LESSON 1.

0 – FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS OF Raw Data

STATISTICS (Part 1 – The Nature of Statistics) - In counting activities, events and things, the
measurements that are collected from the
1.1 The Nature of Statistics
original information are called raw data.
Statistical knowledge helps us use the proper - These data may be treated by statistical
methods to collect the data, employ correct methods that are used to describe, to relate,
analyses, and effectively present the results. It is a or associate, and make inference,
crucial process behind how we make discoveries in depending on the nature or purpose of the
science, make decisions based on data, and make research problems on hand.
predictions.
TWO CATEGORIES OF FIELD OF STATISTICS
Statistics is a branch of mathematics which deals
• Descriptive Statistics
with the collection, presentation, analysis, and
- is concerned with the gathering,
interpretation (CPAI) of numerical data which may
classification and presentation of data and
be used for prediction or verification of relationships
the collection of summarizing values to
among variables.
describe the group characteristics of the
Statistics may have different meanings. Generally, data.
the term means numerical observation of any kind. - The most used summarizing values to
describe group characteristics of data are
Originally, statistical data took the forms of figures
percentage, measures of central tendency
or birth, death, tax returns, population, frequency of
and location; of variability or dispersion; of
failures in schools, crop yield, etc. Scientifically,
skewness and kurtosis.
and from the research point of view, statistics as a
- Examples of descriptive statistics are class
study refers to the methods of collection,
average of examination, range of student
presentation, analysis, and interpretation of data.
scores, average salary, means of managerial
From the definition of Statistics, we can identify the satisfaction, and average return of
basic statistical operations. investment.
• Inferential Statistics
✓ Data gathering or collection may be done
- demands a higher order of critical judgment
through interview, questionnaires, tests,
and mathematical methods. It aims to give
observation, registration, and experiments.
information about large groups of data
✓ Presentation of data refers to the organization
without dealing with each element of these
of data into tables, graphs, charts, or
groups.
paragraphs. Hence, presentation of data may
- It pertains to the methods dealing with
be tabular, graphical, or textual.
making inference, estimates or prediction
✓ Analysis of data pertains to the process of
about a large set of data using the
extracting from the given data relevant and
information gathered.
noteworthy information and this uses
- It is not merely to provide a description of a
statistical tools or techniques.
particular data set but also to make
✓ Interpretation of data refers to the drawing of
predictions and inferences based on the
conclusions or inferences from the analyzed
available information gathered.
data. This may involve the formulation of
- In inferential statistics, the conclusions on
forecast prediction about a large group based
the important characteristics apply to a
on the data collected from small or
large set of data called the population.
representative group. Results of data analysis
- the subset or a representative group of the
are explained and interpreted which include
population is called the sample.
relating the findings to the existing theories
- Commonly used inferential statistical tools
and earlier studies in the area.
or techniques are testing hypothesis using
the z-test, t-test, simple linear correlation,
 analysis of variance (ANOVA), chi-square, assessment and evaluation for the
regression, and time series analysis. improvement of personal relation. In
- Some of the examples of problems involving economics, it determines, trends, helps
inferential statistics are to determine financial analysts make investment
whether the impact of the new decisions and determines the potential of
advertisement of various age groups is an investment including inventory turn-over
significant or not, whether there is a ratio of cash flow to total assets; the quick
significant relationship between job ratio which is the ratio of the difference
satisfaction and performance of employees, between current assets and inventory
or whether the use of a module is values to current liabilities; return on assets
significantly effective than the traditional before taxes; and controls of the quality of
method of teaching. goods produced and many others.
- A descriptive measure of the population is - Methods for the statistical designs of
called a parameter. Greek letters are used experiments are useful and valuable in
to represent parameters, like μ (mu) for medicine and physical sciences, causes
population mean, σ (sigma) for population and effects of factors which affect
standard deviation, and σ2 for population experiments once evaluated.
variance. - Psychologists and sociologists can
- A descriptive measure of a sample is called understand human beings better, through
a statistic. The Roman letter is used to systematic and personality tests or through
denote a test statistic. Examples of test observations. A study of conditions of the
statistics are sample mean (x), sample people may be analyzed and interpreted
variance (s2) and sample standard deviation effecting positive action for the
(s). improvement of the society.
- The basis for inferential statistics is the - To cope with the present demands and with
ability to make decisions about parameters the growing complexity of the world and as
without having the complete census of the activities and functions of the various fields
population. of endeavor become more complicated, the
use of statistics increases and becomes of
Importance of Statistics
great importance.
- Some of the uses of statistics as a science
Important Terms
are evident in empirical studies. Among the
contributions of statistics are it aids in 1. Universe. A universe is the set of all the
decision making, summarizes or describes individuals or entities under consideration.
data, helps to forecast or predict future 2. Variable. A variable is a characteristic of
outcomes, aids in making inferences, and interest measurable on each individual of the
helps in comparisons or establishing universe. It is a quantity which may take on
relationships. several different values.
- In education, statistical techniques and 3. Population
methods are used to get information on a. A population is the set of all possible values
enrollment, finance, physical facilities, of a variable.
dropout rate, proficiency level and many b. A population is the set of all observations
others. In research, statistical tools are used made on all objects under study for a given
to test differences, effectiveness, impact, characteristic or variable.
relationship, or independence of some 4. Sample
variables. a. A sample is a set of observations which
- Management uses statistics in decision constitute a part of a population.
making and in varied aspects such as b. A sample is the representative part of the
organizational behavior, labor relations, population selected for the purpose of
human-resource allocation, performance making inference about the population
5. Sampling. Sampling is the process or technique have this type of data, that is, the average
of drawing the sample from the population. number of children per family in a certain
6. Parameter. A numerical characteristic of a barangay is 3.4.
population is called a parameter. Parameters of
C. According to Data Relationships
a given population are constants or fixed for that
population (population mean, population 1. Independent variables are those variables
variance, population standard deviation, and where the occurrence of the first is not
population size). Parameters are usually relative to the existence of the second
denoted by Greek letters and/or capital English variable (for example, the number of
letters. fishermen is independent of the number of
7. Statistic. A quantity calculated from the deaths in a given province).
observations in a sample is called a statistic 2. Dependent variables are those variables
(sample mean, sample median, sample mode, where the existence of the first is influenced
sample variance, and sample standard by the occurrence of the second variable.
deviation). Statistics are usually denoted by
D. According to Measurement Scales
small English letters.
