Mobile network challenges

• Roaming - a general term used in wireless (mobile)

telecommunications, which means expanding communication
capabilities to locations other than the one in which the service was
registered (i.e. with the operator with whom he signed a contract for
the provision of telecommunications services)

• Roaming provides a mobile network user with the ability to make and
receive phone calls, send and receive data, and access to other
services when traveling out of range of their own network by using
the network in the visited area.
 Mobile network challenges
• Handover - switching the user terminal from one base station to another during the connection
• The switching procedure is triggered by measuring the signal strength received by the terminal and comparing
with certain reference values
• In order to avoid the "ping-pong" effect, switching from one base station to another (with a signal with higher
power) occurs only after exceeding a certain set threshold of the difference of power received from these two
base stations.
 Types of„hand-over”
• Hard handover - the serving and neighboring base
station monitor the signal level from the mobile
station. The control panel (MSC) decides to switch the
mobile station to the base station with the highest
level of received signal. Used in FDMA systems (e.g.
AMPS)
• Mobile-assisted handover - the terminal measures
the signal level of all surrounding base stations. The
switching is initiated when the signal received from
the neighboring base station is greater than from the
serving one. Used in TDMA systems
 Types of„hand-overs”
• Types of "hand-over" switching
• Soft handover - serving and neighboring base stations monitor the level of signal received from the
terminal. When the new base station receives a sufficiently strong signal, it begins to receive it
continuously. At the same time, two stations (existing and new) receive and transmit a signal from / to the
terminal until one of them receives a clearly stronger signal. Used in CDMA (UMTS) systems. Improves
quality by reducing the number of dropped calls (call drops)
• Softer handover - similar to a soft handover, but used for switching between sectors of one cell
 The evolution of cellular networks
• The basic criteria determining the generation of a mobile network:
• Capacity of the radio interface,
• A technology used on the radio interface, the architecture and the functionality of the
network
• Evolution of cellular systems:
• First generation cellular systems (1G) – analog,
• Second generation cellular systems (2G) e.g. GSM – digital, circuit switched 2.5 G e.g. GPRS,
2.75 G e.g. EDGE
• Third generation cellular systems (3G) e.g. UMTS – digital, packet switched, radio link
capacity below 2Mbps
• HSPA (High Speed Packet System) also called 3.5 G because radio link capacity is higher than
2Mbps (7Mbps, 14MBps, 28Mbps)
• Fourth generation cellular systems (4G) – new technology used on the radio link and the
convergance of heterogeneous access networks as well as services
 The evolution of cellular networks
1G cellular systems: analog technology, small capacity, focused on serving only the voice traffic (voice
calls), relatively easy introduction to the market since telephony is a service known for years,
Increasing system capacity
Improving quality
2G cellular systems: high capacity – almost all can have access, the roaming is available. Mainly
focused on voice calls (telephony service) and narrowband data transfer.
Increasing radio link capacity
Introducing wideband, multimedia services
3G cellular systems: very high capacity. The goal is to offer to all broadband wireless access (>2Mbps).
There are many existing radio standards (UTRAN, WiFi, WiMAX, WPANs, …) but they are separated
networks. Many users have multimedia access. Accesss to WLAN and mobile networks is widespread
and relatively cheap.
Increasing radio link capacity
Convergence of services and access technologies
4G cellular systems : huge capacity, many different radio standards (UTRAN, WiFi, WiMAX, WPANs, …)
and full convergence (Seamless handover, Always Best Connected). The goal is to offer universal
wirelss network access, providing more different services and improving the radio link capacity
beyond the limit of 100Mbps
The evolution of cellular networks
 The architecture and the operation rules of 1G systems
• They appeared at the end of 70-ties, first deployments at the begingn of 80-ties
• They were based on the analog transmission with Frequency Modulation and
Frequency Division Multiple Access. Their features:
• Small system capacity,
• Link capacity in the range: 8-10 kbps (while transmitting data)

Examples of analog standards:

