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A comparative review on power conversion topologies and energy storage

system for electric vehicles

Article in International Journal of Energy Research · April 2020

DOI: 10.1002/er.5353

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Received: 17 October 2019 Revised: 12 February 2020 Accepted: 27 February 2020
DOI: 10.1002/er.5353

REVIEW PAPER

A comparative review on power conversion topologies

and energy storage system for electric vehicles

Dhananjay Kumar | Rajesh K. Nema | Sushma Gupta

Department of Electrical Engineering,

Maulana Azad National Institute of
Summary
Technology, Bhopal, India Fossil fuel depletion and its adverse impact on global warming is a major driving
force for a recent upsurge in the development of hybrid electric vehicles technol-
Correspondence
Dhananjay Kumar, Department of ogies. This paper is a conglomeration of the recent literature in the usages of an
Electrical Engineering, Maulana Azad energy storage system and power conversion topologies in electric vehicles
National Institute of Technology, Bhopal,
(EVs). An EV requires sources that have high power and energy density to
India.
Email: dhananjayk00@gmail.com decrease the charging time. Commonly used energy storage devices in EVs are
fuel cells, batteries, ultracapacitors, flywheel, and photovoltaic arrays. The power
output from energy storage sources is conditioned to match load characteristics
with the source for maximum power delivery. A DC-DC converter topology per-
forms this task by way of transforming voltage under the condition of power
invariance. In addition, power electronics is also required to power DC/AC
motors efficiently with precise control as these motors provide tractive efforts
and acts as prime movers. This paper therefore brings out a critical review of the
literature on EV's power conversion topologies and energy storage systems with
challenges, opportunities and future directions by systematic classification of EVs
and energy storage.

KEYWORDS
batteries, electric vehicles, fuel cell, hybrid electric vehicle, motors, power converters,
ultracapacitors

1 | INTRODUCTION Mitsubishi, Volkswagen, BMW, and Ford are developing an

electric vehicle that takes energy from FC and/or battery.1
Serious environmental concerns of air pollution, ozone-layer Historically, the EVs have been in use since 1800s but suf-
depletion, and global warming owe to ever-increasing con- fered further contemporary development, as gasoline
sumption of fossil fuels in IC engine-based vehicles. Because became available at relatively lower-cost and internal com-
of irrational usage of petroleum in automobiles, the fossil bustion engine got an electric starter offering ease of opera-
fuel reserve is also diminishing day by day. The growing tion and control.2
environmental concerns and depleting fossil fuels have led The last decade of twentieth century has seen resur-
automobile manufacturers to shift their focus from IC gence of interest in EVs, and General Motors (GM) devel-
engine-based vehicles to the vehicles that run on electricity oped a pure electric vehicle called EV1 in 1990s. The EV1
(EVs). The research advancement in battery technology, was a battery-operated vehicle that had used lead acid batte-
ultracapacitor (UC), fuel cell (FC), and combination thereof ries and an asynchronous induction motor to drive the
has further supported development of EVs. The automobile wheels. During the same era, other automotive companies
companies such as Daimler, General Motors, Toyota, Honda, also started developing EVs, such as RAV4; a pure electric

Int J Energy Res. 2020;1–23. wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/er © 2020 John Wiley & Sons Ltd 1
2 KUMAR ET AL.

version, and the Prius; a hybrid vehicle version, from Toyota electric vehicle were sold in 2017 alone. Figure 1 depicts
in 1996.3,4 global sale of EVs over the span of 5 years, where China
The obvious driving forces for recent interest in EVs alone has contributed to the half of the sale.24 Presently,
are emphasis on CO2 reduction, accelerated by availabil- the total number of electric vehicle on the road surpassed
ity of cost effective renewable energy sources and battery three million worldwide registering growths of 50%
technologies for EVs.5-12 The Green technologies such as since 2016.
fuel cells, solar panels, and battery can serve as main This paper intends to make a comprehensive review
power source whereas the UC and the flywheel may sup- about power conversion topologies, ESS in electric vehi-
ply transitory power demands. As of now, the battery cost cles. Sections 2 briefly discuss classification of electric
is the major constituent of the total cost of EVs.13-15 vehicles. Section 3 presents the energy sources for HEV.
Some latest paper on the EVs has disclosed in Refer- The Section 4 describes various electric motors (EMs)
ences 16-21. The paper referred to as 16 presents a review used to drive wheel of EVs. Section 5 proposes some lat-
on FCHEV and energy sharing between FC, battery, and est concept of power conversion topologies for EVs.
UC. The author in Reference 17 presents a review on dif- Finally, Sections 6 elaborates the challenges, opportuni-
ferent hybrid configurations, power electronic converters, ties and future directions incorporated with EVs followed
electric propulsion motors, and various energy manage- by conclusions are given in Section 7.
ment strategies are explained. The paper referred to as 18
explores an overview of energy management strategies of
hybrid energy storage systems (ESSs) configurations along 2 | CLASSIFICATION
with words on energy storage and a constituent of the pro- OF ELECTRIC VEHICLES
pulsion system. A battery thermal management system for
EVs is reviewed,19 and challenges and opportunities for The IC engine is the most commonly used prime mover
battery electric vehicles (BEVs) are discussed.20,21 Whereas for commercial and passenger vehicles due to established
in this paper, a comparative assessment of potential technology. In the course of development, an EM in con-
methods/technology of EVs, energy storage, and power junction with IC engine is being used to power vehicle
conversion topologies. Moreover, the paper includes recent giving rise to a hybrid version; commonly termed as HEV
modifications in EVs due to technology advancement. or hybrid electric vehicle. As such, the vehicles may intui-
Also elaborates challenges, opportunities, and future direc- tively be classified as internal combustion engine vehicles
tions trends. (ICEVs), HEVs and AEVs. The ICEV is driven by gasoline-
Broadly speaking, the electric vehicles may be classi- based internal combustion engine (ICE), and HEV uses
fied as hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) and all electric vehi- multiple power sources of energy for the vehicle maneu-
cle (AEV). The AEVs are based on electrical energy vering whereas the source of power in case of AEVs is
sources such as fuel fell, cattery, UC, and photovoltaic.22 electricity alone. In essence, an HEV is the result of the
The development of AEV/HEVs is primarily motivated hybridization of ICEVs and AEVs. The pictorial represen-
with primary concern in reduction of green house gases tation of vehicles classification and sub-classification is
(GHG) as road transport alone accounts for around 28% shown in Figure 2. As present paper intends to discuss
of GHG emissions.23 The transport sector being major EVs, its variant AEVs and HEVs are only discussed with
source of emission, promotion of usage of electric vehicle their sub-classification in following subsections.
may be one of the best methods for reducing GHG emis-
sion and saving the environment. Realizing global bene-
fits of electric vehicle usage worldwide, over one million 2.1 | All electric vehicles

2.1.1 | Battery electric vehicles

An EV exclusively powered by a battery bank is referred

as pure electric vehicles. It has the benefit of no harmful
emission into the environment but with the constraints
on intermittent recharging and distance covered.25,26 The
simple power train architecture, low conversion losses
(electrical to mechanical energy), low vehicle weight and
ecofriendly nature is some of the positive aspects of
FIGURE 1 Number of electric cars in circulation24 [Colour BEVs. However the requirement of high torque traction
figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com] motor, relatively large recharging time and requirement
KUMAR ET AL. 3

FIGURE 2 Classification of vehicles [Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]

F I G U R E 3 Powertrain architecture of (A) BEV, (B) FCEV, (C) FCHEV, (D) series HEV, (E) parallel HEV and (F) dual mode HEV
[Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
4 KUMAR ET AL.

