BEEE307L Electric drives

By,
Dr. Razia Sultana W.
Associate Professor Sr.,
Energy and Power Electronics Department
School of Electrical engineering,
Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore

Module 1

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 INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRIC DRIVES

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 Contents

• Introduction
• Functional Block diagram
• Dynamics of Drives
– Fundamental Torque equation
– Drives with Translational load
– Loads with Gears
• Multiquadrant Operation of drives
• Components of Load Torque
• Classification of Loads
• Steady state stability

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 Introduction to Electric Drives
What are Electrical Drives?

Drives are systems employed for motion control

Require prime movers

Drives that employ electric motors as

prime movers are known as Electrical Drives

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 Advantages of electric drives

1. Feasible control characteristics

2. Available in wide range of speed torque and power
3. Higher efficiency
4. Lower noise
5. Cleaner operation
6. Low maintenance requirements
7. Electric energy is easy to transport

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 Disadvantages of electric drives

1. The dependence on a continuous power supply causes

problems with vehicle propulsion.

2. If no power rail or catenary is available, an electric

energy source must be carried on board, which is usually
bulky, heavy and expensive.

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 Ward-Leonard System

 Ward-Leonard system – introduced in  Disadvantage :

1890s  Bulky
 Expensive
 Inefficient
 Complex

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 Block Diagram of Modern ED

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 Block diagram of a Electric drive
Parts of Electric
system
drive system
▪Source

▪ Power modulator

▪Motor

▪Control unit,

▪Load

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 Parts of Electric drive system

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 Power Train of a Electric vehicle (EV)

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 SOURCES

• Low power drives – Single Phase

• High Power Drives – Three Phase
• Traction – high power – Single Phase
• Fed from 50 Hz, max speed of IM and Sync motor is approx 3000rpm
• For higher speed – conversion of frequency
• Space and aircraft applications – 400 Hz AC
• Some drives fed from battery
• Low voltage drives – solar powered – space applications

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Basic Components of Electric Drives – Power
Source
• Provides energy to electric motors
• Regulated (e.g: utility) or Unregulated (e.g. : renewable energy)
• Unregulated power sources must be regulated for high efficiency – use
power electronic converters
• DC source
• batteries
• fuel cell
• photovoltaic
• AC source
• single- or three- phase utility
• wind generator

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 Battery

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Basic Components of Electric Drives – Power
Processing Unit
• Provides a regulated power supply to motor
• Enables motor operation in reverse, braking and variable speeds
• Combination of power electronic converters
✓Controlled rectifiers, inverters –treated as ‘black boxes’ with
certain transfer function
✓More efficient – ideally no losses occur
✓Flexible - voltage and current easily shaped through
switching control
✓Compact
✓Several conversions possible: AC-DC , DC-DC, DC-AC, AC-AC

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 types of power conversion in power electronics
converters.

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 Functions of Power Modulator

Modulates the power flow as required( by the load)

➢During Transient operation ( starting, braking...)limits the current drawn

➢Converts Electrical Energy as required ( dc-dc, dc- ac, ac-ac…)

➢Determines the modes of operation ( motoring or braking)

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 Power Modulators

• Converters
➢ AC – DC converters ( Rectifier)

➢ DC – DC converters ( Chopper)

➢ DC- AC converters (Inverter)

➢ AC- AC converters (AC voltage regulator, Cycloconverter)

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 Classification of Converters

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Basic Components of Electric Drives – Power
Processing Unit

• AC to DC:

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 AC-DC converters
Fixed Fixed
AC DC
Diode Rectifier

Fixed Variable
AC Half Controlled DC
Thyristor Converter

Fixed Variable
AC Fully Controlled DC
Thyristor Converter

Variable
Fixed AC Variable
AC Transformer With DC
Taps Diode Rectifier

Fixed Fixed
DC Variable
AC DC
Diode Rectifier
Chopper

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Basic Components of Electric Drives – Power
Processing Unit

• DC to DC:

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 DC-DC converters

Fixed Variable
DC DC
Chopper
Step UP/Step Down

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Basic Components of Electric Drives – Power
Processing Unit

• DC to AC:

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 DC- AC converters
Variable Frequency,
Dc Voltage Variable Voltage AC
PWM Inverters

