Energy Audit and Management

Prepared by
Prof. Jagdale H.D
Mechanical Engg. Dept.
ICEM
 UNIT –IV
Energy Efficiency in Thermal Utilities

Energy performance assessment and efficiency

improvement of Boilers, Furnaces, Heat exchangers,
Fans and blowers, pumps, Compressors and HVAC
systems, Steam distribution
Assessment of steam distribution losses, Steam
leakages, Steam trapping, Condensate and flash
steam recovery system
ENERGY PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENT
OF BOILERS

Purpose of the Performance Test

To find out the efficiency of the boiler
To find out the Evaporation ratio
The purpose of the performance test is to
determine actual performance and efficiency of the
boiler and compare it with design values or norms.
1.Boiler Efficiency
2. Evaporation ratio
Boiler efficiency can be tested by the following
methods:

1) The Direct Method: Where the energy gain of the

working fluid (water and steam) is compared with
the energy content of the boiler fuel.

2) The Indirect Method: Where the efficiency is the

difference between the losses and the energy input.
 Direct Method Testing
This is also known as ’input-output method’
due to the fact that it needs only the useful
output (steam) and the heat input (i.e. fuel) for
evaluating the efficiency.
 Merits and Demerits of Direct Method
Merits
 Plant people can evaluate quickly the efficiency of
boilers
 Requires few parameters for computation
 Needs few instruments for monitoring
Demerits
 Does not give clues to the operator as to why
efficiency of system is lower
 Does not calculate various losses accountable for
various efficiency levels
 Evaporation ratio and efficiency may mislead, if the
steam is highly wet due to water carryover
Calculate Boiler Efficiency and
Evaporation Ratio
 Indirect Method Testing
The disadvantages of the direct method can be
overcome by this method, which calculates the
various heat losses associated with boiler.
An important advantage of this method is that the
errors in measurement do not make significant
change in efficiency.
Thus if boiler efficiency is 90% , an error of 1% in
direct method will result in significant change in
efficiency. i.e. 90 ± 0.9 = 89.1 to 90.9.
In indirect method, 1% error in measurement of
losses will result in Efficiency = 100 - (10 ± 0.1)
= 90 ± 0.1 = 89.9 to 90.1
Indirect Method Testing
 The following losses are applicable to liquid,
gas and solid fired boiler
L1. Loss due to dry flue gas (sensible heat)
L2. Loss due to hydrogen in fuel (H2)
L3. Loss due to moisture in fuel (H2O)
L4. Loss due to moisture in air (H2O)
L5. Loss due to carbon monoxide (CO)
L6. Loss due to surface radiation, convection and
other unaccounted.
L7. Unburnt losses in fly ash (Carbon)
L8. Unburnt losses in bottom ash (Carbon)
Boiler Efficiency by indirect method
= 100 - (L1 + L2 + L3 + L4 + L5 + L6 + L7 + L8)
 Measurements Required for Performance
Assessment Testing
a)Flue gas analysis
1. Percentage of CO2 or O2 in flue gas
2. Percentage of CO in flue gas
3. Temperature of flue gas
b) Flow meter measurements for
1. Fuel
2. Steam
3. Feed water
4. Condensate water
5. Combustion air
 Measurements Required for Performance
Assessment Testing
c) Temperature measurements for
1. Flue gas 2. Steam 3. Makeup water
4. Condensate return 5. Combustion air
6. Fuel 7. Boiler feed water
d) Pressure measurements for
1. Steam 2. Fuel 3. Draft
4.Combustion air, both primary and secondary
e) Water condition
1. Total dissolved solids (TDS) 2. pH
3. Blow down rate and quantity
 Factors Affecting Boiler Performance
The various factors affecting the boiler performance are
listed below:
Periodical cleaning of boilers
Periodical soot blowing
Proper water treatment programme and blow down control
Draft control
Excess air control
Percentage loading of boiler
Steam generation pressure and temperature
Boiler insulation
Quality of fuel
 Boiler Terminology
 Maximum Continuous Rating (MCR) : Steam boilers
rated output is also usually defined as MCR
 Gross calorific value (GCV): The amount of heat
liberated by the complete combustion, under specified
conditions, by a unit volume of a gas or of a unit mass of
a solid or liquid fuel, in the determination of which the
water produced by combustion of the fuel is assumed to
be completely condensed and its latent and sensible heat
made available.
 Net calorific value (NCV): The amount of heat
generated by the complete combustion, under specified
conditions, by a unit volume of a gas or of a unit mass of
a solid or liquid fuel, in the determination of which the
water produced by the combustion of the fuel is assumed
to remain as vapour.
Blow down: The removal of some quantity of water
from the boiler in order to achieve an acceptable
concentration of dissolved and suspended solids in
the boiler water.
Saturated steam: It is the steam, whose temperature
is equal to the boiling point corresponding to that
pressure.
Wet Steam: Saturated steam which contains moisture
Dry Steam: Either saturated or superheated steam
containing no moisture.
Superheated Steam: Steam heated to a temperature
above the boiling point or saturation temperature
corresponding to its pressure
ENERGY PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENT
OF FURNACES
 Furnace is by definition a device for heating materials
and therefore a user of energy.
 Heating furnaces can be divided into batch-type (Job at
stationary position) and continuous type (large volume
of work output at regular intervals).
 The types of batch furnace include box, bogie, cover,
etc. For mass production, continuous furnaces are
used. The types of continuous furnaces include pusher-
type furnace, walking hearth-type furnace, rotary
hearth and walking beam-type furnace.
 The primary energy required for reheating / heat treatment
furnaces are in the form of Furnace oil, LDO or electricity
Purpose of the Performance Test
• To find out the efficiency of the furnace
• To find out the Specific energy consumption