• AMPS: Advanced Mobile Phone System – designed and developed by AT&T at
the end of 70-ties. First deployments in 1983. The cells were quite big with
omni attenas. Widespread mostly in USA, South America, China and Australia,
• ETACS: European Total Access Communication System. Almost identical with
AMPS. The difference was only the bandwidth of the channels (25kHz instead
of 30kHz).
The architecture and the operation rules of 1G systems (AMPS)
The whole bandwidth of 50 MHz divided into two ranges: 869-894MHz (down
link) and 824-849MHz uplink
• The bandwidth for each direction („uplink” or „downlink”) is divided into 30KHz
lenght channels (Frequency Modulation)
•A cell uses only a subset of all possible channels (network planning)
•Connections are full duplex i.e. Each connection utilizes two channels: one for
uplink and another for downlink. Since these channles belong to different
subbandwidth AMPS is an FDD (Frequency Division Duplex) system,
• Some of the channles are assigned to carry the signalling traffic
The architecture and the operation rules of 1G systems (NMT)

System NMT – Nordic Mobile Telephony

– Designed in 1981
– There ware two versions of NMT system: NMT 450 (working at 450
MHz) and NMT 900
– Widespread mostly in Baltyic countries, in Asia and Middle East
– In Poland first commertial installation appeared in 1991 (Centertel
was an operator)
– The sizes of cells were in the range: 2 - 30 km
The architecture and the operation rules of 2G systems (GSM)

In 1982 a special group named „Groupe Speciale Mobile” (GSM) was

created in order to design common, european mobile communication
standard
• The system was to operate at frequency of 900 MHz (later on the
option of 1800 MHz was also introduced)
•It apeared in Poland in middle of 90-ties,
•It used digital transmission (digital modulations e.g. FSK – Frequency
Shift Keying, ASK, PSK )
• The system designers mainly focused on telephony services and
narrowband data transmission (at the level of 10 kbits/s)
The architecture and the operation rules of 2G systems (GSM)
Technical parameters:
– Operating frequency – 900MHz (1800MHz in addition)
• Uplink at : 890-915 MHz
• Downlink at : 935 – 960 MHz
– Total bandwidth used – 25 MHz
– 125 frequency channels each of 200kHz (FDMA); in fact only 124 frequency
channels since for each transmission direction (uplink, downlink) there is a band
guard of 100kHz
– At each frequency channel there are 8 time domain channels (8 time slots) - TDMA
– Each cluster consists of 7 cells; N=7 Uplink frequency range Downlink frequency range

124 frequency channels

The architecture and the operation rules of 2G systems (GSM)

The realization of physical channels:

– Multiple access methods: FDMA-TDMA
– Each TDMA frame consists of 8 so called „bursts” i.e. Time slots,
– One slot time interval is 15/26ms=0.577ms
– TDMA frame lasts 120/26ms=4.615 ms
– One physical channel (user channel) is in fact one time slot (more precisly a
combinatino of one time slot and an appropriate frequency channel)
– Each physical channel can be mapped onto different logical channels at any time.
The architecture and the operation rules of 2G systems (GSM)
The realization of physical channels:
The architecture and the operation rules of 2G systems (GSM)
Types of bursts. A burst is a group of bits transmitted during the time of one slot.
- Normal burst:
•TB – Trailer Bits (3 zeros that initiate the work of an trellis decoder)
•GP – Guard Period – guard period preventing the bursts from different users to overlap,
•SF – Stealing Flag – informs about replcing the information data with signalling data.
•Training sequence – sequence of bits known to sender and receiver appriori. The training
sequence is used in receiver to calculate the transmittance of the radio channel. It enables
correcting distortions introduced by the radio channel.

– Normal burst is used for transmitting user data (telephony or data)

 Serial errors – the concept of interleaving
• Serial errors often occur in wireless channels (distorted series / packages of subsequent
bits)

• As protection against serial errors, the interleaving operation can be used:

• It causes dispersion of a series of errors,
• It is relatively simple and often used in practice (e.g. in GSM)
 Serial errors – the concept of interleaving
• Interleaving - in the transmitter, data is entered in rows into an array with m rows and n
columns, and transmitted (sent to the modulator) columns; interleaving is performed
after performing redundant coding
• De-interleaving - in the receiver, the data is entered into the same table in columns, and
read in rows

• The order of the transmitted bits: b1b11b21b31b41b51b2b12b22b32b42b52b3 . . . . . b60

• The order of the bits at the receiver:
b1b2b3b4b5b6b7b8b9b10b11b12b13b14b15b16b17b18b19b20b21b22b23. . . . . b60
 Inter Symbol Interferences (ISI)
• Inter Symbol Interference - it is a signal-dependent form of interference that
arises because of deviations in the frequency response of a channel from
the ideal channel,
• Example: Band-limited channel

