O. BOX #5835
SPRING HILL, FL 34606

VOLUME XI 75
 SOLID STATE
UPDATE
Each month, the manufacturers of solid state
components release literally hundreds of new devices.
While we cannot report on all of these, we do intend to
feature some of the devices that are most likely to
interest our readers. For further information on any of
these solid-state components, write directly to the
manufacturers. They can provide you with data sheets
and application notes at no charge.

3B20 TORQUE
TRANSDUCER CONDITIONER
The 3B20 from Analog Devices is a complete, low-
cost signal-conditioning module for torque trans-
ducers. It provides AC sensor excitation and
produces simultaneous high-level voltage and
current outputs. Torque transducers (strain gages
with transformer coupling for excitation and
response) eliminate the need for slip rings or other
unreliable connections in applications where
physical contact between the sensor and its
associated electronics is difficult.
The 3620 provides AC excitation of 2 to 10 V rms at
frequencies from 1 to 10 kHz. Input spans range from
1.5 mV to 150 mV rms and are compatible with most
torque transducers and four-arm bridges. Outputs of
+/- 10 V and 4-20/0-20 mA are simultaneously
available, with an overall accuracy of 0.1% and a drift
of 0.01%/°C.
Housed in a 3.2" x 0.7" x 3.3" module, the 3620 can
be plugged into a4-, 8-, or 16 -channel backplane, also
available from the manufacturer. Address inquires to
Analog Devices, 70 Shawmut Rd., Canton, MA, 02021.

76/ ELECTRONICS HANDBOOK

 FILTER DESIGN SOFTWARE
T4T,^{XN
q,g ,y1.{- .,. -

Filter design can be a tedious, mathematically

A,p+e ff: ìi E.h ...-
i. ....
daunting task for beginner and expert alike. But now,
AC li.:
Y

¿,aaM4..7$se,
the folks at Burr -Brown have come up with a program
called FILTER PERFECT' that allows the user to
design unity -gain, low-pass active filters with a
minimum of effort. The program comes on a DOS -
compatible 51/4" disk together with an application note
describing its operation. Butterworth, Chebyshev, or
Bessel response can be selected. The menu -driven
program guides the user in choosing the type of filter,
number of poles (up to 7), etc., and automatically
calculates resistor and capacitor values. Capacitors
selected by the program are standard values;
resistors are exact or nearest 1% values depending on
the selected mode of operation. FILTER PERFECT'
is available free of charge from Burr -Brown Corp.,
P.O. Box 11400, Tucson, AZ, 85734. It can also be
downloaded as "FILTER 1" from the company's BBS:
(602) 741-3978; (3/12/2400, 8, N, 1).

RF DATA BOOKS
Motorola, one of the nation's largest manufacturers
of semiconductor products, has just published an
enlarged and updated version of its RF Data Book.
This new data book, officially designated DL110/D
Rev. 4, consists of two volumes containing the latest
and most complete listing of standard products
offered by the RF Products Division of Motorola
Semiconductor. The book should be a valuable
addition to the bookshelf of every engineer,
technician, experimenter, and ham radio operator. A
total of 84 new products are represented by data
sheets as well as application notes. Coverage is given
to RF devices of all kinds, including small -signal
transistors (both bipolar and field effect), power
FETs, and power bipolar devices.
To obtain a copy of the Motorola RF Data Book, call
Motorola Literature Distribution at (602) 994-6561
and ask for DL110/D. Alternatively, you can make a
written request to Motorola Inc., Literature Distribu- POWER SCHOTTKY RECTIFIERS
tion Center, P.O. Box 20924, Phoenix, AZ, 85063.
Conventional p -n junction rectifiers have two
characteristics which limit their efficiency: forward
voltage drop (about one volt), and reverse recovery
time. In low -power applications, these characteristics
are of little consequence, but in high -power circuits,
they result in wasted power. For that reason,
designers of high -power rectifier circuits choose
Schottky -barrier rectifiers rather than conventional p -
n types. In a Schottky rectifier, the forward voltage
drop is reduced and the reverse recovery time is nil,
which makes the Schottky diode an ideal candidate
for use in switch -mode power supplies at frequencies
as high as several MHz. Motorola has just announced
the MBR-16035CT series of common -cathode, dual
Schottky rectifiers, which can be parallelled for
higher current output. Specs include 40 millijoules
avalanche energy, high dV/dt capability, and a 160 -
amp current rating. Motorola Inc., 5005 E. McDowell
Rd., Phoenix, AZ, 85008.