TABLE 1 Different characteristics of ICEV/BEV/FCHEV/HEV/PHEV

Energy source
and Important
Characteristics Propulsion Energy system infrastructure Advantages Disadvantages issues
ICE vehicles43,44 IC engine-based Fuel tank Petroleum Better performance, Low efficiency, Nonrenewable,
drives (crude oils) simple operation, harmful harmful
products with fully emission, poor emission,
refueling commercialized, fuel economy, dependent on
station reliable, durable comparatively crude oils, fuel
bulky economy
BEV25,26 Electric motor Battery, ultra Electric grid Zero emission, Battery Weight and size
drives capacitor charging independence on management, of battery pack
petroleum high performance and ICE,
products, short propulsion, high impact on grid,
driving range initial cost, power flow
(100-200 km), charging facilities management
commercially and control,
available infrastructure
for charging
station
FCHEV30 Electric motor Fuel cell, battery, Hydrogen, fuel Zero emission, high Hydrogen cost is Cost of H2,
drive ultra-capacitor, efficiency, high, fuelling infrastructure
flywheel independence on system, fuel for H2 storage,
crude oil, high processor refilling station,
driving range cycle life and
reliability
HEV31-38 Electric motor Battery, ultra Gasoline Low emission, Dependent on Weight and size
drives and IC capacitor, ICE stations, commercially driving cycle, of battery pack
engines generating units infrastructure available, long battery sizing and ICE,
for grid driving range and, depend on integration of
charging crude oils, higher components,
facilities cost power
(optional) management
for multi-input
energy storage
source
Plug in HEV39-42 IC engine, Fuel tank, battery, Electrical energy Energy efficient, Higher complexity, Weight and size
EPS-based ultra-capacitor with charging petroleum impact on grid, of battery pack,
drive facilities products with poor dynamic infrastructure
charging station, response for charging
V2G or G2V station, power
capability, flow
gradually management
commercializing and control

of battery management are few drawbacks. Nissan LEAF, recently due to high efficiency and low emission of fuel
Tesla Model S, BMW i3, Ford Focus electric is the exam- cell.27,28 Among various types of commercially available
ples for the BEVs. The power train architecture of BEV is FCs, the PEMFC (proton exchange membrane fuel cell)
shown in Figure 3A. is preferably used.29 The power train architecture of
FCEV is identical to BEV as shown in Figure 3B. The
main disadvantage of FCHEV is the high cost of fuel
2.1.2 | Fuel cell electric vehicles (H2). Honda FCX Clarity, Toyota Mirai, and Hyundai
Tuscan are some examples of the FC-based vehicles.
The fuel cell (FC)-based EV (FCEV) is powered exclu- Table 1 shows the characteristics of different electric
sively by FC. The FCEV has gained much popularity vehicles.
KUMAR ET AL. 5

2.1.3 | Fuel cell hybrid electric vehicle Renault Scenic. The parallel HEVs available in the mar-
ket are the Honda Civic Hybrid and Honda Insight. The
A hybrid combination of battery and FC may be used to power train architecture of parallel hybrid is shown in
power the vehicle. The modified powertrain with ESS Figure 3E.
and suitable power electronics converters give a new
vehicle configuration called FC-based HEV abbreviated
as FCHEV. The FCHEV is environmentally friendly and 2.2.3 | Series-parallel hybrid electric
do not produce any harmful emissions,30 wherein FC acts vehicles
as power source and generates electricity to feed EM for
driving of the vehicle. Both battery and FC generate elec- In series-parallel hybrid electric vehicles, besides
tricity hence their hybrid combination fall within the direct coupling of ICE and EM in parallel mode, the
realm of AEVs. These sources individually have been dis- ICE is also coupled with generator to generate the elec-
cussed in Sections 2.1.1 and 2.1.2 above, their pertaining tricity to charge the battery through power electronics
issues are enlisted in Table 1. The power train architec- interface (series mode) to drive the vehicle. There exists
ture of FCHEV is shown in Figure 3C. two pathways (series and parallel) of delivering power
to the wheels, thus it combines features of both series
and parallel hybrids and also known as dual mode
2.2 | Hybrid electric vehicles HEV.36,37
The series-parallel hybrid is also known as power-split
2.2.1 | Series hybrid electric vehicles hybrid, wherein a device splits the power between ICE
and EM. The power-split device can be mechanical (eg,
Series hybrid is a type where tractive effort is exclusively planetary gearbox) or electrical (electric power splitter). A
provided by EMs, whereas ICE is coupled with genera- planetary gearbox is used for example in Toyota Prius or
tor to produce electricity to power EMs for vehicle pro- Lexus RX400h, both these companies are part of the
pulsion. The required power rating of EM is higher than Toyota concern. The configuration of this hybrid is simi-
the parallel hybrids. Series hybrid is sometimes referred lar to the parallel hybrid (Figure 3F). The series path has
to the range-extended electric vehicles.31,32 The biggest a link between the ICE and electric generator. The main
advantage of this concept is that the ICE can operate at benefit of this system is that it can be run on both series
highest possible efficiency (as engine and vehicle rpm as well as in parallel mode.38
are decoupled) thereby reducing the fuel consumption.
This system however requires large size electrical
machines, large battery pack and battery charging 2.2.4 | Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles
arrangement via an electric generator.33 The basic
power train architecture is shown in Figure 3D. The The plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) is a novel
required power electronic circuits in series HEV are rec- and imminent technology in transportation as well as in
tifiers (convert the AC alternator output to DC for batter power sector.39 PHEV is a vehicle that uses batteries or
charging), a DC-DC converter, and inverter (DC to AC another energy storage that can be recharged by plugging
conversion) for motor propulsion. Low maintenance and it to an external source of electric power. PHEVs are a
longer life are the main attractions of series HEV. It is compromise between pure gasoline and pure electric
useful for urban driving conditions. Chevrolet Volt is an vehicles.40-42 Frequently driven by electric power, PHEVs
example of series HEV. are also driven by ICE when the battery gets discharged.
Low fuel consumption and reduced emissions are some
of its advantages which are counteracted by the high cost
2.2.2 | Parallel hybrid electric vehicles of battery. The examples of PHEV are Ford C-MAX
Energi, Chevy Volt, and Toyota Prius.
In parallel hybrid EVs, tractive effort to drive vehicle Looking into the advantages/disadvantages and ancil-
wheel may be drawn from ICE and EM, in addition to lary issues in Table 1, the FC hybrid electric vehicle is a
their concurrent parallel operation during acceleration potential technology to be explored emphatically in
and braking.34,35 The ICE and EM are directly coupled to future. The FCHEV can play a significant role in the all
vehicle wheels through a mechanical transmission sys- future HEV, if the issues related with availability and cost
tem, making it possible to downsize the rating of both of H2 (Production, conditioning and storage) could be
ICE and EM.36 In most cases, the ICE is dominant and resolved, as it offers zero emission, high efficiency and
runs continuously. The first vehicle with this system is a high driving range.
6 KUMAR ET AL.

