10

Simple Machines
10.1. General concept of a machine. 10.2. Important definitions. 10.3. Relation between M.A.,
V.R. and η. 10.4. Concept of friction in a machine. 10.5. Condition for reversibility of a machine.
10.6. Non-reversible/irreversible or self-locking machine. 10.7. Law of a machine. 10.8. Maximum
mechanical advantage, and efficiency. 10.9. Some lifting machines. 10.10. Simple wheel and
axle. 10.11. Wheel and differential axle. 10.12. Pulleys–Simple pulley–A single fixed pulley–A
movable and a fixed pulley–Combination of pulleys. 10.13. Weston’s differential pulley block.
10.14. Worm and worm wheel. 10.15. Single purchase crab winch. 10.16. Double purchase crab
winch. 10.17. Simple screw jack. 10.18. Differential screw jack—Highlights—Objective Type
Questions—Exercises—Theoretical Questions—Unsolved Examples.

10.1. GENERAL CONCEPT OF A MACHINE

A ‘machine’ may be defined as a contrivance or a device which receives energy in some avail-
able form and uses it for doing a particular useful work.
Example. The steam engine converts the energy provided by the steam into motion of trans-
lation.
A ‘lifting machine’ may be defined as contrivance to overcome a force or load (W) applied at
one point by means of another force called effort (P). In most of the cases, P is smaller than W, but
sometimes it may be greater than W.
A machine has the following three features :
(i) The point of application of effort
(ii) Mechanism—the working part that makes up a machine
(iii) The point where useful work is done or load is lifted.
The machines may be of the following two types :
1. Simple machines
2. Compound machines.
A simple machine has only one point for the application of effort and one point for load. Its
mechanism is simple. Examples : Lever, inclined plane, screw jack, sewing machine etc.
A compound machine has more than one point for application of effort and for load. Its
mechanism is compound or complicated. Examples : Printing machine, lathe machine, milling
machine, planer, shaper etc.

10.2. IMPORTANT DEFINITIONS

(i) Mechanical advantage (M.A.). It is the defined as the ratio of weight lifted (W) to the
effort applied (P). It is always expressed in pure number.
W
M.A. = ...(10.1)
P

269
270 APPLIED MECHANICS

(ii) Velocity ratio (V.R.). It is the ratio of distance (y) moved by the effort to the distance (x)
moved by the load
y
V.R. = ...(10.2)
x
(iii) Input of a machine. It is the work done on the machine. In a lifting machine, it is
measured by the product of effort and the distance through which it has moved (i.e., P × y).
(iv) Output of a machine. It is the actual work done by the machine. In a lifting machine it
is measured by the product of the weight lifted and the distance through which it has been lifted
(i.e., W × x).
(v) Efficiency of a machine (ηη). It is ratio of output to the input of a machine.
Output
i.e., η= ...(10.3)
Input
It is generally expressed as a percentage.
(vi) Ideal machine. A machine is said to be ideal if its efficiency is 100%. In this case,
output is equal to input.

10.3. RELATION BETWEEN M.A., V.R. AND η

Let W = load lifted by the machine
P = effort required to lift the load
y = distance moved by the effort, in lifting the load
x = distance moved by the load, and
η = efficiency of the machine.
Then, mechanical advantage of the machine,
W
M.A. =
P
and velocity ratio of the machine,
y
V.R. =
x
Input of a machine = effort applied × distance through which the effort has been moved
=P×y
Output of a machine = load lifted × distance through which the load has been lifted
=W×x
Output W × x W / P
∴ Efficiency, η= = =
Input P× y y/ x
M. A.
= ...(10.4)
V. R.