VOLUME XI 77
 DATA BOOK SUPPLEMENT
Burr-Brown, a leading supplier of linear ICs to
industrial and military customers, has announced the
availability of a new Integrated Circuits Data Book
Supplement, Vol. 33B. The new publication contains
over 650 pages of complete product descriptions,
applications tips, performance graphs, specifica-
tions, and ordering information for the company's
broad line of high-performance linear integrated
circuits.
Burr -Brown's Integrated Circuits Data Book
Supplement gives designers more than 60 new high-
performance products, including high-speed op
amps, instrumentation amps, isolation amps, D/A and
A/D converters, voltage -to -frequency converters,
digital -signal -processing circuits, and DC/DC
converters.
Circuit designers and engineers can obtain a free
copy of Vol. 33B from any Burr-Brown sales office or
by calling 1-800-548-6132. You can also write directly
to Burr -Brown Corp., P.O. Box 11400, Tucson, AZ,
85734.

LOW VOLTAGE DC -DC CONVERTERS

Here's good news for builders of portable, battery -
operated equipment: Maxim has announced the
availability of a family of six low-voltage DC -DC
converters, designated MAX654 through MAX659.
These devices are intended to provide a simple,
compact solution to the problem of generating a
regulated +5V or +3V output from a low -voltage
source such as a single -cell battery. The MAX654/6/7
feature a guaranteed 1.15V start-up, and continue to
function as the input voltage drops below 1 volt. The
new family of converters can supply up to 450 mA
(MAX658) of output current with few external
components, achieving a typical conversion effi-
ciency of up to 75%. Special features include a
comparator output which goes low when the input
drops below 1.15V, and a "Power Ready" output
signal. In standby mode, the quiescent current drain
is 80 microamps. For further information and a data
AUTOMOTIVE SMART -SENSOR
sheet, write to Maxim Integrated Products, 120 San
Operating from an automotive battery power Gabriel Dr., Sunnyvale, CA, 94086.
supply between +9 and +30V., Analog Devices'
AD22001 monolithic five -channel comparator
automatically detects the failure of headlamps,
indicators, and other lights. The device improves
safety by continuously monitoring the condition of up
to five lamp filaments, whether on or off, and also by
testing the in -line fuse in two series circuits.
Packaged in a space -saving 20 -pin DIP and
consuming only 300 mW of power, the AD22001
replaces complex, less reliable discrete designs and
costs only $2.00 in automotive OEM quantities. The
AD22001's five comparators operate by detecting a
very small threshold voltage, nominally 1.75 mV,
across a small shunt resistor in series with the lamp
being monitored. A length of standard copper track
on the circuit board can serve as the shunt resistor,
minimizing power dissipation and component count.
More information can be obtained from Analog
Devices Inc., 804 Woburn St., Wilmington, MA, 01887.
78 / ELECTRONICS HANDBOOK
 SIXTH SENSE GIVES
STINGRAYS A CHARGE
Courtesy Ian Bruce, Senior Technical
Marketing Engineer, ANALOG DEVICES, INC.
Isolation Amplifiers allow investigation of animal
"Sixth Sense." Generating very low-level signals to
mimic animal electric fields requires careful design
and isolation for success.
Engineers in everyday life aren't generally requested
to investigate the sex lives of fish. They are, however,
often required to generate, simulate or transmit low-
level signals across large distances in harsh
environments. The following short article describes an
unusual and demanding application for digitally
synthesizing very low-level signals in salt water.
Researchers have discovered that stingrays, sharks
and related animals possess a "sixth sense," they are
able to perceive electric fields. To discover if they use
this ability to detect potential mates required precisely
simulating the tiny nanovolt-per-meter field generated
by these animals under water. This article explains
how scientists, using Analog Devices' AD210 isolation
amplifier and the AD 7845 digital -to -analog converter,
designed equipment to generate, isolate and transmit
such signals.
It may not be animal magnetism, but stingrays and rays in the area sense this and, their interest sparked,
other fish do seem to have an attraction for one come like a flash to the buried female.
another that is truly electric. Researchers have To test this theory, Dr. Timothy Tricas, Research
shown that sharks, rays and skates (known Associate at Washington University School of
collectively as Elasmobranchii) possess a sixth sense: Medicine, designed a system that could record then
they are able to perceive electric fields. Small replay the electric calls of female rays. With the help
receptors called Ampula of Lorenzini can detect the of Scott Michael, graduate of the University of
minute electric field generated by all animals, Nebraska, he located a colony of Round Stingrays
including humans. Sharks use this ability to hunt and that mate in shallow water near Baja Kino off the
capture their prey. Mexican Gulf coast.
Researchers believe that other elasmobranch The experiment presented a number of interesting
behaviors can be attributed to electric field detection, technical challenges common to applications where
including mating. Romantic male stingrays are complex, low-level signals are being reproduced.
thought to find a "relationship with potential" by Rays generate a very weak, dc electric field
sensing a potential difference. Female rays, buried in modulated with a fundamental frequency just below
sand during the mating season, produce a characte- one Hertz. The mean intensity is only 500 nV/m (by
ristic electric field associated with their respiration. comparison, the mean field intensity of the earth at
An electro -chemical voltage exists between the sea level varies between 100 and 300 V/m, and can
mucus membranes in the animal's mouth and surface rise to 10,000 V/m during electric storms). Mimicking
membranes distributed around the gills (the mouth is female Round Stingrays requires accurately repro-
at a negative potential with respect to the gills). The ducing this low level signal in seawater at a depth of
distribution of the gill membranes produces a several meters, and in such a way that the complex
complex, multi -pole field around the ray, and the field spatial domain of the field is retained.
intensity varies as its mouth opens and closes. Male The harmonic bio -electric calls generated by
VOLUME XI 79
 AD7845 SIGNAL SIGNAL
I2 -BIT ADC MOD. DEMOD

