Chapter IV

Stresses (efforts) in Continuum Mechanics

Objectives of the course

- Derivation of the tensor of stresses.

- Determination of principle stresses and the principles stresses.

- Establishment of the motion (principle of momentum).

- Formulation of the Piola-Kirchhoff stress tensor.

IV.1 Introduction

- The previous chapter ‘’kinematic of the continuum mechanics’’ describes the material particle
or that of the continuous medium without any consideration of the system of external forces
which really cause the motion, displacement and deformations.

- The object of this chapter is to describe the internal forces in the continuous medium. These
forces are in reality the actions between the material particles constituting the continuous
medium.

- The classical theory of the continuous medium, internal actions are distributed in a continuous
manner.

- External forces can be grouped into: point, linear (1D), surface (2D), or volume (3D).

- In continuum mechanics, it is necessary to know the stress field at every point and every
moment.

IV.2 Stress vector

- Consider a solid deformable body (continuum mechanic) under external forces (point force,
surface forces or volume forces). The effect of these external actions engenders internal
actions between different material particles.
- The media is cut by a section dividing it to two part in the vicinity of the point P of area d  .

The force F is the result of the flow of forces crossing the area d  .

- The stress vector exercising of the part (I) on the part (II) can be expressed as

 F
T n  lim
0 

The material point of the surface separating part of the body can be described by the vector
stress.

The principle of action and counter-action, the part (II) exerts on part (I) by a force

 
T  n  T n

- In general, the stress vector depends on the material point, the time defining the current
configuration of the continuum and the normal outward unit. Then, we can write the stress
vector as
   
T  f ( x, , t )

Thus a linear second-order tensor can be defined, which transforms the normal vector  to

the stress vector f satisfying the following relationships.
  
T   ( X , t)

Particularly, the stress vector in the initial configuration obeys to the following relation.
  
T 0   ( X , t 0 )
- At each material point of a plane, the stress vector can be divided to :

- Normal stress (perpendicular to the plane)

 
 n  T .

- Shearing or tangential stress

   
 t  T .t t n
is a normal unit vector perpendicular to the vector

- Then, the stress vector is

  
T  n  t t

  2
T   n2   t2 t  T   n2
Or :

IV.3 Stress tensor or Cauchy’s stress tensor

At each material point P of a continuum mechanics, we associate the stress vector denoted 
as
 
T 

 is the unit vector that is perpendicular to the plane containing the point P.

The components of the stress vector and stress tensor are

T1    11  12  13  1 
    
T2     21  22  23   2 
    32  33  3 
T3   31  

Of which the geometrical representation is

  33
 31
 22  32
 21
 23 12
13
 32
 11
 11  31
12  33 13
 23
x2  21

x1  22
x3

 11 ,  22 and  33 are called the normal stresses

 12 ,  23 and  13 are called the tangential or shearing stresses

The matrix form can be turned to indicial notation

Ti   ij  j T 
or

The components of the stress vectors relative to each plane are

   
T 1   11 e1   21 e2   31 e3
   
T 2   12 e1   22 e2   32 e3
   
T 3   13 e1   23 e2   33 e3

  33
T2  31
 32

T1
13

T3
 11
12  23
x2  21

x1  22
x3
 The tangent vector to the plane (x2x3) is
 22

 21  2
 23   12
 32 3 
x2  11
 31  1
x1  33 13
x3
   
 1   12 e 2   13 e3 ,
 1   122   132

The same manner can be applied

   
 2   21 e1   23 e3 ,
 2   212   232

   
 3   31 e1   32 e 2 ,  3   322   312

The parameters or components of the stress tensor are obtained using

 
 ij  ei .  e j

IV.3.1 Symmetry of the stress tensor

To prevue the hypothesis of the symmetry of the stress tensor, consider a plane stress state
as chosen in the following figure.

 22
 22  dx2
x2
 12
 12  dx2
 21
x2  21  dx1
 b2 dx1 dx2 x1
 11  11
G  11  dx1
 b1 dx1 dx2 x1
x2  21
 12
x1
 22
 Consider an infinitesimal element of dimension dx1  dx2 1 , which planes are subjected to
stress states mentioned on the figure and volume weight bi dx1 dx2 (  is the density and bi is
the gravitational acceleration).

The moment of momentum equation applied to the infinitesimal element of the forces about
an axis passing through the center point G and parallel to the x3-axis, allows writing the following
relationship.