The purpose of the performance test is to

determine efficiency of the furnace and specific
energy consumption for comparing with design
values or best practice norms.
Performance Terms and Definitions
Furnace Efficiency Testing Method
The energy required to increase the
temperature of a material is the product of the mass, the
change in temperature and the specific heat. i.e
Energy = Mass x Specific Het x rise in temperature

Furnace Efficiency
The efficiency of a furnace is the ratio of useful
output to heat input.
The furnace efficiency can be determined by both direct
and indirect method.
 Direct Method Testing
Thermal efficiency of the furnace =
Heat in the stock
Heat in the fuel consumed

The quantity of heat to be imparted (Q) to the stock can be found

from the formula
Q = m x Cp (t2 – t1)
Where
Q = Quantity of heat in kCal
m = Weight of the material in kg
Cp = Mean specific heat, kCal/kg°C
t2 = Final temperature desired, °C
t1 = Initial temperature of the charge before it enters the furnace, °C
 Indirect Method Testing
Various losses that occur in the fuel fired furnace-
1. Heat lost through exhaust gases either as sensible
heat, latent heat or as incomplete combustion
2. Heat loss through furnace walls and hearth
3. Heat loss to the surroundings by radiation and
convection from the outer surface of the walls
4. Heat loss through gases leaking through cracks,
openings and doors.
Efficiency= 100 –(all losses)
 Measurement Parameters
The following measurements are to be made for doing
the energy balance in oil fired reheating furnaces (e.g.
Heating Furnace)

i) Weight of stock / Number of billets heated

ii) Temperature of furnace walls, roof etc
iii) Flue gas temperature
iv) Flue gas analysis
v) Fuel Oil consumption
 Factors Affecting Furnace Performance
 Under loading due to poor hearth loading and
improper production scheduling
 Improper Design
 Use of inefficient burner
 Insufficient draft/chimney
 Absence of Waste heat recovery
 Absence of Instruments/Controls
 Improper operation/Maintenance
 High stack loss
 Improper insulation /Refractories
ENERGY PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENT
OF HEAT EXCHANGERS
Heat exchangers are equipment that transfer heat
from one medium to another.
The proper design, operation and maintenance of heat
exchangers will make the process energy efficient and
minimize energy losses.

Purpose of the Performance Test

To determine the overall heat transfer coefficient
for assessing the performance of the heat exchanger.
Performance Terms and Definitions
Overall heat transfer coefficient, U
Heat exchanger performance is normally
evaluated by the overall heat transfer coefficient U
that is defined by the equation
 Shell and tube heat exchanger

For Hot fluid, Qh = W x Cph x (Ti–To)

For Cold fluid, Qc = w x Cpc x ( to–ti)
Parameters monitored for calculation of overall
heat transfer coefficient for heat exchanger
Monitoring Instruments
Terminology used in Heat Exchangers
 ENERGY PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENT OF
FANS AND BLOWERS

Purpose of the Performance Test

The purposes of such a test are to determine, under
actual operating conditions, the volume flow rate, the
power input and the total pressure rise across the fan

Performance Terms and Definitions

Static Pressure: The absolute pressure at a point
minus the reference atmospheric pressure.
Dynamic Pressure: The rise in static pressure which
occurs when air moving with specified velocity at a
point is bought to rest without loss of mechanical
energy. It is also known as velocity pressure.
Total Pressure: The sum of static pressures and
dynamic pressures at a point.
Fan Shaft Power: The mechanical power supplied to
the fan shaft
Motor Input Power: The electrical power supplied
to the terminals of an electric motor drive.
 Factors that Could Affect Performance