3 | HYBRID ELECTRIC VEHICLE and recycling. Ragone plot rates various energy sources
ENER GY S OURCES for their energy density and power density and compare
them on a scale as shown in Figure 4. It may be inferred
Energy sources/storage being used with AEV or HEVs from the figure that FC and battery though have lower
include FCs, batteries, supercapacitors/UCs and fly- power density yet are sources with high energy density.
wheels. The FC is an electrochemical device that pro- The Ragone plots (1968) were first used by Ragone's
duces electrical energy via chemical energy. Similarly, in his paper to discuss battery behavior in EVs, which is
batteries store electrical energy as chemical energy, with later revised to include other storage such as UC and fly-
the difference that a battery generates and stores energy wheel. From Ragone plot, it may be inferred that Li-ion
while FC can only generate energy. For driving a vehicle, batteries have relatively high-energy densities and fairly
energy sources are selected based on their energy supply good power density therefore a preferred source in BEVs,
capability. The sources with high power capability are whereas film capacitor and electrolytic capacitors have
referred as “Main Energy Source” (MES), and MES with high power density but fairly low-energy density with dis-
capability of frequent charging and discharging are charge rates (1 millisecond-1 second) implying that this
known as “Rechargeable Energy Storage System”.43 The source can supply high power for a very small duration.22
main attributes that affect choice of energy source for
vehicular application include power density, energy
density, size, safety, life cycle, maintenance, durability, 3.1 | Fuel cell

The first FC was developed way back in 1839 by Sir

William Grove. It is an electrochemical device that
requires hydrogen (H2) and oxygen (O2) as basic feed to
produce electrical energy using chemical energy of the
reactants.44-46 In vehicular applications, FC is very pop-
ular because it offers high conversion efficiency with
zero-emission, as water is the only byproduct of FC. The
generalized structure of FC is shown in Figure 5.
Among various FC technologies (Table 2), the
PEMFC is preferred FC in vehicular applications48,54 due
to its low operating temperature, small size, high power
density, and quick startup. The mathematical equations
(1) to (10) that models PEMFC electrical and chemical
behavior are therefore given below:
The output voltage of the single PEMFC cell VCell is
cell's no load voltage Vnernst minus various voltage drops.
The voltage drop in the FC corresponds to activation loss
F I G U R E 4 Energy density vs power density for energy storage Vact, ohmic loss Vohmic, and concentration loss Vconc.55
systems [Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com] The cell voltage VCell is thus given as:

F I G U R E 5 Architecture of
fuel cell [Colour figure can be viewed at
wileyonlinelibrary.com]
 KUMAR ET AL.

TABLE 2 Comparison of various type of fuel cell14,41-55

Polymer electrolyte
membrane fuel cell Alkaline fuel Phosphoric acid fuel Molten carbonate fuel Direct methanol fuel
Parameters (PEMFC) cell (AFC) cell (PAFC) cell (MCFC) Solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC) cell (DMFC)
Electrolyte type Solid organic polymer Aqueous solution of Liquid phosphoric acid Liquid solution of lithium, Yttria stabilized zirconia Solid polymer membrane
poly-perfluorosulfonic potassium soaked in a matrix sodium and potassium (Y2O2, ZrO2)
acid hydroxide soaked (H2PO4) carbonates soaked in a
in a matrix matrix (LiAlO2)
Operating 50-100 900-100 150-200 600-700 600-1000 60-200
temperature
(
C)
Anode reaction H2 ! 2H+ + 2e− H2 + 2(OH−) ! H2 ! 2H+ + 2e− H2 O + CO23 − ! H2 + O2 ! H2O + 2e− CH3OH + H2O ! CO2 + 6H+
2H2O + 2e− H2 O + CO2 + 2e − + 6H−
1 1 1 1 1
Cathode 2 O2 + 2H + + 2e − ! H2 O 2 O2 + 2H2 O + 2e 2 O2 + 2H + + 2e − ! H2 O 2 O2 + CO2 + 2e − ! CO23 − 2 O2 + 2e − ! O2 − 3O2 + 12H+ +
reaction − 12H− ! 6H2O
! 2ðOHÞ

System <1-250 10-100 50-1000 <1-1000 <1-3000 <1-1000

output (kW)
Efficiency (%) 53-58 60 >40 45-47 35-43 40
Cell voltage (V) 1.1 1.0 1.1 0.7-1.0 0.8-1.0 0.2-0.4
Power density 3.8-6.5 ~1 0.8-1.9 1.5-2.6 0.1-1.5 ~0.6
(kW/m2)
Capacity 30 W-250 kW 10-100 kW 100 kW-1.3 MW 155 kW-2 MW 1 kW-1.7 MW 1 W-1 kW
Applications Electric vehicles, small Space, military Military, small DG Large DG, electric utility Large DG, electric utility, Used as battery replacement in
distributed generator auxiliary power mobile phones, computers
(DG), portable power and portable devices
devices
7
8 KUMAR ET AL.