ELECTRODES

POWER POWER
MOD. DEMOD.

12 BIT PEE -

COMMAND VOLTAGE
AD210 ISOLATION AMPLIFIERS

LAPTOP 12 VOLT
COMPUTER BATTERY FIGURE 1

Mimicing Stingray electric fields required careful

design and isolation. Shown is the AD7845 multi-
plying DAC used to generate the harmonic electric
calls and the AD210 isolation amplifier, both from
Analog Devices.

female rays were stored on the hard disk of a Compaq isolation amplifiers. All of the equipment was
laptop computer. For playback, the PC was enclosed in a water -tight plastic enclosure designed
connected to a plug-in digital -to-analog interface especially for the project (see Figure 1). Sealed
card, which in turn was connected to Analog Devices' connectors linked the output of the isolation

FIGURE 2
The computer and its associated equipment is shown
housed in the water -tight plastic enclosure at the
Mexican experimentation site. Visible are the blue
Analog Devices' AD210 isolated amplifiers.
80/ ELECTRONICS HANDBOOK
 amplifiers to remote silver electrodes. uA output significantly, and the computer's calls
would have been unrequited.
To better understand what properties of the electric
field "turn -on" male rays (do they like their fields to The output of the isolation amplifier was fed to a
come on strong and heavy, or are they more pair of remote silver wire electrodes which are the
interested in racy, fast signals?) both amplitude and substitute for the electro -chemical membranes of the
frequency were varied. Frequency control was ray. To enhance the realistic orientation of the electric
maintained by the computer, and the intensity of the field, the wires were formed and separated by a
field was varied using multiplying digital -to -analog dielectric plastic sheet. All cabling was buried from
converters (DACs). Multiplying DACs have two input view. There were no visual, audible or olfactory clues
variables: a digital word corresponds to the playback to the presence of the hidden electrodes; they could
of the female ray from the computer, and an analog only be sensed by the electric field they generated.
reference voltage determines signal output magni- Dr. Tricas conducted his experiments in the Spring
tude or intensity. Using Analog Devices' AD7845 12 - of 1990, and the results have been filmed for a
bit DACs, the output current to the isolation National Geographic special that will air in 1992. Male
rays that passed within a few meters of the buried
amplifiers could be controlled accurately in the 4- to
8-uA range. This produced electric field intensities in electrodes were attracted by the emitted electric field,
the nV/m range near the electrodes. and tried in vain to unearth possible mates.
Interestingly, female rays were also attracted by the

FIGURE 3
The computer is submerged to several meters and
ready for connection to the electrodes.