 21 dx dx dx
( 21  dx1 )dx2 1  12dx1 2   21dx2 1 
x1 2 2 2
12 dx
(12  dx2 )dx1 2  0
x2 2

Neglecting higher-order terms, this equation becomes

( 21  12 )dx2 dx1  0

Or,

 21  12

Similar demonstrations can be applied for the moments about x1 -axis and x2 -axis, these lead
to

 31  13
 32   23

This states that the stress tensor is symmetric and therefore we write

T 
IV.4 Equations of equilibrium

Equilibrium equations can be derived by using the summation of forces applied to an

elementary continuum. Refer

11 
(11  dx1 )dx2  11dx2  (12  12 dx2 )dx1  12dx1 
x1 x2
b1 dx1 dx2  0

 21 
( 21  dx1 )dx2   21dx2  ( 22  22 dx2 )dx1   22dx1 
x1 x2
b2 dx1 dx2  0

After simplification, the equations become as

11 12
  b1  0
x1 x2

 21  22
  b2  0
x1 x2

If the problem is tridimensional, the prolongation of previous equations leads to

11 12 13

   b1  0
x1 x2 x3

 21  22  23
   b2  0
x1 x2 x3

 31  32  33
   b3  0
x1 x2 x3

In indicial and tensorial forms, these equations become as below

  ij
 bi  0
x j

div  b  0

For kinematic motion, the equilibrium equation becomes

 ij
 bi   i
x j

i
Which is the acceleration vector of the body.

IV.5 Principal stresses

Since the Cauchy tensor or the stress tensor  is symmetric, it has then three real values
called principal stresses, which can be computed by solving the following equation.

 I  0

 is the principal stresses or the eigenvalues of the tensor  .

As in the case of the strain tensor (chapter 3), the cubic equation can be used to determine
three principal values; called the principal stresses, which associated with three values; called

principal directions  i (i  1, 2,3) can be also defined. The principal stress tensor is

 11    12  13
 21  22    23  0
 31  32  33  

The corresponding cubic equation as the solution of the relation is

 3  ( 11   22   33 ) 2  [( 11 22   122 )  ( 22 33   232 )  ( 11 33   132 )] 

2
[ 11 ( 22 33   23 )   12 ( 21 33   31 23 )   13 ( 21 32   31 22 )]  0
 In general, the resolution of the cubic equation leads to the determination of three principal
stresses. In function of obtained values of the principal stresses, we can distingue the
particularly cases.

- When the three principal stresses are distinct, three principal directions are perpendicular.

- The stress state is said cylindrical if two principal stresses are equal.

- The stress state is hydrostatic (spherical) if all three principal stresses are equal.

The cubic equation can be re-written using the principal stress tensor, as

 3  I1  2  I 2   I3  0

P
I1   11   22   33   1   2   3  tr ( )

1 2
I2  (11 22  122 )  ( 2233   232 )  (1133  132 )  [tr 2 ( )  tr( )]
2

P
I3      1 . 2 . 3

with I1 , I 2 and I 3 are called invariants of the stress tensors.

The solution of the cubic equation offered three values of  , which are the principal stress
or the proper values of the stress tensor  . The principal stress tensor is

 1 0 0 1 0 0

P   
  0 2 0  0 2 0
0 0 3     0 0  3   
 1 2 3 1 2 3

Depending on the obtained principal strain values, we can distinguish:

 1  2  3 , any direction of the space around the point considered is a principal direction
and the dilatations are identical according these directions.
  Any plane characterized by a principal strain, this plane is called principal.

 If two principal strains are equal, the third principal strain is associated to the third principal
plan, which is perpendicular to the first principal planes.

 The three principal values are different then the three principal directions are also different
and orthogonal between them due to the symmetry of the tensor of the deformations.

In this concept, the principal directions or the proper vectors show the orientations of the
principal stresses. These principal directions can be obtained by using the resolution of the
vector equation.
 
(  k I ) k  0

where  k is the unit vector of the k principal direction having  k as the principal stress.

In general, the solution isn’t unique needing the following conditions to precise the unit
vectors of the principal directions.


- The norm of each unit vector is unitary, ek  1 for k=1,2,3.

P
- Conventional ranking is always taken as  1   2P   3P .
  
- 
 1 , 2 , 3  form an orthogonal base.

IV.6 Spherical and deviatoric stress tensors

Let denote the mean normal stress  m with

1  ii
 m  ( 11   22   33 ) 
3 3
 Then the stress tensor can be decomposed as the sum of two different tensors, one
s
describes the hydrostatic stress tensor, denoted by  , in which their normal stresses are equal

to  m and all shear stresses are null.