V Cell = V nernst −V act −V ohmic −V conc : ð1Þ under power invariance. A power electronics DC-DC con-
verter is invariably used for the purpose. Theoretically, a
The no load voltage Vnernst is a function of cell tem- FC produces nearly 1.23 V under no load or lightly loaded
perature T and partial pressure of hydrogen PH2 and oxy- condition, but practically it is always less than 1.23 V due
gen PO2 is given as: to ohmic and activation losses within.48-55 In literature,
various types of FCs are discussed; a comparison of the
V nernst = 1:229 −8:5 × 10 − 4 ðT −298:15Þ same under various parameters is presented in Table 2.
ð2Þ
−4:308 × 10 − 5 ðT Þð ln PH2 + 0:5 ln PO2 Þ: From Table 2, it may be inferred that polymer electro-
lyte membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) is best suited for
FCHEV for its low operating temperature, better effi-
Voltage drops corresponding to activation loss Vact is ciency, and power generation capacity in the range 30 W
governed by: to 250 kW, though its cost and production of H2 is still a
major issue to be resolved.
V act = δ1 + γT + δ3 T ln CO2 + δ4 T ln I, ð3Þ

γ = δ2 + 2 × 10 − 4 ln A + 4:5 × 10 − 5 ln C H2 , ð4Þ 3.2 | Battery

A battery is an electrochemical device that converts and

CO2 = PO2 1:93 × 10 − 7 × e T ,
498
ð5Þ
stores chemical energy into electricity. It is categorized
− 77
into two types: (a) nonrechargeable primary batteries and
C H2 = PH2 9:17 × 10 − 7 × e T , ð6Þ (b) rechargeable secondary batteries. A secondary battery
is rechargeable and ideal for vehicular applications. The
where δ1, δ2, δ3, δ4, and γ are empirical coefficients CO2 , desirable key features of battery technology in vehicular
CH2 , respectively, are the concentration of oxygen and application are high energy density, modularity, flexibil-
hydrogen in the cell, and A is the area of membrane. ity, low cost/affordability, low maintenance, and good life
The ohmic loss Vohmic is given by: span.56 Batteries which suit the electric vehicle traction
are the lithium-based battery.57-59 The diagrammatic rep-
V ohmic = I ðRm + Rt Þ, ð7Þ resentation of a secondary battery is shown in Figure 6.
The low energy density of lead batteries makes them
where, Rm is the equivalent resistance of electron flow suitable for their usage in the vehicles for short term and
and Rt is the proton resistance. The Rmis expressed as: starting purpose only. For medium and long-term appli-
cations, the lithium and nickel-based batteries are the
ρl
Rm = , ð8Þ
A

where ρ is the specific resistivity of membrane and l is

the thickness of membrane.
The specific resistivity of membrane ρ is given by:
h

T 2
I 2:5 i
181:6 1 + 0:03 AI + 0:06 303 A
ρ= 
 
 : ð9Þ
σ −0:634 −3 AI exp 4:18 T −T303

The concentration overvoltage Vconc is given by:

  
I
V conc = m1 exp −m2 : ð10Þ
A

Electrically, the FC demonstrates drooping V-I char-

acteristic with high current at relatively low voltage. This
drooping characteristics require power electronics
converters to match FC and load (electric vehicle) charac- F I G U R E 6 Diagrammatic representation of a secondary
teristics for optimum power delivery from source to load battery [Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
TABLE 3 Classification and application of batteries56-62
KUMAR ET AL.

Specific Production
Energy storage type Specific energy (Wh/kg) Energy density (Wh/L) power (W/kg) Life cycle Energy efficiency (%) cost ($/kWh) Applications
−
Lead acid battery At anode: Pb + SO24 −! PbSO4 + 2e Electric vehicles, UPS, grid
At cathode: PbO2 + SO24 − + 4H + + 2e − ! PbSO4 + 2H2 O storage, lighting and ignition
Net reaction: Pb + PbO2 + 2H2SO4 ! 2PbSO4 + 2H2O
Lead acid 35 100 180 1000 >80 60
Advanced lead acid 45 — 250 1500 — 200
Metal foil lead acid 30 — 900 500+ — —
Nickel battery At anode: Cd + OH− ! Cd(OH)2 + 2e− Digital cameras, electric
At cathode: 2NiO(OH) + 2H2O + 2e− ! 2Ni(OH)2 + 2OH− vehicles, portables
Net reaction: 2NiO(OH) + Cd + 2H2O ! 2Ni(OH)2 + Cd(OH)2 electronics and toys
Nickel-iron 50-60 60 100-150 2000 75 150-200
Nickel-zinc 75 140 170-260 300 76
Nickel-cadmium (Ni-Cd) 50-80 300 200 2000 75 250-300
Nickel-metal hydride 70-95 180-220 200-300 <3000 70 200-250
(Ni-MH)
Lithium battery At anode: LiC6 $ C6 + Li+ + e− Electric vehicles, smart phones,
At cathode: CoO2 + Li+ + e− $ LiCoO2 laptops, electric toys, digital
Net reaction: LiC2 + 2Na $ Ni + NaCl cameras
Lithium-iron sulfide (FeS) 150 — 300 1000+ 80 110
Lithium-iron phosphate 120 220 2000-4500 42 000 — 350
(LiFePO4)
Lithium-ion polymer (LiPo) 130-225 200-250 260-450 >1200 — 150
Lithium-ion 118-250 200-400 200-430 2000 95 150
Lithium-titanate (LiTiO/ 80-100 — 4000 18 000 — 2000
NiMnO2)
Zebra battery At anode: 2Na $ 2Na+ + 2e− Automobile application
At cathode: NiCl2 + 2Na+ + 2e− $ Ni + 2NaCl
Net reaction: NiCl2 + 2Na $ Ni + NaCl
Sodium-sulfur 150-240 — 150-230 800+ 80 250-450
Sodium-nickel chloride 90-120 160 155 1200+ 80 230-345
Metal-air battery At anode: M $ M+ + e− where, M is a metal Grid energy storage and electric
At cathode: M+ + xO2 + e− $ MO2x vehicles
Net reaction: M + xO2 $ MO2x
Aluminum-air 220 — 60 — — —
Zinc-air 460 1400 80-140 200 60 90-120
Zinc-refillable 460 — — — — —
Lithium-air 1800 — — — — —
9
10 KUMAR ET AL.

most appropriate. Among nickel-based batteries, Ni-Cd vehicular application. Though, Li-ion batteries have ben-
and Ni-MH technologies are fully developed, and the efits of declining trend in cost and weight for its matured
scope of any further technological improvement or cost technology and increased usages, yet other options are
reduction is minimal. Hence, the interest of automakers also being explored due to associated charging problems.
has shifted on lithium-based batteries for their inherent
benefits of low weight, high energy density, and low
cost.60-62 3.3 | Ultracapacitor