Frequency domain
 Inter Symbol Interferences (ISI)
• This non-ideal communication channel is also called dispersive channel
• The result of these deviation is that the received pulse corresponding to a particular
data symbol is affected by the previous symbols and subsequent symbols.
 Inter Symbol Interferences (ISI)
• Consider a binary system, the incoming binary sequence {bk} consists of symbols 1 and
0, each of duration Tb. The pulse amplitude modulator modifies this binary sequence
into a new sequence of short pulses (approximating a unit impulse), whose amplitude ak
is represented in the polar form
 Inter Symbol Interferences (ISI)
• Example:

• The short pulses are applied to a transmit filter of impulse response g(t), producing the transmitted signal

• The signal s(t) is modified as a result of transmission through the channel of impulse response h(t). In
addition, the channel adds random noise to the signal.
 Inter Symbol Interferences (ISI)
• Example (continuation):
• The noisy signal is then passed through a receive filter of impulse response. The resulting output is
sampled and reconstructed by means of a decision device.
• The receiver output is where

• The sampled output is

• Contribution of the ith transmitted bit:

• The residual effect of all other transmitted bits. (This effect is called intersymbol interference)
 Inter Symbol Interferences (ISI)
• Ideal Nyquist channel introduces no Inter Symbol Interferences. It can be shown this
goal can be achieved when the following condition is satisfied:

• The simplest way to satisfy the above condition it is to use a rectangular function:

where
 Inter Symbol Interferences (ISI)

Sampling
instants

• The main idea behind an Ideal Nyquist

channel is that for input signal being a
series of infinitisimally short impulses
the output signal (that is a series of
sampling funtions) does not overlap at
the impulse instants (also called
sampling instants)
 Inter Symbol Interferences (ISI)
• To overcome aforementioned problems and approach the characteristics of ideal
Nyquist channel the characteristics of the transmission channels (impulse response)
should be corrected (compensated) by applying appropriate filters at the transmitter or
receiver,
• A particular form of this filter is a raised cosine filter
 Inter Symbol Interferences (ISI)
• The frequency characteristic od raised Cosine filter consists of a flat amplitude portion and a
roll-off portion that has a sinusoidal form. The pulse spectrum p(f) is specified in terms of a roll
off factor α as follows:

• The frequency parameter and bandwidth W are related by: where α is the
rolloff factor. It indicates the excess bandwidth over the ideal solution (Nyquist channel) where
W=1/2Tb.
• The transmission bandwidth is (1+α )W
Transversal filters
• Linear Equalizers
• The linear equalizer consists of a delay line tapped at Tb second intervals,
where each tap is connected through a variable gain device (tap weight
coefficient) to a summing device. It is assumed that the linear equalizer has
2N+1 taps.
Transversal filters
• In zero-forcing (ZF) equalization, the goal is to design a linear equalizer whose
frequency response is the inverse of channel frequency response. The ZF
equalizer can force the ISI to be zero at the sampling instants.
• In ZF equalization, the tap coefficients of the ZF equalizer can be determined
by solving the following system of linear equations for the 2N+1 taps of the ZF
equalizer:

• where h(t) is the nonideal channel response with causal ISI of length L, {cn}
represent the 2N+1 equalizer coefficients, and N is generally chosen
sufficiently large so that the equalizer spans the length of the ISI.
 Transversal filters
• Example: Suppose the samples of the nonideal received pulse are as follows:

• Design a three-tap ZF equalizer.

• Solution: Using previous formula, we obtain the following system of linear equations:

• The tap gains are then as follows: c−1=−0.185, c0=0.926, and c1=0.185.
The architecture and the operation rules of 2G systems (GSM)
Types of bursts.
- Frequency correction burst:
– It enables synchronizotng the terminal frequency with the frequency of a
base station
– The burst is sent periodically
– It consists of 142 zeros (specific feature); this lets for determining the base
station working frequency by scanning the spectrum as a stronger power
signal appears on the spectrum around this frequency
The architecture and the operation rules of 2G systems (GSM)
Types of bursts.
- Synchronization burst:
• It is used to synchronize the frame structure
• Information block includes the information about the number of TDMA frame,
identifier of the base station (Base Station Identity Code;BSIC)

- Access burst:
• Long GP (Guard Period) field is specific for this type of burst. This type of burst is used when
a terminal accesses the network to use its resources. Then the long GP comes from the
inability determine the location of a terminal and thus to compensate long GP by „timing in
advance” method.
The architecture and the operation rules of 2G systems (GSM)
Timing advance:
A mechanism consisting in starting the transmission at a terminal earlier in order to
compensate the propagation time and thus achieving the synchronization with the
frame structure at the base station.

