Human factors in computing

Human factors in computing, also known as ergonomics in this context, refer to the
study of how human capabilities and limitations influence the design and use of
computer systems. Understanding these factors is crucial for creating interfaces that are
usable, safe, and efficient. Here's a breakdown of some key aspects of human factors in
computing:

Cognitive Abilities:
• Perception: How users perceive information visually, aurally, and through touch.
(e.g., screen clarity, color choices, appropriate use of sound)
• Attention: How users focus on relevant information and avoid distractions. (e.g.,
clear hierarchy of information, avoiding visual clutter)
• Memory: How users store and retrieve information. (e.g., limitations on short-
term memory, use of clear labels and icons)
• Learning: How users acquire new skills and knowledge. (e.g., intuitive interface
design, progressive disclosure of features)
Physical Capabilities:
• Anthropometry: The physical size, stature, and reach of users. (e.g.,
appropriate keyboard layout, accessible touch targets on mobile devices)
• Physiology: Considerations like fatigue, repetitive strain, and posture. (e.g.,
breaks for long computer use, adjustable workstations)
Other Factors:
• Age and Ability: Designing for users with varying age-related abilities or
disabilities. (e.g., adjustable font sizes, keyboard accessibility features)
• Culture and Language: Considering cultural norms and language preferences
when designing interfaces. (e.g., localization for different regions, culturally
appropriate icons)

By understanding these human factors, HCI professionals can design interfaces that:

• Reduce cognitive load: Minimize the mental effort required to use the system.
• Minimize errors: Design interfaces that are predictable and prevent accidental
mistakes.
• Increase user satisfaction: Create interfaces that are enjoyable and efficient to
use.
 • Improve accessibility: Ensure everyone can interact with the system regardless
of ability.

Here are some resources for further exploration:

• The Interaction Design Foundation - Human factors

https://www.interaction-design.org/
• Usability.gov - Human Centered Design https://digital.gov/topics/user-
centered-design/

Human perception and cognition

Human perception and cognition are fundamental building blocks of how we interact
with computers. HCI relies heavily on understanding these processes to design
interfaces that align with our natural capabilities and limitations. Here's a breakdown of
how perception and cognition influence HCI:

Perception:
• Vision: Visual perception is the dominant sense for most people when
interacting with computers. HCI considers factors like:
o Screen resolution and clarity: Optimizing display quality for clear
information presentation.
o Color and contrast: Using color effectively to guide attention, avoid visual
strain, and cater to users with color blindness.
o Visual hierarchy and organization: Structuring information with clear
layout and visual cues to guide the user's eye.
• Hearing: Auditory perception plays a role in certain interfaces, like voice
assistants or audio notifications. HCI considers:
o Sound clarity and volume: Ensuring audio is clear and at an appropriate
level.
o Use of sound effects and music: Using sound strategically to provide
feedback, improve usability, and avoid overwhelming users.
• Touch: Touchscreens and haptic feedback rely on our sense of touch. HCI
considers:
o Appropriate touch target sizes: Making interactive elements large
enough for easy and accurate touch interaction.
 o Haptic feedback design: Providing subtle vibrations or other tactile cues
to confirm user actions.
Cognition:
• Attention: Our ability to focus on relevant information is limited. HCI principles
like:
o Minimizing distractions: Reducing unnecessary elements or animations
that compete for user attention.
o Prioritizing information: Presenting the most important information first
and guiding the user's focus.
• Memory: Our short-term memory capacity is limited. HCI practices like:
o Clear labeling and use of icons: Using labels and icons that are easily
recognizable and memorable.
o Progressive disclosure: Revealing information gradually to avoid
overwhelming users with too many options at once.
• Learning: Users need to be able to learn and understand how to use an
interface effectively. HCI principles like:
o Consistency and predictability: Maintaining consistent design patterns
and behaviors across the interface.
o Affordance: Designing elements that visually communicate their
functionality (e.g., a button looks like something you can press).