UC or supercapacitor (electrochemical capacitor) is a

3.2.1 | Classification and application device, which has fairly good energy and power density,
long life cycle, and efficient operation. It can tolerate
The batteries have been reliable source of energy since millions of charging/discharging cycles due to charge
long time. Different batteries with different electrolyte, fea- storage mechanism.63-65 Traditional capacitors have two
tures, and capacities have been developed over the course electrodes separated with a dielectric material, while UCs
of time and now available commercially. Table 3 shows are constructed with porous carbon electrodes, which
various types of battery specification and applications.56-62 provide high surface area (1000 m2/g) with the electrolyte
It may be inferred from Table 3 that Li-ion batteries and very small separation of the order of 10 Å. The tradi-
have high specific energy, high specific power, high effi- tional capacitor measures in picofarads (pF), microfarads
ciency, fairly good life cycle, and high energy storage, (μF) and milli-farads (mF), but UC has capacitance
therefore, makes it the most potential candidate in measured in relatively larger unit of Farads (F).65,66 Dia-
grammatic representation of an UC is shown in Figure 7.
UCs can be used as an alternative to battery in many
applications due to high efficiency (>90%), high capacity,
and higher operating temperature. Significant improve-
ments in nano-material technology have led to develop-
ment of UCs with increased value of capacitance. The
increased usages of UCs in vehicular applications have
steered its commercialization further, thus reducing its
manufacturing cost. The UCs with higher capacitances
are being used for staring and braking of EVs as well as
for back-up and emergency power supplies.66
Different types of UC or supercapacitor are compared
in Table 4. Supercapacitors offer advantage of relatively
F I G U R E 7 Diagrammatic representation of an ultracapacitor high-power density than batteries, allowing them to rap-
or supercapacitor [Colour figure can be viewed at idly charge and discharge making it useful in supplying
wileyonlinelibrary.com] transitory power demand. However, supercapacitors is

TABLE 4 Comparison of various types of ultracapacitor, their characteristics and application63-68

Electric Advanced Advanced

Parameters double-layer carbon carbon Pseudo-capacitor Hybrid capacitor Hybrid capacitor
Electrode Activated Graphite carbon Nanotube forest Metal oxides Carbon/metal oxide Carbon/lead oxide
material carbon
Charge storage Charge Charge transfer Charge Redox charge Double layer/charge Double layer/faradaic
mechanisms separation separation transfer transfer
Specific energy 5-7 8-12 — 10-15 10-15 10-12
(Wh/kg)
Specific power 1-3 m 1-2 m — 1-2 m 1-2 m 1-2 m
(w/kg)
Cell voltage (V) 2.5-3 3-3.5 2.5-3 2-3.5 2-3.3 1.5-2.2
Life cycle (y) 40 40 40 40 40 40
Efficiency (%) >95 >95 >95 >95 >95 >95
KUMAR ET AL. 11

low in energy storage, hence cannot be a substitute to enclosure whereas vacuum container is not needed in a
battery in EVs. low-speed FESS structure. The high-speed FESS mostly
finds its application in space technology. Diagrammatic
representation of a Flywheel ESS is shown in Figure 9.
3.3.1 | Classification and application FESS offers many advantages as: environmentally
friendly, long life span, little maintenance and does not
As shown in Figure 8, UCs can be classified into three pollute.70 Huang et al. proposed a magnetic flywheel con-
major groups that are electrochemical double-layer trol to improve slow output response of FCs in FCHEV to
capacitor, pseudocapacitors, and hybrid capacitors. The prevent unstable operation if caused by irregular loading
chemical properties of various classifications of UCs and or an abrupt increase in power demand.71 The instability
their area of application have presented in Table 4.67,68 due to sudden jerks affects driving safety and may also
reduce FC lifespan and efficiency. Magnetic flywheels hail
various features such as high-speed charging ability, high-
3.4 | Flywheel energy storage system energy density, and low losses, and therefore broadly
applied in Formula One cars. A comparison of some
The flywheel is an electro-mechanical energy storage performance parameters of ESSs such as battery, UC, and
device, which stores rotational kinetic energy and flywheel in EV usages is tabulated in Table 5.
serves as a mechanical battery. Flywheel energy stor- Among various storage technologies in Table 5, it
age system (FESS) generally used in hybrid electric may be inferred that Flywheel has the highest nominal
vehicle, railways, marine, space, wind turbine, hybrid power capacity, whereas UCs have fastest response and
power generation system, and other applications. Basi- discharge time. The lead acid battery is low in efficiency,
cally, there are three main devices in FESS that whereas UCs and flywheel have efficiency which is at
include: (a) inertia wheel and motor-generator set
called machine, (b) rotor bearing, and (c) power elec-
tronic circuit or interface.69 The kinetic energy (EK)
stored in a flywheel corresponds to the moment of iner-
tia and the square of its rotational speed as follows:

1
EK = , ð11Þ
2Jω2

where J is the moment of inertia and ω is the angular

velocity.
FESS also finds applications for the power system sta-
bility improvements, power smoothing, power quality
improvement and renewable energy integration support.
FESS can be classified as low-speed FEES, and high-
speed FESSs. Both these types have different physical F I G U R E 9 Diagrammatic representation of a flywheel energy
construction and its application. The high-speed FESS storage system [Colour figure can be viewed at
employs magnetic bearing, composite disk and vacuum wileyonlinelibrary.com]

FIGURE 8 Classification of different supercapacitors [Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]

12 KUMAR ET AL.

TABLE 5 Summary of storage technologies72

Battery

Characteristics Lithium ion Lead acid Ultracapacitor Flywheel

Typical nominal power 10 kW to 10 MW 50 kW to 30 MW 10 kW to 1 MW 10 kW to 20 MW
Discharge time 10 min to 1 h 15 min to 4 h 1 s to 1 min 1 s to 1 h
Response time (ms) 30-100 30-100 5-10 5-10
Efficiency (%) 85-90 75-90 85-95 85-95

F I G U R E 1 0 Comparison of
annual cost of different energy
storage sources [Colour figure can be
viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]

par. The Li-ion battery also has fairly good efficiency. source as APG. Some automakers such as Chevrolet Volt
Comparison of annual cost of different ESS is shown in and Prius started to incorporate photovoltaic on the roof-
Figure 10. top of the vehicle. Abdel et al. have studied that PV
energy corresponding to photovoltaic panel area of 4 m2
is sufficient to drive solar powered vehicle.14,77
3.5 | Photovoltaic cell