Origin of the problem

Spatial situation

Solution of the problem

The architecture and the operation rules of 2G systems (GSM)
Logical channels:
⚫ Logical channel – the type of information that is carried in a physical channel.

• There are two types of logical channels in GSM system:

•Traffic channels – TCH:
–Full Rate – 13kbps (telephony), 9.6 kbit/s (data transmission)
–Half Rate – 6.5 kbps (telephony), 4.8 kbit/s (data transmission)
•Control channels – CCH
• Control channels can be divided into 3 groups:
– Broadcast channels (BCH) – used to transmit signalling and control information
(from base station to terminals; downlink direction)
– Common control channels (CCCH) – used for setting up connections between
terminal and the network (bidirectional)
– Dedicated Control Channels (DCCH) – used for exchanging signalling during the
setup (later phase) and while the connection is being used e.g. For power
measurements, for handover procedure.
The architecture and the operation rules of 2G systems (GSM)
Taxonomy of logical channels:
The architecture and the operation rules of 2G systems (GSM)
Traffic channels:
– Used for carrying voice or data traffic
– Two modes of opereations:
•Full rate – the transmission in one time slot in each TDMA frame
•Half-rate – the transmission in one time slot in every second TDMA frame
– Every 13 frames with traffic (TCH frames) the system inserts a Slow
Associated Control Channel (SACCH) frame or an empty frame
– A group of 26 TDMA frames is called Mutliframe
The architecture and the operation rules of 2G systems (GSM)
Broadcast channels (BCH):
– They exist only in „downlink” direction (from a base station to a terminal) on the
chosen frequency (physical) channel (in each cell), only in the first time slot of
chosen TDMA frames,
– They are used for distributing information about the cell, BS, the operator or for
synchornisation between terminals and the serving base station
– Types of broadcast channels:
•Broadcast control channels (BCCH) – carry the information identifying the base
station, the identification of an operator, the ids of channles from neighbouring
cells,
•Frequency correction channels (FCCH)
•Synchronization channels (SCH)
– All above logical channels are implemented in the first time slot of TDMA frames
The architecture and the operation rules of 2G systems (GSM)

Common control channles (CCCH):

– Implemented on the same frequency channels that Broadcast Channels;
they use the first time slot of each TDMA frame that is not used by BCHs
– The types of Common Control Channels:
– Paging channel (PCH) – only in „downlink” direction, used for signalling
the terminating calls
– Random access channel (RACH) – only in „uplink” direction, used for
signalling the need of radio resources (the first phase of setup
procedure)
– Access grant channel (AGCH) – only in „downlink” direction, used for
carrying the information from the BS to a terminal about assiged
channels,
The architecture and the operation rules of 2G systems (GSM)

Dedicated Control Channels (DCCH):

– Bidirectional channels („uplink” and „downlink”),
– Implemented in any except the first time slot of a frame on any frequency,
– Types of Dedicated Control Channels (DCCH):
•Stand-alone Dedicated Control Channel (SDCCH) – used for carrying the
signalling during the call setup procedure (user identification, call control),
•Slow Associated Control Channel (SACCH) – always associated with a traffic or
SDDCH channel. It carries slow changing control information e.g. signal power
level (from serving and neighbouring Base Stations), power control info, timing
advance info,
•Fast Associated Control Channel (FACCH) – it carries urgent signalling
information e.g. for hand-over procedure.
The architecture and the operation rules of 2G systems (GSM)
Mobile station (MS):
User=Subscriber (SIM card; Subscriber Identification Module)
Terminal (terminal equipment, user equipment UE)
Base Station Subsystem (BSS):
Base Transiver Station (BTS)
Base Station Controller (BSC)
BSS = NxBTS+kxBSC (access network)
Core Network - Network Switching Subsystem (NSS):
Mobile Switching Center (Toll Exchange),
Mobility specific elements (elements that support the mobility):HLR (Home Location Register), VLR (Visitor
Location Register), EIR (Equipment Identity Register), AuC (Authentication Center)
The architecture and the operation rules of 2G systems (GSM)
Mobility management – locating and tracking users,
• Areas with different cover ranges:
– MSC area (VLR register) – the area users located there are served with the same
MSC e.g. A city, a region; MSC area is divided into Location Areas
– Location Area (LA) – the area that covers a group of cells (several or tens of cells); a
user's location is tracked with the acuracy of an LA (when in standby state); a paging
signal is sent over the whole LA (paging area),
– Cell area; an area covered by a single Base Station; a user's location is known with
a cell accuracy only if he/she is calling
The architecture and the operation rules of 2G systems (GSM)
Mobile station (MS) consists of two elements:
– A mobile equipment (ME)
Identified by a unique IMEI number (International Mobile Equipment
Identity)
– SIM card (Subscriber Identity Module)
•SIM card is a user's identity and it enables the access to the subscribed
services from any terminal (User Equipment)
•SIM card is identified by a unique IMSI number (International Mobile
Subscriber Identity)
•It includes also the authentication related information
•IMSI number is independent of IMEI number (one can change the
terminals or use the same terminal with different SIM cards)
The architecture and the operation rules of 2G systems (GSM)
Identifiers used in GSM:
– User related identifiers:
MSISDN (Mobile Station International Subscriber Directory Number)– international user's
phone number; as appears in a phone book,