Variable Frequency,
Dc Voltage Variable Voltage AC
SPWM Inverters

Variable Frequency,
Dc Voltage fixed Voltage AC
Stepped wave
Inverters

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Basic Components of Electric Drives – Power
Processing Unit

• AC to AC:

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 AC – AC Converters
Fixed Variable
AC AC
Transformer with Taps

Fixed Variable
AC AC
Autotransformer

Fixed Variable
AC AC
Thyristor Voltage
Controllers

Fixed Variable
AC AC voltage and frequency
Cycloconverter

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 Basic Components of Electric Drives - Motor

Electrical Mechanical
Motor
energy energy
• Obtain power from electrical sources
• DC motors - Permanent Magnet or wound-field (shunt, separately excited,
compound, series)
• AC motors – Induction, Synchronous (wound –rotor, IPMSM, SPMSM), brushless DC
• Selection of machines depends on many factors, e.g.:

• application • environment
• cost • type of source available
• efficiency
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 Motors
DC Motor AC / Induction Motors Others
Shunt, series, Compound, Permanent Cage, Wound rotor, Linear IM, Brushless DC motors, Stepper
magnet DC motors Synchronous motors, motors, Switched Reluctance
PMSM Motors
Electric machine requirement for EV

High Torque density

High power density
Wide speed range, covering low-speed

1. Ability to produce high torque at low speed, including zero speed, for operation without a clutch. This torque
must be produced with high dynamics.
2. Operation with a high field-weakening (constant-power) speed range (CPSR), up to about five times the base
speed. The base speed is the speed up to which the motor is capable of producing its maximum or rated torque.
3. Operation of the motor and its drive circuits over the whole speed range with high efficiency, high reliability and
low maintenance.
4. Four-quadrant operation with regenerative braking, returning the overhauling energy into a storage device

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Sketches of
(a) induction,
(b) surface permanent-magnet,
(c) interior permanent-magnet,
(d) reluctance machines.

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Sketches of
(a) induction,
(b) surface permanent-magnet,
(c) interior permanent-magnet,
(d) reluctance machines.

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 SRM and IM
• At present, motors for EV application
– Switched reluctance motor, Induction motor and Permanent magnet synchronous
motor.

• Switched reluctance motor (SRM) is also a potential electric vehicle drive

motor, which has the advantages of relatively
– simple structure, high reliability, no permanent magnet, low cost, variable speed,
high starting torque, high efficiency

– disadvantages of large torque ripple and acoustic noise, poor vehicle comfort
• Induction Motor (IM)
• The induction motor has mature manufacturing technology,
– higher reliability, and strong environmental adaptability,
– but it has low efficiency and low torque density under urban working conditions

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 IPMSM

• The IPMSM is very popular for EV applications

– advantages of high torque density, high power density, high efficiency, wide constant power
speed regulation, which is especially suitable for electric vehicle driving motor

• The IPMSM can make full use of the reluctance torque by controlling the current
angle due to the difference of d-q axis inductances

• . The use of reluctance torque can greatly improve the overload capacity, torque
density and the constant power operating range of the IPMSM.

• Therefore, the research on the performance of the IPMSM has become a research
hotspot for EV driving motor

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 comparison between various traction machines
ac dc
Attribute
SPM IPM SC IM RM PM WF
Size
Cost
Efficiency
High-speed field weakening
Rotor Cooling
Service and Maintenance
Fault-tolerance
Automotive Powertrain

• Every kilogram onboard represents an increase in structural loads and a loss in the system
because of friction.
• High efficiency is equivalent to a reduction in energy demands and thus battery weight.
• Permanent Magnet (PM) motors, which have the highest efficiency, thus appear to be the
best option.
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 Views of the IPM rotor from the 2007 Toyota Camry HEV motor

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 CONTROL UNIT

➢ Controls the power modulator

➢ Connected with a sensing circuits for closed loop control

Speed sensing , Current Sensing

➢ eg. Hall effect sensor.

➢ Control unit – Firing circuits, transistors, Microprocessor, Microcontroller, DSP, FPGA…

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 SENSORS AND OTHER ANCILLARY CIRCUITS

• Required for Closed loop operation

Speed sensing , Current Sensing, Position Sensing

➢ eg. Hall effect sensor.