The photovoltaic cell (PV) source in EVs is generally used 4 | MOTORS IN ELECTRICAL
as auxiliary power generators (APG). As APG, the PV VEH I CL ES
panel integration into EV charging systems is increasing
day by day for: (a) constant reduction in the cost of PV The EM exerts tractive effort to drive wheel, thus consti-
modules and (b) rapid growth in electric vehicle applica- tutes a prominent component of EV's propulsion system
tions.73 To optimize EV's onboard power, the surface area to translate electrical energy into mechanical energy.78
of the vehicle where PV panels can be mounted has to be The EMs in EV's propulsion system needs to be high-
maximized. performance energy-efficient motors, light in weight,
Electrically, the power delivery by PV source is maxi- with resilience to undergo frequent starting and stopping
mum when it operates at its maximum power point cycle. Selecting EM in EV propulsion systems requires
(MPP). Under MPP condition; the load resistance and consideration of high adaptability to different working
source resistance become equal in accordance with maxi- and hostile environment subjected to severe rate of
mum power transfer theorem. This matching of load change in motion during acceleration and deceleration.79
resistance with the source resistance is achieved by a Riba et al compared induction motor, permanent mag-
power electronics DC-DC converter under varying envi- net synchronous motor (PMSM) and switch reluctance
ronmental condition. The power electronics interface motor (SRM), for their possible applications in EVs. The
(DC-DC converter) in conjunction with MPP algorithm torque-speed characteristics of a motor decide vehicle per-
ensures delivery of maximum power to load under given formance under various loading conditions to deliver the
condition of solar insolation and temperature.74-76 An required torque at desired speed. Figure 11 is a representa-
efficient MPP tracker is therefore required with PV tive torque vs speed and power vs speed characteristics of
KUMAR ET AL. 13

an EM that could be used in EV application. It may be caused by windage and friction in rotor region are key
observed from Figure 11 that constant torque operation is losses that vary with rotational speeds. These losses thus
desirable until base speed, and beyond base speed, the reduce system efficiency and require complex cooling sys-
constant power operation is required.80 The operational tems.82 DC motors were a natural choice for electric vehi-
efficiency of electrical propulsion system can be enhanced cle in the beginning, but with the advent of efficient
by recovering energy at the time of braking.81 A brief clas- power electronic controllers, AC motors are gaining more
sification of brushless motors for EVs propulsion system is popularity especially in high power applications. Many
presented in Figure 12. DC motor-based EVs models are available in the market,
for example, ZAP Xebra, Kewet Buddy, Peugeot-Citroen/
Berlingo (France), NICE Mega city.83 Figure 13A shows
4.1 | DC motor the cross-sectional view of DC motor.
Based on the literature survey, a comparative chart of
Initially, DC motors were used in electric vehicle pro- performance parameters of various motors that find
pulsion systems due to high starting torque and simple application in electric vehicles is prepared as shown in
speed control; though were bulky and less efficient.78 Figure 14. It can be seen that the performance of the con-
These motors have disadvantages in vehicle propulsion ventional DC motor has the minimum score in all perfor-
system because of frequent maintenance required by mance indices except maturity, controllability, and speed
its mechanical commutators and brushes. The losses range where induction motor (IM) or PMSM cannot be
alternative.

4.2 | Induction motor

IM is also called as asynchronous motor or squirrel cage/

slip-ring induction motor (SCIM). The torque is generated
by an electromagnetic interaction in the stator winding's
magnetic field and the induced rotor field. The power losses
in IM are due to copper-iron losses in stator and rotor and
losses due to friction and windage. SCIM can be considered
as a good alternative for high-power electric propulsion sys-
tem due to its inherent power density, higher efficiency,
and low maintenance. Also, it has simple and robust struc-
F I G U R E 1 1 Torque and power vs speed characteristics of a tural arrangement that produces high torque, making it fit
typical vehicle propulsion system for electric vehicle applications.84 A structural design

FIGURE 12 Classification of brushless motors for EVs propulsion system [Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
14 KUMAR ET AL.

FIGURE 13 Cross-sectional
projection of various motors (A) DC
motor, (B) induction motor,
(C) permanent-magnet motor with
tangential, and (D) V-type
assembled structure, (E) I-PMSM
and (F) SRM [Colour figure can be
viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]

F I G U R E 1 4 Electrical-
propulsion system evaluation
[Colour figure can be viewed at
wileyonlinelibrary.com]

describing its cross-sectional projection of the IM is shown compete with IM in design and performance for applica-
in Figure 13B. Some of the SCIM-based electric cars that tion in electric propulsion systems. These brushless
were commercialized in early 90's were Tesla Model S, Ford motors are mainly classified into two types based on sup-
Focus, Honda Fit EV, REVA NXR, Ford Ranger, GM S-10, ply: (a) brushless AC (BLAC) motor and (b) brushless DC
Tazzari Zero, Mahindra's e-20, Toyota's RAV-4.83,85 Refer- (BLDC) motor.86,87 Construction wise, the stator of BLDC
ring to Figure 14, it may be observed that conventional IM motor has housing for winding and normally generate
has a moderate score in almost all performance indices trapezoidal back emf. These BLDC motors are often sup-
except on reliability, technological maturity, cost, robust- plied by rectangular phase currents. The field arrange-
ness, and life time. ment is at the rotor that uses PM, producing a strong
magnetic field around its periphery. At synchronous
speed, the rotor pole locks with the stator's rotating mag-
4.3 | Permanent magnet brushless netic field. Nowadays, PM motors are used in electric
motors vehicles, due to high efficiency, higher power density,
and effective dispersion of heat in the environment. The
Among all commutator less motors, permanent magnet rotor loss in PM motor is very as flux generation is
(PM) brushless motor is the only candidate that can through PMs, resulting in higher efficiency of the motor.
KUMAR ET AL. 15