• IMSI – unique user's identifier used internally in GSM system,

• TMSI (Temporary Mobile Subscriber Identity) – temporary user's internal identifier
(assigned dynamiclly due to security reasons), equivalent to IMSI identifier
• MSRN (Mobile Station Roaming Number) - temporary network number for call routing
purposes
– Network infrastructure related identifiers:
• IMEI (Internatioanl Mobile Equipment Identifier)– a number that uniquely identifies
an equipment (resides in a terminal and in EIR database)
• LAI (Location Area Identity) – it identifies Location Area; it consists of Contry Code +
Operator's Number + paging area code
⚫ CGI (Cell Global Identifier) – it uniquely identifies a cell within a network

⚫ BSIC (Base Station Identification Code) – it uniquely identifies a base station

The architecture and the operation rules of 2G systems (GSM)
Functions of a Mobile Station:
– System functions (transparent for a user):
– Power measurements and power control,
– Frequency hopping
– Voice and data transmission
–Dependable on a user's interface:
– Standard functions e.g. displaying a called phone number, ability
to choose an operator,
– Non-standard (additional) e.g. Camera, sensors.
The architecture and the operation rules of 2G systems (GSM)
Functions of Base Tranceiver Station (BTS):
– Functions related to bit stream transmission (processing of signals,
modulation, transmission coding, ciphering, scrambling, etc.)
– Functions related to Radio Link Control e.g. error detection, error
correction,

Functions of a Base Station Controler (BSC):

– Resorce management of controlled BTSs,
– Reserving physical channels and releasing them,
– Frequency hopping
– Assisting handover procedures between BTSs controlled by the same
BSC

Base Station Subsystem (BSS):

– A group of Base Station Controllers with their controlled BTSs that
connected to the same MSC
– The interface between BTS and BSC is standardized (Abis interface)
The architecture and the operation rules of 2G systems (GSM)
Mobile switching center (MSC):
– Functions: Call Control (setting up, maintaining and tearing down
connections, routing calls, charging) with regard to its own subscribers,
– It is connected with BSCs (on the access network side) and with other
MSCs (on the core network side),
– The interface between a BSC and a MSC is standardized (A interface).

Gateway Mobile switching center (GMSC):

– Functions: Call Control (setting up, maintaining and tearing down
connections, routing calls, charging) with regard to other networks
subscribers e.g. other PLMN (Public Land Mobile Network), PSTN
(Public Switched Telephone Network)
– Additional functions implemented as an IWF module (Inter-Working
Functions) for a MSC.
The architecture and the operation rules of 2G systems (GSM)

Home Location Register (HLR):

– A data base storing the information about subscribers and their services:
– User's personal data,
– Subscription (covering information about e.g. fee per minute of a call)
– Subscribed services (what is allowed and what is not),
– MSISDN number,
– IMSI number,
– Authentication key,
– UE state e.g. active, standby, switched off
– A pointer to VLR the user is currently in the range of,
– There is only one (logical) HLR for the whole network of a given operator
The architecture and the operation rules of 2G systems (GSM)

Visitors Location Register (VLR):