Isolating the output signal from the battery power signals, and buried themselves close to the
supply and ground was essential. Analog Devices' electrodes.
AD210 isolation amplifier was chosen because it More research is required as to how elasmobran-
combines high 2,500 V isolation, low ±25 ppm/°C chii and other animals use their sixth sense.
gain drift and 120 dB common mode rejection in a Researchers speculate that electric fields generated
small, 2.1" X1.0" X0.35" package. It could also operate by animals moving through the earth's magnetic field
directly from the unregulated 12-V PC battery. may be used to detect heading. In ancient China it
Isolation amplifiers galvanically isolate both the was believed that catfish had precognition of
signal and the power supply, interrupting ground impending earthquakes; scientists now know that
loops and leakage paths, and rejecting common - prior to quake activity there are large variations in the
mode voltage signals. Without such isolation, noise earth's electric field, which some animals may be able
and common -mode signals would have distorted the to detect.

VOLUME XI 81
 THE CATALOG
CORNER
you live in a relatively remote area that doesn't have
If
ready sources for electronic parts, you can send away to
numerous supply houses, who have good catalogs of
electronic parts and assemblies...many of them real
bargains.
Following are several catalogs that we have recently
received in the mail, with brief descriptions and comments.
Most of these suppliers send out new catalogs every four to
six months, with many of the items repeated and new ones
added, plus some new "specials"...usually on the first
couple pages and the last few pages of each issue.

WINFRED M. BERG, INC.

Raise your right hand if you enjoyed tinkering with
an erector set as a kid. Ahhh, just as we expected:
there are a lot of you out there. And we'll bet that you
still enjoy building complicated electromechanical
contraptions. If that's true, you'll flip when you seethe
latest catalog from Winfred M. Berg, Inc. Berg is one
of the world's largest manufacturers of precision
mechanical components, and their 544 -page catalog
is filled with over 58,000 devices. For example, they
have gear -drive chains, pulleys, sprocket gears, drive
belts, timing belts and pulleys, O -rings, spur gears of
metal and plastic, anti -backlash gears, miter and
bevel gears, worm gears, racks and pinions,
gearboxes, pawls and ratchets, lead screws, shafts,
and bearings. A special section of the catalog
contains reference data for designers. Winfred M.
Berg Inc., 499 Ocean Ave., East Rockaway, NY,
11518.

82/ ELECTRONICS HANDBOOK

 JDR MICRODEVICES
Judging by this company's name, JDR Micro-
- devices, you'd probably expect them to carry
semiconductors, and you'd be right. JDR sells a wide
variety of micro chips: TTL and CMOS logic, linear
devices like op amps and voltage regulators,
microprocessors, RAM chips, and various other ICs
and discrete devices. In fact, you could probably find
most of the parts for any project in this magazine in
the JDR catalog.
But parts are not the only things that JDR sells. The
company also sells build -it -yourself computers, PC
clones that run standard IBM-compatible software,
but don't cost nearly as much as the ones sold by Big
Blue. JDR has cases, keyboards, monitors, mother-
boards, disk drives, and various plug -ins like disk
controllers and serial -port adapters-in short,
everything you'll need to build your own computer. If
all this sounds interesting, write to JDR Microdevices,
2233 Branham Lane, San Jose, CA 95124.

ALLIED ELECTRONICS
LIEB
I fCTRtlb'1( S
Allied Electronics is one of the grand old names in
the electronic business, a company that's been
around for more than half a century. Today, Allied is a
subsidiary of Hall -Mark Electronics, one of the largest
industrial distributors of electronic components.
Allied's new catalog is the size of a big -city telephone
directory: 772 pages filled with every kind of
electronic component you could imagine. Naturally,
we're not going to list them all here, but consider, if
you will, the following list of semiconductor
manufacturers whose products are available through
the Allied catalog: Motorola, Texas Instruments,
Siemens, Dallas Semiconductor, CKE, Xicor, GE,
RCA, Collmer Semiconductor, NTE, and General
Instrument. In addition to semiconductors, Allied
stocks resistors, capacitors, switches, test equipment,
batteries, connectors, and more. Get your copy by
writing to Allied Electronics, 401 E. 8th St., Fort Worth,
TX, 76102.