Besides, it has a high-energy density because of its hard- stator faults in EV's propulsion system. The power electron-
shell rotor construction. PM motors are suitable for very ics include converter topologies (with proper choice of power
high-speed applications.88,89 Figure 13C and Figure 13D switching device and switching scheme) and appropriate con-
show a cross-sectional view of PM type motor with tan- trol and monitoring systems employed for maneuvering of
gential and V-type structure assembled, respectively. electric vehicles. The main requirements on the part of
The basic structure of PM motors is classified based on power electronics in HEV application are: (a) high effi-
location of its PMs. In traditional PM motors, the PM is ciency, (b) small size, and (c) low cost. The main converters
either embedded in the rotor or on the rotor surface. The topologies as used in current HEVs and EVs belong to the
interior permanent magnet (IPM) motor consists of PMs class of DC/DC and DC/AC converter topologies.
embedded in rotor; hence, there are no ohmic losses except In earlier version of EV's converter topologies, MOSFET
eddy current losses. High-speed range can be achieved by used to be preferred switching device, which is subsequently
field weakening as in conventional DC motors. The operat- replaced by IGBT modules. The advancement in switching
ing principle of interior permanent magnet synchronous device technology and improvements in silicon carbide (SiC)
motor (IPMSM) is similar to conventional synchronous and gallium nitride (GaN) device,96 new and efficient topolo-
motor. A structural design describing its cross-sectional gies have emerged and reported in literature. Table 6 gives
projection of the IPMSMs is shown in Figure 13E. The the summary of state-of-art power conversion topologies in
IPM synchronous motors are preferred in vehicular HEV application with associated Figure 15A-L.31,97-107
application,90 and the commercially available vehicles
driven by PMSMs are: Volkswagen e-Golf, BMW i3,
Nissan Leaf, Mitsubishi i-MiEV, Bollore Bluecar, 6 | CHALLENGES,
Chevrolet Spark EV, and Mercedes-Benz Vito E-Cell.83,91 OPPORTUNITIES, AND F UTURE
It may be observed from the Figure 14, that conventional DI R EC TI ON S
PMSM has better score in almost all performance indices
except on controllability, reliability, technological matu- A new EV model is placed in the market almost every
rity, cost, robustness, life time, and torque ripple. day by automotive industry with some technological
upgradation. Yet EVs have to prove a viable alternative to
ICE based Vehicles, though their volume on road is con-
4.4 | Switch reluctance motor stantly increasing. The EV industries have yet to address
many techno-economic challenges to make EV popular
SRM is an upcoming technology that can lead to and successful in terms of design and its widespread
manufacturing of more efficient vehicles. These motors are employment. The challenges are as follows:
capable of operating at high speed and high temperature. It
has a simple salient type structure with concentric windings • Short driving ranges and limited dynamic performance
on the stator, with no winding on the rotor. A cross-sectional due to usages of a single energy source.
view of the SRM motor is shown in Figure 13F. Due to its • Relatively higher cost of the EVs.
robust structure, it can handle high temperatures at a wide • ESS occupies a substantial space.
speed range.92,93 It has a lower rate of idle losses and has • Availability of limited number of plug-in charging sta-
robust structure that can work under difficult operational tion/hydrogen refueling station in case of FCHEV.
environments. The SRM control becomes much easier as • Post usages dumping issues of batteries and FC due to
compared to the induction motor at higher operating speeds. hazardous material present therein.
The SRM motor has the drawback of high torque ripples due • System reliability issue due to reliability issues of con-
to changing inductance even at lower speeds.94,95 Referring stituent component of power converter, batteries, stor-
to Figure 14, it may be observed that conventional SRM has age devices, EM, and FC stacks.
moderate score in almost all performance in comparison to
other motors. In view of the above challenges, the opportunities can
be seen in terms of:

5 | P O W E R CO N V ER S I O N • Research opportunities in battery technology for much

TOPOLOGIES FOR HEV higher specific power and energy giving higher driving
A PP L I C A T IO N S range.
• Creation of new infrastructure for hydrogen refueling
The power electronics has to control electric machine and and battery charging on roads at regular interval of dis-
monitor and detect any failures like bearing, rotor and tance, thus inviting infrastructural investment.
16 KUMAR ET AL.

TABLE 6 Summary of power conversion topologies for HEVs31,97-107

Control Controller Proposed for

Converter type strategy used vehicle types Description
Current fed dual-half Power pulsation Proportional FC power • Proposed strategy substitutes bulky electrolytic
bridge (CF-DHB) decoupling resonant (PR) conditioning capacitor with a film capacitor by controlling
DC-DC converter97 strategy system CF-DHB using power pulsation decoupling strategy as
(Figure 15A) to obtain low ripple free input current
• To eliminate double-frequency ripple current
disturbance (DFRCD) experienced by fuel cell stack
caused by inverter side load, the author has proposed
PR controller, which is designed for extra gain at a
designed resonant frequency to eliminate DFRCD
Current fed hybrid Duty cycle PWM FC power • The high-frequency input current minimized due to
dual-active control conditioning the switching of switches at a 50% duty cycle
bridge98 system • A notch filter is used in the feedback path to reduce the
(Figure 15B) current ripple of the input when a single-phase inverter
load on FC is integrated. Zero voltage switching can be
achieved with the proposed control strategies
Bidirectional isolated — PWM FC power • The DC-DC converter continues even when the
DC-DC converter99 conditioning voltage on the device is decreasing with its discharge
(Figure 15C) system • On the basis of theoretical calculation and experimental
measurements power loss and peak current inflict on
constraints allowable values of DC voltage
• Capacitor bank can be charged from zero to rated
voltage through DC-DC converters without any
external recharging circuit
Quasi Z-source boost — PI FCEV • The quasi-Z source network comprises of “L1-D2-L2-
DC-DC converter C1-C2,” and switched-capacitor network comprises of
with switched C3-D4, C4-D5 and C5-D3, C5 with C4 in series as to
capacitor100 feed energy to the load
(Figure 15D) • At the same period, Uin, L1, L2 and C3 in series
transfer energy to series combination of C4, C5 and
the load, through D1, D2 and D5
• Therefore, the voltage-gain M of the proposed
converter is 1 −22d
• Combined advantages of topology: high voltage
increase with a large input voltage range, power
switches on passive components and low voltage
stress
• For corresponding changes in input voltage, the PI
controller in the voltage loop minimizes output
voltage changes
Two input Sliding mode Hybrid sliding HEV • Authors have used sliding surfaces, for two sources of
bidirectional control (SMC) mode battery and supercapacitors and IWO for tuning of
converter101 and invasive controller SMC parameters to control two inputs bidirectional
(Figure 15E) weed converter
optimization • The proposed hybrid SMC controller which uses IWO
(IWO) is robust in dealing system uncertainties without any
reaching phase as in conventional SMC. The accrued
benefits are: operation over wide load range with
good transient response over fine range of regulating
frequency
Bidirectional CLLC DSP-based PI Plug-in electric • An integrated transformer has been suggested to
converter control vehicles increase the power density and efficiency of the
integrated strategy system
KUMAR ET AL. 17

TABLE 6 (Continued)

Control Controller Proposed for

Converter type strategy used vehicle types Description
transformer 102
• The synchronous rectification controls the turn-on
(Figure 15F) and turn-off times based on the phase difference
between the resonant current and the gate pulse
• A basic closed-loop system is designed and discussed
Dual input dual — One-step-ahead HEV • A one-step-ahead controller for inductor current
output converter controller control is used with the mode selection logic to use its
(DIDO)103 operating mode, which is established on the
(Figure 15G) availability and security of the sources
• A laboratory prototype is built with the DSP
controller TMS320F28035 to validate the efficacy
of DIDO
Interleaved boost Radial basis MPPT controller FCEV • The proposed converter reduces the FC input current
converter104 function ripples and voltage stress on the power semiconductor
(Figure 15H) network switch
(RBFN)-based • Fuzzy logic controller (FLC) MPPT controller
strategy compared to the proposed MPPT technique, the
results explain that the RBFN-based MPPT controller
tracks MPP faster than the fuzzy logic controller
Interleaved — Minimum time FCHEV • To improve interleave converter usage; an intelligent
bidirectional boost controller control scheme is modeled that describes the
converter105 representation of the closed-loop in the current
(Figure 15I) tracking. Therefore, two moderators have modeled:
one transient-state controller and a steady-state
• The proposed first controller is a loud noise that
ensures a quick transition of the initial state to some
of the closed areas about the reference
• The proposed second controller assures local
asymptomatic stabilization of the specific desired
range of cycles and is based on surface design
switching
Interleaved boost dSpace PI FCHEV • The proposed converter is more efficient than other
DC-DC converter31 DS1104-based DC-DC converter topologies to achieve the high
(Figure 15J) control performance and reliability of the power DC-DC
algorithm converter
• A PI controller is proposed to control the output
voltage while changing the duty cycle. The proposed
experimental results of the DC-DC converter present
the feasibility of the proposed model for small-signal
analysis, steady-state analysis and generated model
explorations
Bidirectional DC-DC Duty cycle PWM EV • A novel combination of a five-level T-type multilevel
converter106 control inverter coupled to a modified bi-directional DC-DC
(Figure 15K) multilevel converter
• In addition, such conventional configurations require
the addition of voltage capacitance circuits or special
switching patterns to protect the voltage balance of
the DC capacitor with feedback and control loops
Multi-input Fuzzy logic PI EV • Authors have used fuzzy controller and a rate limiter
converter (MIC)107 controller in bidirectional non-isolated MIC for electric vehicle
(Figure 15L) • The acquired benefits of topology define the battery
life span as well as the utility of the hybrid system
over the input range of the converter
18 KUMAR ET AL.