Information processing models

In HCI, information processing models provide a theoretical framework for

understanding how humans receive information, process it cognitively, and ultimately
respond through interaction with a computer system. These models help designers
predict user behavior and design interfaces that align with human information
processing capabilities and limitations. Here's a closer look at two prominent information
processing models:

1. The Human Processor Model (HPM):

This model depicts the human information processing system as a series of stages with
limited capacity at each stage. Information enters through sensory channels (e.g., eyes,
ears), then gets processed in stages:
 • Sensory Register: Briefly holds all incoming sensory information for a very short
duration (milliseconds).
• Perceptual Processor: Filters and interprets the information from the sensory
register, focusing on relevant details.
• Short-Term Memory (STM) or Working Memory: Holds a limited amount of
information for conscious manipulation and processing (usually 7 ± 2 items).
• Long-Term Memory (LTM): Stores a vast amount of information for later
retrieval when needed.
• Central Processor: Controls the flow of information between stages, makes
decisions, and initiates responses.
• Motor System: Executes the chosen response through actions like typing,
clicking, or speaking.

The HPM highlights limitations like:

• Information overload: Too much information can overwhelm the system, leading
to errors.
• Attention bottleneck: We can only focus on a limited amount of information at a
time.
• Memory limitations: Working memory capacity restricts the amount of
information readily available for processing.
2. GOMS (Goals, Operators, Methods, Selection rules):

This model focuses on how users achieve goals through interaction with a system. It
breaks down user actions into hierarchical levels:

• Goals: The overall objective the user wants to achieve (e.g., "Write a report").
• Operators: The basic actions available on the system (e.g., "select", "type",
"move").
• Methods: Sequences of operators used to achieve subgoals (e.g., "select 'File'
menu -> select 'New'").
• Selection rules: Criteria used to choose the most appropriate method for a
specific goal (e.g., familiarity, efficiency).

GOMS helps predict user behavior by analyzing the sequence of actions needed to
achieve goals. It highlights the importance of:
 • Clear and consistent task flows: Making it easy for users to understand the
steps needed to achieve their goals.
• Minimizing the number of steps: Designing efficient interfaces that require
fewer actions to complete tasks.
• Matching system functionality to user goals: Ensuring the system provides
the operators needed to achieve the user's desired outcomes.

Human Error and Interaction Styles in HCI

Human Error:

In HCI, human error refers to any mistakes or unintended actions users make while
interacting with a computer system. These errors can lead to frustration, wasted time,
and even safety hazards. Understanding how and why errors occur is crucial for
designing interfaces that minimize their likelihood. Here's a breakdown of some
common types of human errors:

• Slips: These are unintentional errors that occur during routine actions. For
example, a user might mistype a password or accidentally delete a file.
• Mistakes: These errors involve incorrect decisions based on faulty knowledge or
misunderstandings. For instance, a user might choose the wrong option from a
menu because the wording is unclear.
• Lapses: These errors happen due to lapses in attention or memory. For
example, a user might forget to save a document before closing the program.
HCI principles to minimize human error:
• Clear and consistent design: Interfaces should be predictable and use
consistent design patterns to minimize confusion.
• Minimizing distractions: Reduce unnecessary elements or animations that
compete for user attention.
• Providing feedback: The system should provide clear feedback to confirm user
actions and prevent accidental mistakes.
• Error prevention: Design interfaces that make it difficult to commit errors (e.g.,
confirmation prompts for critical actions).
• Error recovery: Provide mechanisms for users to easily recover from mistakes
(e.g., undo/redo functionality).
Interaction Styles:
Interaction style refers to the way users interact with a computer system. HCI
professionals consider different styles to cater to diverse user preferences and task
requirements. Here are some common interaction styles:

• Command Line Interface (CLI): Users interact with the system by typing
commands. This style is powerful but can be challenging for novice users.
• Menu-driven Interface: Users select options from pre-defined menus. This style
is user-friendly but can be limiting for complex tasks.
• Graphical User Interface (GUI): Users interact with visual elements like
windows, icons, and menus. This is the most common style today, offering a
balance of ease of use and functionality.
• Natural Language Processing (NLP): Users interact with the system using
spoken language or text that resembles natural language. This style is becoming
increasingly popular, particularly for voice assistants and chatbots.
• Touchscreen Interface: Users interact with the system by touching elements on
a touchscreen display. This style is prevalent in mobile devices and tablets.
Choosing the right interaction style:

The selection of the interaction style depends on several factors:

• Target audience: Consider the user's technical skills and experience level.
• Task complexity: Some tasks are better suited for specific interaction styles
(e.g., complex tasks might benefit from a GUI with more options).
• Platform and device: The capabilities of the device and the intended platform
(desktop, mobile, etc.) will influence the available interaction styles.