10.4. CONCEPT OF FRICTION IN A MACHINE

Some losses always occur in every machine and mostly they are due to friction. One way of
determining the same is by calculating the efficiency of the machine. The alternate method is to
express the frictional losses in the following ways :
(i) in terms of loss of effort
(ii) in terms of loss of weight/load lifted.
SIMPLE MACHINES 271

Let P = actual effort (considering the machine friction) required to lift a load.
W = actual load (considering the machine friction) lifted or resistance overcome.
Wi = ideal load (neglecting machine friction) lifted or resistance overcome.
Fp = loss of effort due to friction
Fw = loss of load due to friction
Loss of effort due to friction.
FP = P – Pi ...(10.5)
Loss of load due to friction
FW = Wi – W ...(10.6)
To calculate, Pi consider an ideal machine in which η = 1.
We know, M.A. = η × V.R.
W
= 1 × V.R.
Pi

W
or Pi = ...(10.7)
V. R.
Substituting the value of Pi in eqn. (10.5)
W
FP = P – ...(10.8)
V. R.
To calculate, Wi again consider an ideal machine
M.A. = η × V.R.
Wi
= 1 × V.R.
P
∴ Wi = P × V.R. ...(10.9)
Substituting the value of Wi in eqn. (10.6)
FW = P × V.R. – W ...(10.10)
From eqns. (10.8) and (10.10),
FW = FP × V.R. ...(10.11)
If for a machine P, Pi, W and Wi are known, the efficiency of a machine
Pi W
η= = ...[10.12 (a)]
P Wi

Output M. A. Pi W
Hence, η= = = = ...[10.12 (b)]
Input V.R. P Wi

10.5. CONDITION FOR REVERSIBILITY OF A MACHINE

When the machine is capable of doing work in the reverse direction due to its load, as the
effort is totally removed, the machine is said to be reversible. As soon as the effort is removed the
work done on the load will be input rather than output and here the input will be equal to frictional
losses.
272 APPLIED MECHANICS

The condition for reversibility of a machine is determined as follows :

Let W = load lifted by the machine,
P = effort required to lift the load,
y = distance moved by the effort, and
x = distance moved by the load.
Then, input of the machine
=P×y
and output of the machine
=W×x
Frictional losses in the machine
= input – output
=P×y–W×x
In a reversible machine, the output of the machine should be more than the machine friction
when the effort (P) is zero.
i.e., W × x > ( P × y – W × x) ...[10.13 (a)]
2W × x > P × y
W×x 1
>
P×y 2

W/P 1
>
y/ x 2

M. A. 1 FG∵ W y IJ
>
V. R. 2 H P
= M. A. and = V.R.
x K
1
η> > 0.5
2
> 50% ...[10.13 (b)]
Hence, for a machine to be reversible the efficiency of the machine is to be greater than 50%.

10.6. NON-REVERSIBLE/IRREVERSIBLE OR SELF-LOCKING MACHINE

When the machine is not capable of doing any work in the reversed direction, after the effort
is removed, then the machine is called a non-reversible/irreversible or self-locking machine. The
condition for a machine to be self locking is that its efficiency should not be more than 50%.

10.7. LAW OF A MACHINE

The law of a machine gives the relationship between the effort applied and the load lifted.
For any machine if a graph is plotted between effort P and load lifted W it will be found that
it follows a straight line relationship
P = mW + C ...(10.14)
This graph does not pass through O but makes an intercept C on the P-axis which shows the
effort is lost in overcoming frictional resistance only (refer to Fig. 10.1). The constant ‘m’ shows the
slope of the graph.
The equation P = mW + C is known as the law of machine. W1 and W2 are noted the values
of constants ‘m’ and ‘C’ can be found as follows :
SIMPLE MACHINES 273

P1 = mW1 + C ...[10.15 (a)]

P2 = mW2 + C ...[10.15 (b)]
Subtracting eqn. [10.15 (b)] from eqn. [10.15 (a)]
P1 – P2 = m(W1 – W2)
P1 − P2
m= ...(10.16)
W1 − W2
Substituting the value of m in eqn. [10.15 (a)], we get

F P −P I W +C
GH W − W JK
P1 = 1
1
2
2
1

C=P – G
F P −P I W
H W − W JK
1 2
or 1 1 ...(10.17)
1 2

10.8. MAXIMUM MECHANICAL ADVANTAGE AND EFFICIENCY

We know that,
Mechanical advantage, M.A. = W/P

W
= (∵ P = mW + C)
mW + C

1
= ...(10.18)
C
m+
W

FG C IJ will decrease and M.A. will increase. When the

If W increases, the denominator m +
H W K
C
value of W is extremely high, will tend to be zero and corresponding M.A. will be maximum.
W
1
∴ (M.A.)max = ...(10.19)
m
We know that, M.A. = η × V.R.
M. A. 1 1
η= = × ...(10.20)
V.R. m + C V.R.
W
The velocity ratio in any machine is fixed. Thus, η is directly proportional to M.A. For
maximum M.A., the efficiency will also be maximum.
(M. A.) max
Maximum efficiency, ηmax =
V. R.
1
= ...(10.21)
m × V.R.
274 APPLIED MECHANICS