FIGURE 15 (A) Current-fed dual-half bridge converter-based FC power conditioning system,97 (B) proposed CF-DHB converter,98
(C) bidirectional isolated DC-DC converter,99 (D) quasi-Z source step-up DC-DC converter,100 (E) two input bidirectional converter for energy
exchange between ultracapacitors port, battery port and load,101 (F) topology of half-bridge CCLC converter,102 (G) dual input dual output power
converter,103 (H) 3-Phase high voltage gain IBC,104 (I) two interleaved bidirectional converter,105 (J) multiphase boost topology,31 (K) bidirectional
DC-DC converter connected to the T-type multilevel inverter,106 (L) proposed multi-input converter for battery/UC HESS107
KUMAR ET AL. 19

• New sustainable business model with plug-in hybrid the New Policies Scenario, and the promises made by
energy vehicle charging station/ refueling station in Electric Vehicle Initiative's EV30@30 Campaign to influ-
public locations, battery swapping and otherwise. ence 30% market share for electric vehicles in all types by
• Development of state of the art technologies of power 2030 except two-wheelers is taken care by the EV30@30
converter, batteries, storage devices, EM, and FC sta- Scenario. As per the New Policies Scenario, the EV sales are
cks with increased reliability and reduced cost. supposed to reach 23 million, and the stock is expected to
• Integration of renewable energy sources such as photo- exceed 130 million vehicles by 2030 (excluding two/three-
voltaic for enhanced dynamic performance. wheelers). On the other hand, sales of EVs and stock nearly
• Initial deployment of infrastructure can be catalyzed by doubles to 43 million and more than 250 million, respec-
public–private cost sharing and regulation of electric vehi- tively. The global leader in EV market share with 57% is
cle supply equipment (EVSE) service providers with gov- China (28% excluding two/three-wheelers), subsequently
ernment's clarifications. New improved designs of EVSEs Europe with (26%) and Japan with (21%) in 2030. As per
can be mandated by extending subsidies to EVs or signifi- EV30@30 Scenario in 2030 for China, EVs account for 70%
cantly amending laws and codes by the local governments. (42% excluding two/three-wheelers) out of all vehicle sales,
• Intelligent deployment of infrastructure can be initi- almost 50% In Europe followed by 37% in Japan, 30% in
ated by the collection and sharing of data from Canada and USA, 29% in India, and 22% cumulative of all
research initiatives and demo projects. remaining countries. With the tremendous penetration of
• Proper education campaigns to attract consumers for EVs in the global market (particularly for cars), electrifica-
enhanced fuel economy with payback periods and tion in the car market essentially pushes the expansion of
diminished air and noise pollution. battery manufacturing capacity.
• Waste management of hazardous material of battery The global share of EVs is expected to rise as high as
and FC. 56% for newly manufactured cars by 2040 as per the predic-
tions by Bullish Studies (source: Bloomberg New Energy
The future direction of electric mobility is assessed by Finance, 2018). The prediction is strongly based on the eval-
Global EV Outlook 2019 through two scenarios: the uation that EVs will provide a much cheaper option com-
impact of announced policy ambitions is taken care by pared to the ICE vehicles in most of the countries of the
20 KUMAR ET AL.

world by 2025-2029 on lowering the overall cost of electric- APG auxiliary power generator
ity in comparison to gasoline (source: Bloomberg New BEV battery electric vehicle
Energy Finance, 2017). CF-DHB current-fed dual-half bridge
DC direct current
EM electric motor
7 | C ON C L U S I ON ESS energy storage system
EV electric vehicle
A comprehensive review on various issues related to hybrid FC fuel cell
electric vehicle is conducted and presented in this paper. The FCEV fuel cell electric vehicle
EVs are classified according to powertrain architecture and FESS flywheel energy storage system
compared for their merits and demerits. In addition, promi- FLC fuzzy logic controller
nent issues related to energy source/storage are explored, dis- GHG greenhouse gas
cussed, and compared for their pros and cons. With the HESS hybrid energy storage system
current knowhow, the Li-ion battery is one among the most HEV hybrid electric vehicle
suitable battery technology in vehicular application. Though ICE internal combustion engine
current trend is to use Li-ion batteries in EVs, yet battery ICEV internal combustion engine vehicle
technology is being further explored for better alternatives, IPMSM interior permanent magnet synchronous
thus still an area of hot research. The modern EVs are config- motor
ured around FC, UC, and lithium-based batteries to power MIC multi-input converter
wheels of HEVs with optimum energy management system. MLI multilevel inverter
The UCs (rated in Farads) are suitable for supplying transi- MPPT maximum power point tracking
tory power demand at the time of starting and braking of PEMFC proton exchange membrane fuel cell
EVs apart from its possible role as back-up and emergency PHEV plug-in hybrid electric vehicle
power supplies. The current trend is to use hybrid capacitors PI proportional integral
in vehicular application. PM permanent magnet
The paper also discusses various energy sources used by PV photovoltaic cell
EVs. Apart from the battery, the use of FC and solar PV as PWM pulse width modulation
APG is also gaining importance day by day and one can SMC sliding mode control
foresee that FCHEV is going to be the future of electric SRM switch reluctance motor
vehicles. The PEMFC is best suited for FCHEV for its low UC ultracapacitor
operating temperature, better efficiency, and power genera-
tion capacity in the range 30 W–250 kW. An EM acts as ORCID
prime mover in EVs. The prominent selection criteria of Dhananjay Kumar https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1764-
EM are the ease with which it can be controlled and 9928
maneuvered apart from the suitability of its torque-speed
characteristics for vehicular application. It may be con- RE FER EN CES
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