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 Automotive power train

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 Several factors affecting drive selection:
• Steady-state operation requirements
• nature of torque-speed profile, speed regulation, speed range, efficiency, quadrants of
operations, converter ratings
• Transient operation requirements
• values of acceleration and deceleration, starting, braking and reversing performance
• Power source requirements
• Type, capacity, voltage magnitude, voltage fluctuations, power factor, harmonics and its
effect on loads, ability to accept regenerated power
• Capital & running costs
• Space and weight restrictions
• Environment and location
• Efficiency and reliability

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 DC or AC Drives?
DC Drives AC Drives

Motor • requires maintenance • less maintenance

• heavy, expensive • light, cheaper
• limited speed (due to mechanical • high speeds achievable (squirrel-cage IM)
construction) • robust

Control Unit Simple & cheap control even for high Depends on required drive performance
performance drives • complexity & costs increase with performance
• decoupled torque and flux control • DSPs or fast processors required in high
• Possible implementation using single performance drives
analog circuit

Performance Fast torque and flux control Scalar control – satisfactory in some
applications
Vector control – similar to DC drives

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 Dynamics of Drives

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 Dynamics of ED

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 Driving force FM acts on an object of mass M
object moves at a speed v
FL is the load force, which acts in a direction opposite to FM,
Mv is the object’s momentum.

Newton’s second law, states that the rate of change of

momentum of an object is directly proportional to the applied
(A) Linear motion
force

If the mass M of the load is constant, then the second term of the derivative in above is zero. Thus, eq is given by a well-
known equation derived from Newton’s second law as
a= dv/dt is the object’s
acceleration.
Next, for a rotational motion in Fig. B, the rotational analogue of Eq. is given by

TM and TL are driving and load torque,

ω is the angular speed of the rotating object.
J denotes the moment of inertia of the rotating object (B) rotational motion objects
Jω is the object’s angular momentum.
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 When the moment of inertia J is assumed to be constant, we can rewrite Eq
TM and TL are driving and load torque,
ω is the angular speed of the rotating object.
J denotes the moment of inertia
α= dω/dt is the object’s angular acceleration.
TM > TL, then the object will accelerate,

TM < TL, then it will decelerate.

TM = TL, the speed will not be changed.

Thus, when driving a load, to keep the load speed constant, the
motor torque must be equal to the load torque.
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 Fundamental torque equation
• From the motor’s viewpoint, a mechanical load can be
seen as a load torque TL connected to its shaft.

• Equation of motion of a motor drive system can be

expressed as
Simplified configuration of a motor drive system consisting of a driving
motor and a driven mechanical load, in which the torque of the motor
is transferred to the load through the shaft and coupling
JM and JL are the motor inertia and the load inertia,
When the motor is driving a mechanical load, the torque required to run the load is the load torque TL, which varies with the
type of load.
In addition to Eq when a load begins to move and is in motion, a friction force occurs, resisting the motion.
Therefore, the equation of motion needs to include the friction force TF as
where J = JM + JL.

TM= TL +Tmech+Tdyn

Finally, we have an equation of motion, which expresses the dynamic behavior of a motor
drive system
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 Combination system of translational motion and
rotational motion

• Elevator, a conveyor, or electric vehiclesare a combination of

translational motion and rotational motion
• Need to convert the load parameters such as load inertia to
the motor shaft.
• The expression for the translational motion in Fig. is given
by

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 Combination system of translational motion and rotational
motion

The relationships between force and torque, and velocity and angular
velocity

By substituting Eqs. (1.61) (1.63) into Eq. (1.60), we obtain

where Je= Mr2 represents the equivalent moment of inertia, which is reflected to the
motor shaft side of the mass M in translational motion.
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 System with gears or pulleys
• The speed required by the load is too low compared to the nominal speed of the motor.
• Gears or pulleys between the motor and the load being driven are most often used to
change the speed.
In this case, we need to know how the load will be seen through the gears or pulleys at
the motor side.
The equation of motion at the load side is given by

Because the two gears will travel at an equal distance, we have

N1 and N2 are the number of teeth on the gears

of the motor and load sides, respectively.

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 System with gears or pulleys
When neglecting friction and losses of the gears, the power is the same at the input and at the output of the gear

Equation of motion at the motor side

J and B are the load inertia JL and the friction coefficient BL converted
to the motor side, respectively.
It can be seen that the load parameters reflected back to the motor are a squared
function of the gear ratio N1/N2.
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 Multi-quadrant operation of ED

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 Multi-quadrant operation of ED
• Operation of a motor can be divided into two modes according to the direction of the
energy transfer- Motoring and Generating mode

Generating mode, in which the motor absorbs the load energy, providing a braking action

Four-quadrant operation modes -Torque should be controlled in the positive and negative direction,
Speed should be controlled in the forward and reverse direction.