If η-W (i.e., efficiency-load) graph is plotted the hmax. h – W curve

curve will be as shown in Fig. 10.1.
+C
From eqns. (10.18) to (10.21), it is concluded that W
P =m
(i) M.A. increases with load, P2 2
P – W curve
(ii) η also increases with load, P1 1 a
h P
(iii) M.A. will be maximum at a very high value
of load, and
(iv) η will also be maximum at a very high value C
W1 W2
of load. O W
Fig. 10.1
Example 10.1. In a lifting machine a load of 100 N is moved through a distance of 5 cm, by
an effort P moving through a distance of 80 cm. Find the value of P if the efficiency of the machine is
60%.
Sol. Load lifted W = 100 N
Distance moved by the effort = 80 cm
Distance moved by the load = 5 cm
Efficiency, η = 60%
Effort, value of P = ?
We know that :
Mechanical advantage,
W 100
M.A. = = .
P P
y distance moved by the effort
Velocity ratio, V.R. = =
x distance moved by the load

80
= = 16.
5
M. A
Efficiency, η= × 100
V. R.
100 / P 100 × 100
60 = × 100 =
16 P × 16

100 × 100
or P=
60 × 16
= 10.42 N. (Ans.)
Example 10.2. A machine raised a load of 360 N through a distance of 200 mm. The effort,
a force of 60 N moved 1.8 m during the process. Calculate :
(i) velocity ratio;
(ii) mechanical advantage;
(iii) effect of friction; and
(iv) efficiency at this load.
SIMPLE MACHINES 275
Sol. Load raised, W = 360 N
Effort applied, P = 60 N
Distance moved by the effort, y = 1.8 m = 1800 mm
Distance moved by the load, x = 200 mm
(i) Mechanical advantage, M.A. = ?
We know that mechanical advantage,
W 360
M.A. = = = 6. (Ans.)
P 60
(ii) Velocity ratio, V.R. = ?
y 1800
Velocity ratio, V.R. = = = 9. (Ans.)
x 200
(iii) Efficiency = ?
M. A 6
Efficiency at this load, η = × 100 = × 100
V. R. 9
= 66.66%. (Ans.)
(iv) Effect of friction = ?
We know that,
W 360
Effort lost in friction, Fp = P – = 60 –
V. R. 9
= 20 N. (Ans.)
Friction in terms of load,
Fw = P × V.R. – W
= 60 × 9 – 360 = 180 N. (Ans.)
W
Example 10.3. The law of a certain lifting machine is P = + 15
. . The velocity ratio of the
50
machine is 100. Find the maximum possible mechanical advantage and maximum possible efficiency
of the machine. Determine the effort required to overcome friction while lifting a load of 150 N. Also
calculate the efficiency at this load.
Sol. Mechanical advantage,
W W 1
M.A. = = =
P W 1 1.5
+ 1.5 +
50 50 W
1
(M.A.)max = Lt = 50. (Ans.)
W →∞ 1 1.5
+
50 W
(M. A.)max 50
ηmax = = = 50%. (Ans.)
V. R. 100
The effort required to lift a load of 150 N,
150
P= + 1.5 = 4.5 N,
50
The ideal effort Pi required to lift a load of 150 N
W 150
Pi = = = 1.5 N.
V. R. 100
276 APPLIED MECHANICS

∴ Effort required to overcome friction at a load of 150 N is

= P – Pi
= 4.5 – 1.5 = 3 N. (Ans.)
The efficiency at this load is given by,
W 150
η= = = 0.3333
P × V.R. 4.5 × 100
= 33.33%. (Ans.)
+Example 10.4. In a lifting machine an effort of 15 N raised a load of 770 N. What is the
mechanical advantage ? Find the velocity ratio, if the efficiency at this load is 60%.
If on the machine effort of 25 N raised a load of 1320 N, what is the efficiency ? What will be
the effort required to raise a load of 500 N ? Calculate the maximum mechanical advantage and
maximum efficiency ?
Sol. Case I
Load raised, W = 770 N
Effort applied, P = 15 N
Efficiency, η = 60%
W 770
∴ M.A. = = = 51.33. (Ans.)
P 15
M. A. W
Also η= =
V.R. P × V.R.