1. Nominal Scale (Categorical) consists only of
Two Types of Variables
names, labels or categories which are used
1. Quantitative variables are those which merely for identification or classification
change in quantity. They are measurables purposes.
(intelligence, height, weight, size, length,
Student Sex Course
etc.).
2. Qualitative variables are those which Abril, Wilson Male Engineering
change in quality. They are rankables De Guzman Male Education
(kindness, temperament, loyalty, Fajutagana, Donna Female Education
truthfulness, etc.). Palma, Ivy Female Comp. Sci
Classification of Statistical Data 2. Ordinal Scale (Ranked) not only classify items,
but also give the order or ranks of classes, items
A. According to the Source
or objects. The differences between data values
1. Primary data refer to information which are either cannot be determined or meaningless.
gathered directly from an original source, or
Student Contest Performance Abril,
which are based on direct or first-hand
Wilson ` 3rd Satisfactory
experience (autobiographies, diaries,
De Guzman, 1st Excellent
interviews, etc.).
Fajutagana 4th Fair
2. Secondary data refer to information which
Palma, Ivy 2nd Very Good
are taken from published or unpublished
data which are previously gathered by other 3. Interval Scale are numbers assigned to items
individuals or agencies (published books, not only to identify and rank the objects but also
newspapers, biographies, business reports, measure the degree of differences between any
etc.) two classes. It may lack inherent zero starting
point.
B. According to the Ways Data Are Collected
Student BodyTemp Performance
1. Continuous data are those obtained by
measurements (length of a room, weight of Abril, Wilson 37.3C 85
a stone, 4 meters, 15 pounds, etc.). De Guzman 37.1C 86
2. Discrete or discontinuous data are those Fajutagana 37.2 C 82
obtained by counting (number of days, Palma, Ivy 37.0 C 79
number of students, etc.). Remarks: In
Statistics, although some data are discrete,
they may be treated as continuous. We may
4. Ratio Scale is an interval scale modified to c. The interviewer may cheat by turning in
include inherent zero starting point. dishonest responses if their expected or
desired responses are not obtained.
Student Age Weight, lbs
2. Indirect or Questionnaire Method.
Abril, Wilson 16 130
- This is one of the easiest methods of data
De Guzman 17 125
gathering. It takes time to prepare because
Fajutagana 16 140
questionnaires need to be attractive.
Palma, Ivy 18 123
- The content of a typical questionnaire,
COLLECTION OF DATA directions included, must be precise, clear
and self-explanatory. Illustrations and
A. According to Scope of Collection
pictures may be used to add clarity and
1. Survey is limited to a particular area or
attractiveness.
locality.
2. Census considers the national boundary of Here are the advantages of questionnaire method:
a country.
a. It is less expensive since questionnaires can
B. According to the Methods used
be distributed personally or by mail
- There are several methods of collecting
b. It is less time-consuming since it can be
data, however, there is no best method to
distributed over a wider geographical area in
get the desired information under
a shorter time
investigation.
c. It can give confidential responses since the
- The choice of appropriate methods to be
respondents can answer the questionnaire
utilized depends on some factors such as
privately
the nature of the problem, the population
d. The answers obtained are free from any
under investigation, the time, and the
influence coming from the interviewer.
material factors.
- So, to obtain the needed accurate The limitations of the questionnaire method are as
information at minimum cost and least follows:
possible time, a combination of the
a. It cannot be accomplished by illiterates
following methods of data gathering may be
b. It has a high proportion of nonresponse or
applied:
non-return
1. Direct or Interview Method.
c. It tends to give wrong information since
- This is one of the most effective methods of
answers cannot be corrected right away
collecting original data. To obtain accurate
3. Registration Method.
responses, well-trained interviewers may do
- Through this method, the respondents
the interview.
provide information in compliance with
- The interviewers can be of great help to the
certain laws, policies, rules, regulations,
respondents in answering questions that the
decrees or standard practices.
respondents cannot understand.
- Data which can be collected by the
- It provides consistent and more precise
registration method are as follows: marriage
information; however, it can be time-
contracts, birth certificates, motor
consuming, expensive and has limited field
registrations, license of firearms,
coverage.
registration of corporations, real estates,
The following are other attributes of the interview voters, etc.
method. 4. Observation Method.
- This method is utilized to gather data
a. It can give complete information needed in
regarding attitudes, behavior, values and
the study.
cultural patterns of the samples under
b. It can yield inaccurate information since the
investigation.
interviewer can influence the respondent’s
answers through his facial expression, tone
of voice, or wording of the questions.
5. Experiment Method.
- This method is applied to collect or gather
data if the investigator wants to control the
factors affecting the variable being studied.
- An example is when the researcher aims to
determine the different factors affecting the
academic performance of the students such
as methods or approaches used in teaching,
etc.
- Experiments are conducted to determine
the cause-and-effect relationship of certain
phenomena under controlled conditions.
6. Telephone Interview.
- This method is employed if the questions to
be asked are brief and few. An example is the
check made on listeners to certain radio
programs like asking what program his radio
is turned on to. This method is used to find
the most popular TV or radio programs.