Leakage, re-circulation or other defects in the system

Inaccurate estimation of flow resistance
Erroneous application of the standardized test data
Excessive loss in a system component located too
close to the fan outlet
Disturbance of the fan performance due to a bend or
other system component located too close to the fan
inlet
 ENERGY PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENT
OF WATER PUMPS
 Pumping is the process of addition of kinetic and
potential energy to a liquid for the purpose of moving it
from one point to another
 This energy will cause the liquid to do work such as flow
through a pipe or rise to a higher level.
 A centrifugal pump transforms mechanical energy from a
rotating impeller into a kinetic and potential energy
required by the system
Purpose of the Performance Test
 Determination of the pump efficiency during the
operating condition
 Determination of system resistance and the operating duty
point of the pump and compare the same with design.
 Performance Terms and Definitions
Pump Capacity
Q = Volume of liquid delivered by pump per unit
time,m3/hr or m3/sec
Q is proportional to N
where N- rotational speed of the pump
Total developed head
H = The difference of discharge and suction pressure
The pump head represents the net work done on unit
weights of a liquid in passing from inlet of the pump
to the discharge of the pump.
There are three heads in common use in pumps
(i) Static head (ii) Velocity head (iii) Friction head.
The frictional head in a system of pipes, valves and fittings
varies as a function of the capacity flow through the
system.
System resistance: The sum of frictional head in resistance
& total static head.
Pump Efficiency: Fluid power and useful work done by the
pump divided by the power input in the pump shaft.
 Determination of Pump Efficiency

To determine the pump efficiency, three key

parameters are required:
1. Flow
2. Head
3. Power
ENERGY PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENT
OF COMPRESSORS
Purpose of the Performance Test

To find out:
Actual Free Air Delivery (FAD) of the compressor
Isothermal power required
Volumetric efficiency
Specific power requirement
Performance Terms and Definitions
 ENERGY PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENT
OF HVAC SYSTEMS
Air conditioning and refrigeration consume significant
amount of energy in buildings and in process industries.
The energy consumed in air conditioning and
refrigeration systems is sensitive to load changes,
seasonal variations, operation and maintenance, ambient
conditions etc.
Purpose of the Performance Test:
Is to verify the performance of a refrigeration system
Test will measure net cooling capacity (tons of
refrigeration) and energy requirements, at the actual
operating conditions
 Performance Terms and Definitions
Tons of refrigeration (TR): One ton of refrigeration
is the amount of cooling obtained by one ton of ice
melting in one day: 3.516 thermal kW.
Net Refrigerating Capacity. A quantity defined as
the mass flow rate of the evaporator water multiplied
by the difference in enthalpy of water entering and
leaving the cooler, expressed in kCal/h, tons of
Refrigeration.
Coefficient of Performance (COP): Chiller
efficiency measured in Btu output (cooling) divided
by Btu input (electric power).
Energy Efficiency Ratio (EER):
EER is calculated by dividing a chiller's cooling
capacity (in Btu/h) by its power input (in watts) at
full-load conditions.
The higher the EER, the more efficient the unit.
 STEAM SYSTEM

Characteristics of steam
Highest specific heat and latent heat
Highest heat transfer coefficient
Easy to control and distribute
Cheap and inert
Steam is used for generating power and also used
in process industries such as sugar, paper, fertilizer,
refineries, petrochemicals, chemical, food, synthetic
fibre and textiles
Steam Distribution System
Pressure Drop in Steam Pipes

Where:
hf = Head loss to friction (m)
f = Friction factor (dimensionless)
L = Length (m)
u = Flow velocity (m/s)
D = Pipe diameter (m)
 Steam Traps

A steam trap is a valve device that discharges condensate

and air from the line or piece of equipment without
discharging the steam
Functions of Steam Traps
• To discharge condensate as soon as it is formed.
• Not to allow steam to escape.
• To be capable of discharging air and other
incondensable gases.
Steam Trap
 Types of Steam Traps
Thermostatic (operated by changes in fluid
temperature)
This range of steam traps operates by sensing the
difference in temperature between steam and
condensate.
Mechanical (operated by changes in fluid density)
This range of steam traps operates by sensing the
difference in density between steam and condensate.
Thermodynamic (operated by changes in fluid
dynamics)
Thermodynamic steam traps depends partly on
the formation of flash steam from condensate.