770
or 0.6 = .
15 × V.R

770
∴ V.R. = = 85.55. (Ans.)
0.6 × 15
Case II
Velocity ratio, V.R. = 85.55
Load raised, W = 1320 N
Effort applied, P = 25 N
1320
∴ M.A. = = 52.8
25
M. A. 52.8
Also, η= = = 0.6172 = 61.72%. (Ans.)
V. R. 85.55
Case III
When P = 15 N W = 770 N
and when P = 25 N W = 1320 N
Using these values in the law of machine,
i.e., P = mW + C
15 = m × 770 + C ...(i)
25 = m × 1320 + C ...(ii)
SIMPLE MACHINES 277
Subtracting (i) from (ii),
10 = 550 m
10 1
∴ m= = = 0.0182
550 55
Substituting this value of m in eqn. (i), we get
15 = 770 × 0.0182 + C
∴ C=1
Thus, the law of machine is
P = 0.0182 W + 1
∴ Effort required to raise a load of 500 N
P = 0.0182 × 500 + 1
= 10.1 N. (Ans.)
Maximum mechanical advantage :
Using the relation,
1 1
(M.A.)max = = = 55. (Ans.)
m 0.0182
Maximum efficiency :
Using the relation,
1
ηmax =
m × V.R.

1
= = 0.642
0.0182 × 85.55
or, = 64.2%. (Ans.)
+ Example 10.5. (a) Explain the difference between a reversible and a self-locking machine.
(b) What load will be lifted by an effort of 12 N if the velocity ratio is 18 and the efficiency of
the machine at this load is 60%. If the machine has a constant frictional resistance, determine the
law of machine and find the effort required to run the machine at (i) no load and (ii) load of 90 N.
Sol. (a) Refer to text.
(b) Effort applied, P = 12 N
Velocity ratio, V.R. = 18
Efficiency, η = 60%
Load lifted, W =?
Using the relation,
M. A. W
η= =
V.R. P × V.R.

W
0.6 =
12 × 18
∴ W = 129.6 N. (Ans.)
278 APPLIED MECHANICS

Effort lost in friction,

W 129.6
FP = P – = 12 − = 4.8 N.
V. R. 18
As the frictional resistance is constant the effort required to run the machine with no load
must be equal to 4.8 N.
Let the law of machine is
P = mW + C ...(i)
When P = 4.8 N, W = 0
When P = 12 N, W = 129.6 N.
Substituting the values in (i), we get
12 = 129.6 m + C ...(ii)
4.8 = 0 + C ...(iii)
Solving (ii) and (iii), we get
1
m=and C = 4.8
18
Hence, the law of machine is
1
P= W + 4.8. (Ans.)
18
At no load, i.e., W=0
1
P= × 0 + 4.8 = 4.8 N. (Ans.)
18
At W = 90 N
1
P= × 90 + 4.8 = 9.8 N. (Ans.)
18
Example 10.6. In a lifting machine, the efforts required to lift loads of 20 N and 30 N were
5 N and 6 N respectively. If the velocity ratio of the machine is 20, determine.
(i) Law of the machine,
(ii) Efficiencies corresponding to loads of 20 N and 30 N,
(iii) Effort lost in friction in both cases, and
(iv) The maximum efficiency which can be expected from this machine.
Sol. (i) Law of the machine = ?
Let the law of machine be
P = mW + C
where P = effort applied
W = load lifted
m and C being two constants.
Now, when W = 20 N P=5N
and when W = 30 N P = 6 N.
Putting these values in the law of machine,
5 = 20 m + C ...(i)
6 = 30 m + C ..(ii)
SIMPLE MACHINES 279
Subtracting (i) from (ii), we get
1 = 10 m
1
∴ m=
10
Putting this value in eqn. (i),
1
5 = 20 × +C
10
∴ C=3
Hence, the machine follows the law
1
P= W + 3. (Ans.)
10
(ii) Efficiencies = ?
When W = 20 N, P=5N
W 20
∴ M.A. = = =4
P 5
Also V.R. = 20
∴ Efficiency at this load
4
η= × 100 = 20%. (Ans.)
20
When W = 30 N, P = 6 N
W 30
∴ M.A. = = = 5.
P 6
∴ Efficiency at this load
5
= × 100 = 25%. (Ans.)
20
(iii) Effort lost in friction = ?
When W = 20 N, P = 5 N
Effort lost in friction,
W 20
FP = P − =5− = 4 N. (Ans.)
V. R 20
When W = 30 N, P = 6 N
W
Effort lost in friction FP = P −
V. R.
30
= 6− = 4.5 N. (Ans.)
20
(iv) Maximum efficiency = ?
Maximum possible efficiency of any machine
1 1
= =
m × V.R. 1
× 20
10
= 0.5 = 50%. (Ans.)
280 APPLIED MECHANICS