EXTECH INSTRUMENTS
Extech Instruments has just issued a colorful new
catalog that's filled with a wide variety cf electronic
instruments, and while some of these devices will only
interest the industrial user, there's plenty here for the
hobbyist and experimenter. For example, they've got
digital thermometers as well as thermometer
adapters, which will allow a DMM to measure
temperature. An assortment of thermocouple probes
is also featured. If you need to measure pH, as often
happens in PCB production, you'll be pleased with
Extech's selection of bench -mount and portable
digital pH meters and pH probes. Perhaps you'd like
to measure the conductivity or rate of flow of a
solution. Again, Extech has instruments that can do it.
Digital multimeters are always essential for the
electronics enthusiast, and Extech offers several
models, including a 4-1 digit DMM with .05% DC
accuracy for the remarkable price of $129. Extech
Instruments, 150 Bear Hill Rd., Waltham, MA, 02154.

VOLUME XI 83
 FORDHAM RADIO
Company names can sometimes be deceiving.
Take Fordham Radio for example. Perhaps when this
company was founded it specialized in the sale of
radios, but today Fordham offers all kinds of
electronic equipment. Featured prominently in
Ford ham's latest catalog is a wide variety of electronic
test gear, some of it bearing the Fordham brand
name, the rest bearing the names of such well-known
manufacturers as B&K Precision, Hitachi, Simpson,
Global Specialties, VIZ, and Fluke. In addition to test
gear, Fordham also offers an excellent selection of
tools like soldering irons, pliers, PBC drills, wrenches,
screwdrivers, and so on. The Fordham product line is
rounded out by an interesting array of consumer
electronic items like video equipment, speakers,
radar detectors, telecommunications products, and
exercise machines. Oh, by the way, Fordham also
sells radios. Fordham Radio, 260 Motor Parkway,
Hauppauge, NY, 11788-5134. Toll -free telephone 1-
800-695-4848.
HEATH HOME AUTOMATION
In the seventies, the big craze in consumer
electronics was CB radio; in the eighties, it was
personal computers. What's in store for us in the
nineties? Home automation...and you don't need a
crystal ball to make such a prediction. Just take a
stroll through your neighborhood hardware store or
building -supplies center. You'll find aisle after aisle of
gadgets designed to turn lights on and off
automatically, detect intruders, and remotely control
your appliances. The home of the future promises to
be a smart home, bristling with sensors and controls
and electronic readouts. This vision of the future has
not been lost on the folks at Heath. Heath's catalog of
home automation products contains such items as
command consoles, alarm systems, an electronic
barking dog alarm, motion sensors, a video intercom
system, various remote-control devices, and energy -
saving automatic thermostats. For more info, contact
Heath Company, Benton Harbor, MI, 49022-8589.
Toll -free telephone 1-800-253-0570. AMATEUR ELECTRONIC SUPPLY
Through the years, amateur radio has proved to be
an egalitarian hobby, attracting participants from
every walk of life. Some hams-like Senator Barry
Goldwater, actor Marlon Brando, and King Hussein of
Jordan-are world-famous, while others, like those of
us who compile this column, work in relative
obscurity. But whether famous or not, all hams share
the desire to communicate with friends around the
world. They also share a common problem: the
difficulty of obtaining good equipment. That problem
can be overcome by getting your hands on the latest
catalog from Amateur Electronic Supply. The folks at
AES stock a huge inventory of transceivers, antennas,
keyers, packet -radio equipment, and test gear. They
carry products by Ten-Tec, Kenwood, Cushcraft,
Icom, Hy-Gain, MFJ, Yaesu, and hundreds of other
manufacturers. And they offer substantial discounts
on many items. Amateur Electronic Supply, 5710 W.
Good Hope Rd., Milwaukee, WI, 53223. Phone toll -
free 1-800-558-0411.

84/ ELECTRONICS HANDBOOK

 EDLIE ELECTRONICS
There are essentially three methods by which an
item may find its way into the Catalog Corner. First, a
company may send us a catalog in the hope that it will
strike our editorial fancy. Second, we may request a
copy of a catalog that seems particularly interesting.
Third, blind luck may intervene, which is what
happened here. In this instance, Edlie Electronics
sent a copy of its catalog to an electronics
enthusiast-let's call him Mr. X-who then passed the
catalog on to a friend, Mr. Y, who later loaned it to us.
The result of this conspiracy of fate is that Edlie now
gets some free publicity, We think you'll like the Edlie
catalog. Its 130 pages contain such neat things as test
instruments, books, kits, semiconductors, alarm
systems, tools, audio and video accessories,
chemicals, printed -circuit supplies, and cabinets.
Lots of bargains, too. Edlie Electronics, 2700
Hempstead Turnpike, Levittown, L.I., NY, 11756-
1443. Phone toll -free 1-800-645-4722.