–One instance for every MSC area (VLRs and MSCs go in pairs),
- VLR is a data base storing the information about users located in the
area covered by MSC/VLR pair (responsible for Mobility Management),
– Each user being in the area covered (controlled) by a given MSC/VLR
has its own entry in the VLR data base
– Information stored in VLR are:
– Subsribers identity –TMSI number,
– The state of terminals (switched off, standby, active)
– User's location with accuracy to LAI
The architecture and the operation rules of 2G systems (GSM)
Authentication Center (AuC):
– A module related to HLR (one for the whole operator's network),
– Responsible for authenticating users (recognizing and confirming their identity) and then for
users' authorisation (assigning appropriate rights for network and services access according to
the user profile stored in HLR),
– The authentication follows the SRES (Signed RESponse) algorithm

SRES algorithm steps:

1. MS sends IMSI to AuC
2. Based on received IMSI number AuC
searches for the key KI (in HLR)
3. AuC generates 128 bit long pseudo random
number RND and sends it to MS
4. MS calculates SRES value (according to A3
algorithm using RND and locally stored key KI)
5. At the same time AuC calculates SRES value
based on the same data
6. MS sends back the result to AuC
7. AuC compares received SRES value with the
locally calculated value
The architecture and the operation rules of 2G systems (GSM)

A layered model of GSM system:

– Communication Management
– Mobility management
– Radio Resources
– Transmission
The architecture and the operation rules of 2G systems (GSM)
⚫ Radio Resource Management:
– Channel assigment and release procedures,
– Channel/base station handover procedure,
– Frequency hopping procedures,
– Power management procedures,
– Terminal power control procedures, timing advance procedures
– Ciphering

⚫ Mobility Management:
– Location update procedure,
– Subscriber's authentication procedure,
– Network attachment (after switching on) and detachment (after switching off)
procedures,
– Equipment identification procedure
– TMSI number assigment procedure
The architecture and the operation rules of 2G systems (GSM)
⚫ Communication Management:
– Call Control:
– Setting up, maintaining and releasing connections,
– Supplementary Services Management e.g. CLIP (Calling Line Identification
Presentation), CLIR (Calling Line Identification Restriction)
– Short Massage Service (SMS)
⚫ Management functions vs functional entities:
The architecture and the operation rules of 2G systems (GSM)
GSM signalling use cases.

A Mobile Station might be in one of the following states:

- switched off – MS doesn't work; is inactive; MS location is not tracked any

more; the location before switching the terminal off is stored in VLR,

– Standby – MS is switched on but it doesn't maintain any call (nor data

transmition); MS location is being tracked,

– Active – MS is switched on and it is involved in a call (or data transmition);

MS location is being tracked; the call is maintained (possibility to perform
handover procedure)
The architecture and the operation rules of 2G systems (GSM)
GSM signalling use cases – switching a terminal on:

– Recognizing the signals (information) in broadcast channels:

– Frequency correction (FCC) based on the strongest signal power neighbour. To find out
the frequency a base station is working on,
– TDMA frame synchronization (SCH)
– Recognizing LAI number (LAI number is sent in BCH)

– Possible cases:
– New LAI == old LAI; in VLR only the MS state is changed (from inactive to standby)
– New LAI <> old LAI (but MSC area is the same); in VLR only MS state is changed (from
inactive to standy) and the LAI number is updated
– New LAI <> old LAI and old VLR <> new VLR; in new VLR a new entry is added with the
MS state „standby” and updated LAI number. In old VLR the entry is removed and in
HLR a pointer is changed to indicated new VLR instead of the old one.
The architecture and the operation rules of 2G systems (GSM)

GSM signalling use cases – switching a terminal off:

– In a standby state a MS periodically confirms its state (hearbeat),

– While switching a terminal off a request message is sent to the
network to detach a terminal (explicite detachment),
– In turn VLR entry is updated to indicate a new state of this terminal
(inactive)
– If an unexpected terminal switch off occurs (e.g. dropping terminal,
taking a battery off) then a lack of the hearbeat for a given period of
time will result in changing the MS state to „inactive”
The architecture and the operation rules of 2G systems (GSM)
GSM signalling use cases – connection setup (1/3):
The architecture and the operation rules of 2G systems (GSM)
GSM signalling use cases – connection setup (2/3):
The architecture and the operation rules of 2G systems (GSM)
GSM signalling use cases – connection setup (3/3):