Example 10.7. The law of a machine taken from the load (W) versus effort (P) graph, where
W and P are in N is
W = 3P – 16
Find: (i) the effort which can raise a load of 200 N,
(ii) the load which an effort of 20 N will lift,
(iii) the effort required to operate the machine at no load, and
(iv) the efficiency under a load or 110 N if the velocity ratio is 4.
Sol. The law of machine is
W = 3P – 16
where W = load lifted in N
P = effort applied in N
(i) When W = 200 N
Let P be the corresponding value of the effort
∴ 200 = 3P – 16
∴ P = 72 N. (Ans.)
(ii) When P = 20 N
Let W = load lifted
∴ W = 3 × 20 – 16 = 44 N. (Ans.)
(iii) When there is no load on the machine
i.e., W=0
∴ 0 = 3P – 16
16
or P= = 5.33 N. (Ans.)
3
(iv) When W = 110 N
110 = 3P – 16
P = 42 N
W 110
∴ M.A. = = = 2.62
P 42
M. A. 2.62
and η= = = 0.655
V.R. 4
or = 65.5% (Ans.)

10.9. SOME LIFTING MACHINES

Some important lifting machines are given below :
1. Simple wheel and axle
2. Wheel and differential axle
3. Pulleys :
(i) First system of pulleys
(ii) Second system of pulleys
(iii) Third system of pulleys
4. Weston’s differential pulley block
Continuation ……………
EXAPLES OF LIFTING MACHINES
Some examples important lifting machines are:
1. Simple wheel and axle
2. Wheel and differential axle
3. Pulleys:
(i) First System of Pulleys
(ii) Second System of Pulleys
(iii) Third system of pulley
(iv) Weston’s differential pulley block
4. Worm and worm wheel
5. Single purchase crab winch
6. Double purchase crab winch
7. Simple screw jack
8. Differential screw jack.
PROBLEMS
1. In a lifting machine a load of 500 N is lifted by an effort of 12.5 N. While the load moves
up by 5 mm the point of application of effort moves by 400 cm. DETERMINE:
(i) Mechanical advantage
(ii) Velocity ratio
(iii) Efficiency of this machine. [Ans. (i) 40, (ii) 80, (iii) 50%]
2. The velocity ratio of a mechanic is 20. If the efficiency of this machine is 60% what effort
will be required to lift a load of 240 N. [Ans. 20 N]
3. A machine can lift a load of 450 N with an effort of 30 N. The velocity ratio of a machine
is 20. DETERMINE:
(i) The machine friction in terms of effort and load.
(ii) Its efficiency. [Ans. Fp = 7.5 N; FW = 150 N; 75%]
4. The velocity ratio of a certain machine is 75. The law of machine is P = W/45+3.
DETERMINE:
(i) The maximum mechanical advantage
(ii) The Maximum Efficiency.
(iii) STATE whether the machine is reversible or not. [Ans. 45; 60%, reversible]