BANANAS NEWS
Bananas News is a tabloid -size periodical devoted
to electronic musical equipment of all kinds. Despite
the whimsical title, these guys don't monkey around.
Each issue is jam-packed with the latest information
on hundreds of pieces of electronic musical
equipment. More than just a catalog, Bananas News
is filled with technical tips and gossip that will appeal
to anyone with an interest in electronic music.
Whether you're a musician, sound -recording
engineer, audiophile, or computer -music experi-
menter, there is sure to be something that will interest
you in this catalog. For example, the latest issue of
Bananas News features DAT tape decks, mixers,
keyboards, amplifiers, multitrack tape decks,
microphones, signal processors, headphones,
guitars, speakers, music software, MIDI controllers,
computers, pianos, electronic drum sets, and CD
players. To get a copy of Bananas News, just write to
Bananas At Large, 1504 Fourth St., San Rafael, CA,
EDUCALC 94901, or telephone 415-457-7600.
There is a tendency, we suspect, among some
segments of society to view the calculator as the less
capable and less glamorous cousin of the computer,
but we beg to disagree. Computers and calculators
are different beasts entirely, and simple comparisons
between the two are relatively meaningless. It makes
more sense to think of the calculator as a special-
purpose computer which has been optimized for
certain kinds of tasks, such as scientific or business
calculations. Just as computers have become more
powerful over the years, so too have calculators. If
your calculator is more than five years old, it could be
worth your while to upgrade. The folks at EduCALC
have a catalog that is chock full of the hot new
machines from Hewlett-Packard, Texas Instruments,
and other manufacturers. Books, software, and
accessories are included, and they'll even burn
custom ROMs for you, too. EduCALC, 27953 Cabot
Rd., Laguna Niguel, CA, 92677. Toll -free telephone 1-
800-633-2252.

VOLUME XI 85
 BUILD AN AUDIO TAPE
NOISE LIMITER
By Darren Yates

Sick of hearing that "hiss" during the quiet passages of

your favorite music cassette? Then remove it with this
tape noise limiter. It uses only three common
transistors and can be built in a couple of hours.

Tape noise is one of the major drawbacks of audio When the quiet passages occur, Q3 is turned on
and video cassettes. Even though it is always and the filter is brought into action. Figure 1 shows its
there, it is only noticeable during the quiet response. Notice that all the frequencies below
passages of music. 3.3kHz are allowed to pass whereas the frequencies
Even on many video cassettes, the audio quality above 3.3kHz are progressively cut, the higher in
can be quite bad with that "hiss" easily heard on many frequency we go.
tapes. This type of filter is known as a low-pass filter
With many "passive" noise removers (i.e. ones that because it allows low frequencies to pass unimpeded,
use no transistors or ICs), capacitors and resistors are and progressively blocks the higher ones.
used to make simple filters which remove most of the Now, let's have a look at the circuit diagram in
high frequencies that make up most noise. Figure 2, and see how we make the transistor switch
The problem with these, however, is that they act all work at the right time.
the time and reduce the clarity of the speech or music, At the input to the circuit, some of the signal is taken
even when the noise cannot be heard through it. by the 1uF capacitor and coupled via a level control
The circuit we present here is also known as a VR1 to the base of transistor Q1. VR1 allows you to set
voltage -controlled filter and only works when the the signal level at which the filter should come on. It
signal level drops below a preset level where noise also sets how hard the filter works, whether it reduces
becomes noticeable. It adjusts itself to cut the high the high frequencies either a little or a lot.
frequencies, when there is no sound to be heard Transistor 01 is set up as an amplifier with a gain of
(other than noise) and then turns itself off when the about 180. It amplifies the signal so that we get a
speech or music, we want to hear, returns allowing all signal level of a few volts.
those juicy high frequencies to pass through again. The signal is then coupled via a 4.7uF capacitor to
two diodes and another 4.7uF capacitor. These
components form a voltage rectifier and doubler. It
AUDIO TAPE NOISE LIMITER takes the AC signal and turns it into a DC voltage
twice its original value. Since it works on the principle

--\
N...\*-,
,.....,
N
of the more signal input, the more DC voltage, we
have the means now to control the switch and make it
cut in at the right time.