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 Machine Quadrants
Quadrant Direction Speed/EMF Action Torque/Current
1 Forward + Motoring +
2 Reverse - Generating +
3 Reverse - Motoring -
4 Forward + Generating -

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 Four quadrant operation of Motor

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 Four quadrant operation of Motor

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 Torque-Speed Quadrant of Operation

 •Direction of positive
Te
m m (forward) speed is
Te arbitrary chosen
•Direction of positive
torque will produce
P = -ve P = +ve positive (forward) speed
Quadrant 2 Quadrant 1
Forward braking Forward motoring T
Quadrant 3 Quadrant 4 P = Te m
Reverse motoring Reverse braking Te
P = +ve P = -ve Electrical energy
Te
m m MOTOR
P = + ve

Mechanical energy

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 Electric Lift

Q1- Heavy Car moves up

Q2-Empty Car moves up
Q3-Empty Car moves down
Q4- Heavy Car moves down

Counter-weight heavier than empty car

Heavy Car heavier than the counter-weight

Here, the going-up of the car is assumed as the forward direction

in the forward motoring mode.

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 Counter-weight heavier than empty car Q1- Heavy Car moves up
Heavy Car heavier than the counter-weight Q2-Empty Car moves up
Q3-Empty Car moves down
Quadrant 1 operation: the forward motoring mode (+T, + ω) Q4- Heavy Car moves down
When the car carrying people goes up
Car heavier than the counterweight,
the traction motor is needed to produce the forward direction torque,
Motor operate motoring mode

Quadrant 2 operation: the forward braking mode (-T, + ω)

When an empty car goes up and
Car is lighter than the counterweight,
the traction motor is needed to produce the braking torque
of the reverse direction, so it
Motor operates in the forward braking (generating) mode.

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 Quadrant 3 operation: the reverse motoring mode (-T, - ω)
When an empty car goes down lighter than the counterweight,
the traction motor is needed to produce the reverse direction torque,
Motor operates in the reverse motoring mode.

Quadrant 4 operation: the reverse braking mode (+T, - ω)

When the car carrying people goes down
heavier than the counterweight,
the traction motor is needed to produce the braking torque of the forward
direction, so it
operates in the reverse braking (generating) mode.

Q1- Heavy Car moves up

Q2-Empty Car moves up
Q3-Empty Car moves down
Q4- Heavy Car moves down

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 Four quadrant operation in EV

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 Types of Load
Loads can be of two types:
Loads providing Active torque or Passive Torque
• Active torque
Active torque retain their sign even when rotation direction is changed. example torque due
to gravity, tension, compression.

• Passive torque
Passive torque opposes the motion. They change their sign when direction of rotation is
changed. Example, torque due to friction, wind.
Components of load torque are 1. friction torque 2. windage torque 3. Useful torque types of
load

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 Components of Load Torque

• Load torque can be divided into:

• Mechanical Load Torque TL - torque to do useful mechanical work.

• Friction torque – present at motor shaft and in various parts of load.

➢ Viscous friction torque Tv – varies linearly with speed (Tv  m).
• Exists in lubricated bearings due to laminar flow of lubricant
• Coulomb friction torque TC – independent of speed. (TC = K).

• Exists in bearings, gears coupling and brakes.

• Windage torque Tw – exists due to turbulent flow of air or liquid.

➢ Varies proportional to speed squared (Tw  m2).

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 Mechanical Load Torque

• Load torque is function of speed

• where k = integer or fraction
TL  mk
• Mechanical power of load:

2
P = TLm m = nm
60
Speed
Angular speed in rpm
in rad/s

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 Classification of Loads

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 Types of Load Torque

• Constant torque type load (Constant)

• Torque proportional to speed(Linear) (Generator Type

load)

• Torque proportional to square of the speed(Square

(Fan type load)

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 Mechanical loads

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 Component and classification of load torque
There are several types of loads driven by a motor. In most loads, the required torque is
normally a function of speed. There are three typical loads whose speed-torque
characteristics

1. Constant torque load TL= K ; P α ω (P = ωT)

Torque independent of speed , k = 0
The torque required by this type of load remains
constant regardless of the speed.
Loads such as elevators, screw compressors,
conveyors, and feeders
Combined characteristic of a constant torque load in lo
speeds and a constant power load in high speeds

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 Component and classification of load torque
2. Constant power load (TL α 1/ω) ; P= K
Torque inversely proportional to speed , k = -1
This load requires a torque,
which is inversely proportional to the speed
E.g. machine tool industry and drilling, milling industry.
The load in traction drives such as electric locomotives and
electric vehicles.

