1.

INTRODUCTION:

India’s north east is one of the most culturally

diverse regions in the world. North eastern India
comprises seven states commonly known as “seven
sisters,” namely Arunachal Pradesh,
Assam, Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram, Tripura and
Meghalaya. North eastern region of India is
surrounded by Bhutan, Tibet, China, Myanmar, and
Bangladesh and a long narrow passage in the west
which connects the region with the West Bengal.
North eastern India occupies an area of 255,000 sq
km, it comprises above 7 % land mass of the total land
mass of the India. North East India is unique in its
culture and traditions, different tribes have their
own oral literature consisting of songs, and folklores.
 Fig 1. Source:
http://www.google.co.in/images?imgurl=http://w
ww.mapsofworld.com/india/maps/north-east-
india-.jpg

Arunachal Pradesh is called as the Land of Rising

Sun, because it is the state where the sun first rises
in India. It is situated on the North Eastern end of
India. Geographically, it is the largest state of North
East region. It has many rivers and streams. It
became India’s 24th state in December 1986 and a
union territory in 1972. It is surrounded by the border
of Bhutan, China and Myanmar, and also by
surrounded by Assam and Nagaland. Itanagar (city of
bricks) is the capital of the Arunachal Pradesh, which
is named after Ita Fort meaning fort of bricks. This
region has their unique culture, history and belief.
There tribal people speak more than 40 different
languages and dialects, main tribal languages of
Arunachal Pradesh are Adi, Bodo/Boro, Mikir,
Mishmi, Monpa, Nishi/Dafla, Nocte, Tangsa and
Wancho, which mostly belonging to the Sino-Tibetan
language family specially the Tibeto-Burmese
branch. Religion the main religions are buddisims,
Hinduism, chrishtianity donyi polism. Around 35%
people are hindus, and around 19% are Christians
and almost 40% of populations follows Buddhism.
Followers of Donyi Polism worship celestial bodies.
Agriculture is the main occupation of the tribal
people of the Arunachal Pradesh. The major crops are
rice, millets, maize, potatoes, pulses, mustard.
Bamboo is the vital forest product. Adi, Aka,
Dafla their occupation revolves around the slash and
burn cultivation.

Assam: The meaning of the word “Assam” is the not

uniform or uneven. The Assam is surrounded by the
states Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur,
Mizoram, Tripura, and Meghalaya. Capital of the
Assam is Dispur. Assam got recognition of statehood
on 15 August 1947. There are 23 districts in the Assam.
Brahmaputra is the major river of the state. The
Assamese is the main language, which belongs to the
Indo- Aryan group. Hindi and English are also spoken
in Assam. Hinduism is the major religion in the
Assam. Islam and Christianity are also followed by
the people of the Assam. Also there are people who
follow Buddhism, Sikhism and Jainism in this state.
The main occupation of the tribal people of Assam is
agriculture. The main crops are rice, tea, sugarcane,
potatoes and jute. About one sixth of the tea
production of the world comes from the Assam. In
India 50% of tea production of tea is comes from
Assam alone. Also there are mines of mineral oil, coal
and limestone.
 Nagaland is surrounded by the Arunachal Pradesh,
Assam, Manipur and Myanmar. The capital of the
state is Kohima. The name Nagaland is comes from
the Sanskrit word “nagan” means naked. Some
scholars say that this word comes from the
mythology, the daughter of the king of the snakes,
princess Ulupi, who lived in this region. Some scholar
says that this region attain its name due to
abundance of Naga (which is one of the species of
snake). The Nagaland got the recognition of
statehood on 1 December 1963. The state is divided
into 23 districts. Tribes of Nagaland have their own
language. There are total thirty languages. Language
varies from village to village even within one tribal
area. They use Nagamese language to communicate
between two different tribes. The Christianity is the
predominant religion in the Nagaland. They believe
in the concept of the afterlife. They also believe in the
spirits and consider nature as alive. The major
occupation of the tribes of the Nagaland
is agriculture. Shifting and terrace cultivation both
are the basis of their agrarian economy. Rice crops
are having special importance in agriculture of
Nagaland. Some other important crops are maize,
pulses, millets, cardamom, tea and coffee.