\ \\
\
N
We now feed this DC voltage into the base of
N. transistor Q2. This transistor acts as an inverter, so

\\ .
....,
N.
N that when we get a voltage at the base of Q2, we get no
A B\ \ D volts at its collector, and when we get no volts at the
\ base, we get volts at its collector.
3kHz The base of the transistor "switch" Q3 is connected
A -D: RESPONSE WITH INCREASING INPUT SIGNAL to this collector point of Q2.
If we get a DC voltage at the base of 02, we know
that we have a reasonably loud signal at the input, so
FIGURE 1 we don't want the filter to cut in. (This is because we
won't hear the noise anyway!)
How It Works This voltage causes 02 to turn on and the voltage at
its collector drops to about 0.2 volts. Because the
The main part of the filter is the 4.7K resistor and the base of 03 only has 0.2 volts across its base -emitter
0.01uF capacitor. Transistor Q3 operates as a junction, it doesn't turn on and so the filter stays off,
voltage -controlled switch. just as we want it to.

86/ ELECTRONICS HANDBOOK

 AUDIO TAPE NOISE LIMITER
IN 4.7K OUT
O

I 1 uF
JV\A.

+9V
--O
i- 0.01uF

4.7K

50K
(t1DBC549
82K 4.7K

1N914 4.7K
BC549
4.7uF
1N914
4.7uF
BC549

18K

1K 10uF

FIGURE 2
When the voltage at the base of Q2 disappears, we quiet passages. When they occur, adjust VR1 to give
now have little or no signal coming through. This is what you think is the best result.
when we are likely to notice noise. Because there is no All you need do now, is enjoy the fruits of your labor
voltage at its base, Q2 turns off and its collector now and listen to relatively noise -free sound.
goes to nearly 9 volts. But because we can only have
0.6 volts across the base -emitter junction of 03, it now
turns on hard, bringing the filter into play-just as we PARTS LIST FOR AUDIO TAPE NOISE LIMITER
want. 3-BC549 NPN Transistors (2N5818 or Equiv.)
When you build this, useeithera pieceofveroboard 2-IN914 signal diodes
or if you have the facilities, make your own printed 1-10uF electrolytic capacitor (16VW)
board. Make sure that your 9 volt power supply is well 2-4.7uF (16VW) electrolytics
regulated otherwise AC hum can leak through into 1-1uF (16VW) electrolytic
the circuit and be heard at the output. 1-0.01uF metalized polyester
1-50K ohms linear pot.
When you install the circuit, fit it between the 1-82K ohms ('/4W) 5%
cassette deck or video recorder and your audio 1-18K ohms
amplifier using either phono plugs or small jack 2-4.7K ohms
plugs. Now play a tape or video that has a number of 1-1K ohm

ELECTRONICS HANDBOOK v11

P.O. Box #5148, N. Branch, N.J. 08876
gtlÓ D Yes. Enter my subscription -4 issues ONLY $15.00

'ti9
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VOLUME XI 87
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88 / ELECTRONICS HANDBOOK
 CONSTRUCTION
A.UICKIE
SOLID STATE
RELAY
By Joe O'Connell
their currents as low as 5 mA. The capacitors supress high
arts. frequency noise that might otherwise trigger the
slays triac. For overvoltage protection, add a low voltage
cing, zener diode and fuse as shown in the schematic. The
:hese triac driver opto -isolator can be either the standard
more MOC3010 or the MOC3031 which incorporates zero -
FREE were crossing circuitry. Use the zero -crossing driver if the
their load you are controlling is sensitive to line noise or if it

Now
CATALOG!
you can
train
ready
has a large transformer -input power supply.
This relay is suitable as an extension switch for
make controlling large loads. It can be located right next to
at home for DItage the device being controlled, with thin DC control
career advancement, part-time power wires run to a remote battery and switch. This allows
earnings, even a business triac you to avoid long high -power wiring runs that cost
your own. Send the postage of input more to install, develop a voltage loss, and are
- =input governed by electrical codes. Because the low
paid card attached to voltage control circuitry is electrically isolated from
this flap. circuit the 120 Vac, the relay is ideal when safety is
iperate important. One of the frequent uses of low voltage
'clue of relays is switching lights, heaters, and fans from in or
bt input near showers and pools.

RELAY
0.25 A
instrument fuse
opto-isolator

-
low
voltage
control .1 µF
3-6 V
2W
. C

MOC3010
3

-3
390 nV MT2

.01 µF
load o

120
Vac

or
R MOC3031 gate MT,

R = input volts X 50 o

SOLID STATE RELAY

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