Torque inversely proportional the combined characteristic of a constant torque load

to speed(Inverse) (Constant power type load) speeds and a constant power load in high speeds

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 Component and classification of load torque
There are several types of loads driven by a motor. In most loads, the required torque is normally a function of speed.
There are three typical loads whose speed-torque characteristics
3. Load proportional to the square of the speed (TL α ω2)
(P α ω3)
Torque proportional to square of speed , k =2
The torque of this load increases
in proportion to the square of the speed.
fan, blower, and pump, which are the most commonly found in
industrial drive applications.

the combined characteristic of a constant torque load

speeds and a constant power load in high speeds

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 Ideal performance characteristics for a vehicle
traction power plant
• Constant power characteristic over a full
range
• Torque varies with speed hyberbolically

• At lower speeds, torque is constrained to be

constant in low speed

• At low speeds, high tractive effort required

where demands for acceleration, drawbar
pull, or grade climbing capability are high.

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Performance characteristics of a electric
motor for traction
• Much closer to the ideal characteristics.
• Electric motor starts from zero speed. As it increases to
its base speed, the voltage increases to its rated value
while the flux remains constant.
• In this speed range of zero to base speed, the electric
motor produces a constant torque.
• Beyond the base speed, the voltage remains constant
and the flux is weakened.
• This results in a constant output power while the
torque declines hyperbolically with speed.
• Since the speed–torque profile of an electric motor is
close to the ideal, a single-gear or double-gear
transmission may be employed to meet the vehicle
performance requirement
 Steady State Operating Speed

Motor T- characteristic – variation of motor torque with speed

with all other variables (voltage and frequency) kept constant.
SPEED

Synchronous motor

Induction motor

Separately excited
Series DC motor / shunt DC motor

TORQUE
Loads will have their own T- characteristics.

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• At constant speed, By using power
Te= TL electronic
Torque converters, the
Te TL motor characteristic
can be varied
• Steady state speed is
at point of intersection
between Te and TL of Steady state
the steady state torque Speed, r
characteristics

r3 r1 r2

Speed

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 Steady State Operating Speed
By using power
• At constant Torque
Te TL electronic
speed, Te= TL converters, the
• Steady state motor characteristic
can be varied
speed is at
point of Steady state
Speed, r
intersection
between Te
and TL of the
steady state
torque r3 r1 r2
Speed
characteristics
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 Steady State Stability

• Drives operate at steady-state speed (when Te = TL) only if the speed is of stable
equilibrium.
• A disturbance in any part of drive causes system speed to depart from steady-state
point.
• Steady-state speed is of stable equilibrium if:
 system will return to stable equilibrium speed when subjected to a
disturbance
• Steady-state stability evaluated using steady-state T- characteristic of motor and
load.
• Condition for stable equilibrium:
dTL dTe
 (9)
dm dm
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 Steady State Stability
d (m )
Te − TL = J
dt
• Evaluated using steady-state T- characteristic of motor and load.
• Assume a disturbance causes speed drop to r’
• At the new speed r’,

m Steady-state point A
Te’ > TL’ at speed = r
Te TL
motor accelerates
dTL dTe
r 
operation restored to steady- r’
dm dm
state point
Steady-state speed is of
T
stable equilibrium TL’ Te’
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 Steady State Stability
d (m )
• Let’s look at a different condition! Te − TL = J
dt
• Assume a disturbance causes speed drop to r’
• At the new speed r’,

m Steady-state point B
Te’ < TL’ at speed = r
TL Te
motor decelerates
dTL dTe
r 
operation point moves away r’
dm dm
from steady-state point

Point B is at UNSTABLE T
Te’ TL’
equilibrium
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 To Be Continued

1/8/2024 Dr. Razia Sultana W. / VIT University / Electric Drives and Control 78