1 0 0
   m I   m  0 1 0 
s

0 0 1
 
D
The second tensor is called the stress deviatoric tensor, denoted  , which is defined by

 211 22 33 

 12 13 
 3 
D s  222 11 33 
     23 
 3 
 233 11 22 
 Sym 
 3 

The stress deviatoric tensor or deviatoric stress tensor brings change of the shape, while
the hydrostatic stress tensor produces volume change without change of the shape in an
isotropic material but it can produce a change of shape if the material used is anisotropic.

IV.6.1 Invariants of deviatoric stress tensor

The invariants of the stress deviatoric tensor can be derived as of the classical stress
tensor. The same manner will be applied for:

D
J1  tr ( )  0.

1 D
J2   tr( )2
2
D
J3  
 If  denotes any one of the principal deviatoric stress tensor, a similar relationship can be
derived as

3  J2   J3  0

IV.6.2 Principal stresses of the deviatoric tensor

The resolution of the previous equation yields to calculate the principal stress of the
deviatoric stress tensor, denoted by s1 , s2 , s3 . Then, the principal stress of the deviatoric
tensor is

 s1 0 0
D P 
( )   0 s2 0
0 0 s3 

D
The invariants of the deviatoric stress tensor ( ) P are

J1  0

J 2  s1 s2  s2 s3  s3 s1

J 3  s1 s2 s3

IV.7 Graphical representation of stress state

IV.7.1 Plane stress state

The procedure established for strain state can be applied in this section. If one of principal
stresses at a point in continuum is null, the plane stress state is said at this point. For example,
  
if e3 is the direction of the zero principal stress, a plane stress state parallel to the ( e1 , e 2 )
plane exists and corresponding strain tensor is
  11 12 
  ( ij )   
 21  22 

When the plane directions are principal, the stress tensor given by the equation yields

1 0
 P  ( ijP )   
0 2 

A graphical representation of the stress state at a point is provided by Mohr’s circle of


stresses. The stress vector relative to a plane characterize by a unit vector  (cos  ,sin  )T is
defined by

    11  12  cos    11 cos    12 sin  

      
  21  22  sin    21 cos    22 sin  

The normal stress to the plane can be computed by

   11   22  11   22
 nn   .   cos 2   12 sin 2
2 2

And the shearing stress is given by

    
22 11
 nt   . t  sin 2   12 cos 2
2

Eliminating cos 2 and sin 2 from the previous relations, the following relationship can be
derived as

 11   22  11   22
( nn  )2   nt2  ( ) 2   122
2 2

 11   22 1
Thus, this equation is a circle of centre ( , 0) and rayon R  ( 11   22 ) 2  4 122
 2 2
in (  , t ) space (the bellow figure).
  nt
P

2 p

o N c M  nn
2

B S

Hypothesis of the Mohr’s method

- The plane characterized by normal stress,  nn , and shear stress,  nt , is represented by a

point (  nn ,  nt ) on the Mohr’s circle.

- To compute normal and shear stresses of a plane inclined with an angle  , it suffuses to
rotate according to the clockwise with an angle ( 2 ).

Then, the point A(  11 ,  21 ) (assuming that  21  0 ) and the point B(  22 , 12 ) are localized on
the Mohr’s circle (Figure). The point S defines the stress state for the same plane having an
angle  computed from the point A. On the Mohr’s circle, it must be ( 2 ).

Any index (’) and (’’) indicate the production of the point on the normal stress axis and on
shear stress axis, respectively. Then, the stress state of the plane (  ) is

OS '  OC  CS '

The corresponding expression can be expressed in stress terms.

 11   22
 nn ( )   R cos(2  2 p )
2
Substituting angles, R,  and  p in the above equation, the normal stress is then

 11   22  11   22
 nn ( )   cos 2   12 sin 2
2 2

The expression of the normal stress  nn ( ) to the plane defined by  is the same as
obtained by the analytical method.

The same manner can be applied to evaluate the shearing stress for the plane.

OS ''  S ' S

The expression can be written in stress term as

 nt ( )   R sin(2  2 p )

Or,

 11   22  12
 nt ( )   R( sin 2  cos 2 )
2R R

Finally, the shearing stress is

 22   11
 nt ( )  sin 2   12 cos 2
2

Then, the principal normal stresses can be easily developed using the Mohr’s approach.