Manipur is surrounded by the Nagaland, Myanmar,

Mizoram and Assam. The capital of the Manipur is
Imphal. The meaning of the word Manipur is “land of
jewels”. Geographically the Manipur state can be
divided into two regions – plains and the hills. The
main rivers found in the Manipur are iril, barak, irang
and thoubal. The Manipur got statehood on 21
January 1972. The people of Manipur speak mainly
Manipuri, Hindi and English. The Hinduism is
followed by the majority of the people. There is small
portion of people who follows Christianity and Islam.
Also, there is a small number of Buddhism. Most of
the people are depends on the agriculture, animal
husbandry and fisheries. The major occupation of the
people is agriculture. The main crops are rice,
sugarcane, tobacco and mustard. The weaving
industry of Manipur is famous all over the world. The
handloom is present in almost in every house,
women are especially engaged in the weaving the
traditional designs.

Mizoram is surrounded by the Manipur, Myanmar

and Tripura. The capital of the Mizoram is Aizwal.
The word Mizoram means the “land of the Mizos”. It
is declared as 23rd state of India on 20 February 1987.
The whole area is hilly. The state is divided into 30
districts. The most common languages in Mizoram
are Mizo and English. Some other languages spoken
by the people of the Mizoram are paite, lakher, pawi,
hmar, Ralte,Pang and Magh. These languages belong
to the Tibeto-Burman sub family of Tibeto-Chinese
languages. The Christianity is religion followed by
the majority of the people of Mizoram. Small
proportion of the state is following the Buddhism.
The agriculture is the main occupation of the most of
the people. The major crops are maize and paddy
which are cultivated in slopes of the hilly region. The
other important crops are sugarcane, potato, pulses,
ginger, chilly, tobacco, pineapple and banana. The
Mizoram lacks any major industry due to lack of
mineral resources and its physically isolation from
the country. Cottage industry consists of mainly the
handloom and handicrafts.

Tripura is surrounded by the Mizoram, Bangladesh

and Assam. The capital of the Tripura is Agartala.
Geographically the state is can be divided into two
main region- northern region and southern region.
The state is covered with the hilly terrains. The state
got the position of statehood on the 21 January
1972.Almost the 60% of the total land is covered with
forests; major types of trees are Sal, Garjan, Bamboo
and miscellaneous species. The majority of the
people of Tripura speaks the Bengali language.
Other languages like karborak and Manipuri is
spoken by the people of the Tripura. Hinduism is the
predominant religion of the state. They worship
nature such as the God of water, the God of forests,
the God of earth, the God of fire etc. Sacrifices are
considered as an important part of their religion,
animals used for the sacrifices are the buffaloes, pigs,
goats, and fowls. “Cantais” and the
“Deodais” are regarded as the superintendent of the
Tripuri religion and occupy a very important position
in society as the Brahmins in Hindu
society. Agriculture is the chief occupation of most
of the people. The major crops are rice, jute, cotton,
tea, mustard, sugarcane maize and potato. Tripura
lacks any major industry. There are recently small
cottage industries of handloom, weaving, pottery
and basket making are initiated by the government
of the India.

Meghalaya is surrounded by Assam, and the

Bangladesh. The meaning of the word Meghalaya is
‘Adobe of clouds’. The state attained the statehood
on the 21 January 1972. The capital of Meghalaya is
Shillong. The Meghalaya is also called as ‘Scotland of
the East’ due to its scenic beauty. The whole state is
divided into three division- Jaintia (Eastern), Garo
(Western) and Khasi (central) hills. The Meghalaya is
rich in the flora and the fauna. The major languages
of Meghalaya are Garo and Khasi. The Garos
language belongs to the Bodo group of the Tibeto-
Burman family, the Khasi language belong to the
Mon-Khmer family of Austro-Asiatic family. English
is the official language of the state. There tribes
follow their own religion. They worship of Supreme
Being. They believe in the ghosts, spirits (both good
and bad), there give special importance to sacrifices
in their rituals. Christianity is also found there. The
agriculture is chief occupation of the most the
people. The major crops are maize and rice. Other
important crops are oranges, ginger, pineapple, jack
fruit, banana, peach, plums, cotton, jute and mustard.
Also crops are cashew nuts, tea and coffee is
cultivated in the Meghalaya.