OM  OC  CM

11   22 11   22 1
1P   nn ( p )  R  (11   22 )2  4122
2 2 2

ON  OC  CN
      1
2P  nn (p  )  11 22  R  11 22  (11 22 )2  4122
2 2 2 2


Both the planes defined by ( P ) and ( P  ) are characterized by the nullity of the shearing
2
stresses. The maximum and minimum stresses are observed on P and Q points. then

OP ''  CP

3 1
 nt   nt ( p  )R ( 11   22 ) 2  4 122
4 2

OQ ''  CQ

 1
 nt   nt ( p  )   R   ( 11   22 )2  4 122
4 2

3 
Both planes defined by ( p  ) and ( P  ) are submitted to the same normal stress
4 4
 11   22
that’s equal to .
2

Finally, the Mohr’s representation is a graphic tool allowing largely the calculation of stresses
at any point of the continuum, the principal stresses, the principal directions and the plans
subjected to extreme shear stresses as well as their directions.

IV.7.2 Tridimensional stress state

The above approach applied to analyze the bi-dimensional stress state will be used to compute
the stress tensor at any point in the continuum and the extreme shearing stresses and their
directions from the principal stress tensor. We assume that principal stresses are computed
using the solution of the cubic equation.

Then, the stress vector at any a point of a plane defined by the unit vector  (l , m, n) is
  0 0  l   1 l 
    1    
 ( )      0 2 0  m    2 m 
 0
 0  3  n   3 n 
 

The normal stress to the plane is

  
 nn   ( ).   1 l ²   2 m²   3 n²

The total shearing stress relative to the plane can be evaluated by

  2
 nt   ( )   nn2

Since,

l ²  m²  n²  1

The solution of previous equations leads to express the unit vector components.

 nn2   nt2   nn ( 2   3 )   2 3
l² 
( 2   1 )( 3   1 )

 nn2   nt2   nn ( 3   1 )   3 1
m² 
( 3   2 )( 1   2 )

 nn2   nt2   nn ( 1   2 )   1  2
n² 
( 1   3 )( 2   3 )

Knowing that  1   2   3 , these equations lead to

 2 3 2 3
( nn  ) 2   nt2  ( )2
2 2

1   3 1   3
( nn  ) 2   nt2  ( )2
2 2

1   2 1   2
( nn  ) 2   nt2  ( )2
2 2

Then, the Mohr’s circle can be constructed as shown below:

The stress state for any rotation will be represented by a point either on one of the three
circles, or in the shaded area between the inner and outer circles (figure bellow).

IV.8 Piola-Kirchhoff stress tensors

IV.8.1 First Piola-Kirchhoff stress tensor

- The tensor of stresses or Cauchy stress tensor is defined in IV.3 describing stress state of
the undeformed configuration.

- It is possible defining the stress tensor at each material point based on the initial state.
The elementary resistance of the forces crossing the area d0 is
 
dR 0   0 0 d 0


 0 is the unit vector of the surface at the initial configuration.

The system loading is unique; it’s independent of the configuration that can be occupied. That
is
 
 0  0 d 0    d 

It results that

 d 
 0 0  
d 0

The transformed area at the current configuration can be expressed as

 1

d    J ( F )T d 0  0

F is the gradient of the material transformation that transforms d0 from the initial
configuration to d onto the current one and J  F .

Substituting the expression   , it leads to

 0  J  ( F 1 )T

This relation can be re-written as

  J 1 0 F T

The last relations expressed the passage of stress tensors from the initial configuration to
the current position and vice versa.
 In indicial form, the expressions can be written as

1
( 0 )ij  J  ik F jk

 ij  J 1 ( 0 )im F jm

It’s notable that the first Piola-Kirchhoff stress tensor is in general not symmetric.

IV.8.2 Second Piola-Kirchhoff stress tensor



Consider now a differential resultant vector d R that can be transformed by using a linear

transformation F to a differential resultant vector d R satisfying the following relationship.


 
d R  Fd R

 
The second Piola-Kirchhoff is a linear transformation  which transforms the vector  0 to


the vector d R .

  
d R    0 d 0

 
Integrating the expression d R into d R , we obtain

  
d R  F   0 d 0

Knowing that
 
d R   0  0 d 0

Comparing between equations, we can write that

 
 0  F

The second Piola-Kirchhoff stress tensor can be related to the first Piola-Kirchhoff stress
tensor as


  F 1 0


Integrating the expression of stress tensor 0 in the expression  leads to


  J F 1 ( F 1 )T

The obtained result shows that the second Piola-Kirchhoff stress tensor is a symmetric
tensor since that the stress tensor of Cauchy is a symmetric one. Further, the second Piola-
Kirchhoff stress tensor is more suitable measure of state of stresses that the first Piola-
Kirchhoff stress tensor.