1.1 ETHINIC AFFINITY OF INDIA’S NORTH

EAST:

From ethnic point of view the people of the north

east India can be divided into two broad groups: the
indid and the ‘mongoloid’ (Sengupta, 2003). Indid
group mostly comprises the Hindu castes and the
Muslims, who considered as the Caucasoid in origin
(Sengupta, 2003). It is generally agreed that the
mongoloids once occupied practically the whole of
the north eastern region (Sengupta, 2003). According
to Sengupta, 2003 the Mongoloid are characterized
by following features:

1. Yellow or yellow brown skin

2. Eyes are black or dark brown
3. Eye- slit is oblique
4. Presence of the Mongolian fold in their eyes
5. Wavy and coarse head hair
6. Face is broad
7. Zygomatic arches are very prominent
 8. Scanty growth of facial and body hairs

2. THE CONCEPT OF THE ‘TRIBE’:

In common language the term is linked with the

people who are living in isolated surroundings from
the rest of the population (Thomas T. Jacob, Indian
Tribal Culture: A Rediscovery of Gospel Values). The
Shillong consolation of tribals in 1962
defined tribe as “an indigenous, homogeneous unit,
speaking a common language, claiming a common
ancestry living in a particular geographical area,
backward in technology, pre-literate, loyally
observing social and political customs based on
kinship” (Religion and Society 9:80). In International
Circles, by the UNO (United Nation Organization),
the “Indigenous people” is replaced the term tribe.
But the Government of India has not agreed to the
status of the “Indigenous people” to the Indian
tribals. (Religion and Society 38:18). Some Indian
anthropologists and politicians fear that the
term adivasi (indigenous or original people) would
raise claims of privilege among some people that
would harm harmony and the peace of the races and
peoples. (G.S. Ghurye, p.29).

3. MAJOR TRIBES OF THE INDIA’S NORTH

EAST:
 India’s north east is the land of a large number of
tribes; there are more than 150 tribal communities.
According to the census 2001 the tribe of the north
east region constitutes around 15 percent of the total
tribal population of India. In the states of Assam tribal
population is of 12.4% to the total population,
Manipur tribal population is of 34.2% and Tripura
31.1% tribal population to the total population of the
India. Also the percentages of tribal population of
Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Mizoram and
Nagaland states are very high. (Ali, A.N.M. Irshad and
Indranoshee Das)

Major Tribes of Arunachal Pradesh:

According to Sengupta, 2003 there are 24 major

tribes which are divided into a number of sub tribes
and each tribe have a unique geographic
distribution. The major tribes are-
2. Aka
3. Apatani
4. Bangni
5. Khamba
6. Khowa
7. Memba
8. Miji
9. Khampti
10. Hill miri
11. Mishing
12. Monpa
13. Na
14. Tagin
15. Nishi (Dafla)
16. Nocte
17. Sherdukpen
 18. Sulung
19. Singpho
20. Tangsa
21. Wancho
22. Yobin
23. Zakhring (Meyor)
24. Mishmi

Major tribes of Assam:

According to Sengupta, 2003 there are 14 main

tribes of the Assam are:
1. Chakma
2. Dimasa
3. Garo
4. Hajong
5. Hmar
6. Khasi
7. Kuki
8. Lakher
9. Man
10. Lusani
11. Pawi
12. Syntheg
13. Naga tribes
14. Mikir

Major Tribes of Nagaland:

 According to Sengupta, 2003 there are 13 major
tribes which have sub-tribes also. The following are
the major tribes of the Nagaland:

2. Adi
3. Aka
4. Dimasa
5. Galong
6. Garo
7. Khasi
8. Mizo
9. Karbi
10. Kuki
11. Khowa
12. Momba
13. Synteng
 According to Sengupta, 2003 important tribes of
Manipur are as follows:
 Major Tribes of Mizoram:

According to Sengupta, 2003 there are 13 main

tribes which are further divided into sub-tribes. The
tribes of Mizoram are as follows:

1) Kuki tribe

i) Baite i) Jongbe

ii) Changloi iii) Khawchung

iv) Doundgel v) Khothalong

vi) Gamalhou vii) Khelma

viii) Guite ix) Kholhou

x) Gangte xi) Kipgen

xii) Hanneng xiii) Lenthang

xiv) Haokip xv) Lhangum

xvi) Haolai xvii) Lhoujem

xviii) Hengna xix) Lhovun

xx) Rangkhol xxi) Lupheng

xxii) Mangjel xxiii) Misao

2) Mizo tribe
3) Chakma
4) Dimasa
5) Garo
6) Hajong
7) Hmar
8) Khasi
9) Lekhar
10) Man
11) karbi
12) pawi

Major Tribes of Tripura:

There are majority of Bengali peoples are residing

in the state. Tribal people prefers the remote hilly
areas. According to Sengupta, 2003 there are 18
major tribes as follows:
 Major Tribes of Meghalaya:

According to Sengupta, 2003 there are 20

important tribes of the Meghalaya:
 4. SOCIAL STRUCTURE OF TRIBES OF THE
INDIA’S NORTH EAST:

• Ethnographically, Arunachal Pradesh remained

one of the least known areas of the world
(Sengupta, 2003). There is lot of confusion in the
nomenclature of the tribes of this area. Adi, the
Assamese used term of “Abor” (meaning
wildmen) for all the hillmen of the siang district
this term is replaced by the Adi. The Adis follows
the patrilineal descent inheritance and
patrilocal residence (Sengupta, 2003). The clans
are exogamous in nature and the sub-tribes inter
marry. Aka, is the major tribe of the Kameg
district known to itself as ‘Hruso’ meaning the
hunting being (Sengupta, 2003). Linguistically
they are more close to the Adi and Dafla whom
they can marry. The tribes are divided into the
two major divisions; kotsun and kovatsun, each
which is further divided into the sub-clans
(Sengupta, 2003). These maintain the vertical
hierarchy and the marriages
are hypergamous. The family is patrilocal in
residence. Dafla (nishi), is another major tribe of
 Arunachal Pradesh. The term
has derogatory connotation, meaning a
barbarian. The Dafla themselves want
to called “Nishi or Nishing” “Ni” means man
(Sengupta, 2003). The Dafla are patrilineal in
descent and inheritance and patrilocal in
residence. The Wanchu and Nocte, the society is
organized under great chief, each controlling a
number of villages. The society is divided into
three hierarchical classes. The chief (wangham
) middle class (Wangsa) and the
commoners (Wangpen). They are jhum
cultivators. Their religious belief centre around
a God, living in the sky who is kind and
benevolent (Sengupta, 2003).
• The inhabitants of Assam can be divided into
three categories, namely the tribal population,
the non tribal population, and the scheduled
castes. The tribals consist of different ethno-
cultural groups such as the Kacharis (Bodos),
the Miris, the Deoris, the Rabhas, the Nagas,
the Garos, the Khasis, etc. The non
tribal groups include the Ahoms, the Kayasthas,
the Kalitas, and the Morans etc. The Scheduled
caste includes the Basfors, Baniyas, the Dhobis,
the Hiras, the Kaibartas nd Namasudras. The
non tribals can be divided on the basis of religion
amongst whom the Muslims constitute the
second largest group followed by the Christians,
 Sikhs and the Buddhists. Tribes are divided into
the hill tribes and the plains tribes according to
geography of their location. Tribal religion is
very close to animism but with ingredients of
Hinduism. There are tribes like the Bodo
Kacharis, Karbis and Lalungs which are
purely patriarchal, and the Khasis, Jaintias and
Garos which are strictly Matriarchal. A number
of tribes such as the Hmars, Rengma Nagas and
Garos have a social institution called the youth
dormitory in which young males live away from
their families and undergo training and
education. Child marriage is still prevalent
among the Brahmans and Kayasthas, more
particularly in the villages. However
death rituals of tribes here are quite interesting
the burying of the dead is a common custom.
Tribes like Akas, the Adis, the Dalfas and most of
the Nagas bury the dead.
• There are various estimated derivations of the
name Nagaland. Some scholars opine that the
term NAGA is derived from the word NOK
or NOKA which means folks or people. Some say
that Naga has evolved from the Kachari
word NANGRA which means a warrior. Nagas
were never under the British
Empire. Basically Nagas are the tribal people
with each tribe having its own effective system
of self-governance. Nagas belong to the Indo-
Mongoloid stock and their ancestors lived of
natures’ abundant gifts. Above all, they have a
reputation for a warm-hearted hospitability.
Naga tribes have their own language. In actual
practice, the language, even within one tribal
area, varies from village to village, there are
about thirty languages. The chief occupation of
Naga people is Agriculture. The traditional Naga
religion is animistic, though conceptions of a
supreme character and an afterlife exist. Nature
is seen to be alive with invisible forces, minor
deities, and spirits. In the nineteenth century,
with the advent of British people, Christianity
was introduced, and Baptist missionaries
became especially active in the region. As
a result population now is predominantly
Christian. The Angami,
Lotha, Rengma and Ao villages have a
democratic structure. Among
the Angamis, although the chief is chosen for his
wealth, physical prowess and skill in diplomacy,
the decisions are taken collectively by the
villagers. On the other hand, the Semas have a
system of hereditary village chief. In case of
marriages, the Naga tribes follow the exogamous
principle. Persons of same clan do not marry.
The only exceptions are the Konyak chiefs who
are considered so sacred that their principal wife
must be a woman of the same clan.
 The Chakhesang of the Phek district of Nagaland
is formed out of three subgroups of the
allied ethinic groups called Chakro, Kheza,
Santam although they have separate and distinct
moieties like Chuzo and Thevo in addition
to number of clans and lineages. But due to some
politico-economic pressure from within and
outside their own group they were compelled to
be merged together, this could enable them to
be established as single and powerful political
and ethnic force to preserve their identity and
culture. With conversion to Christianity, the
traditional marriage, the pattern is totally
changed. After negotiation of marriage, when
the date is fixed foe wedding, both the parties go
to the church, adorned in western wedding
dresses in most of cases for solemnization.
• The Purums of Manipur are old kuki tribes. They
believe that Purums are divided intothe five
clan Marriam, thaho,makam, Kheyang and
Parpa. Each of them are belived to be
exogamous. According to the Tarakchand Das
(1945: 111) these are no longer exogamous.
Among them he finds the many sub-clans
Rhimphonchong, Rimkung, Rim-ke-lek
in Marriam clan. Thao kung, thao rum, Teyu
in Thao clan. Kankung and ingte in Kheyang
clan. No sub clan in Parpa clan. Each sub-clan
has the Pipa who is regarded as the head of the
 group. The eldest son of the Pipa Succeed his
father. Thus tribal structure is tribe- clan-
subclan- family and individual.
• There are a number of sub-tribes under
the Mizo, it includes Ralte, Paite, Dulien, Poi,
Sukte, Pankhup, Jahao, Taute, Lakher Leillul
and Tangur. These further divided into
the clans like Lushais, Pawis and Lakhers. The
clan endogamy is permissible. They are
patriarchal descent. The youngest son in the
family inherits the property. They believe that
the youngest son is the fittest person in the
family and can look after their old parents and
elder brothers thus he is most eligible for
inheriting the property. For the chief the eldest
son consider as the most eligible. The tribal
structure of the Mizos is tribe- subtribe- clans-
family-individual (Vidarthi, 1976).
• Eighteen tribes with all their traditions and
customs make Tripura a cosmopolitan state.
Tripuras dominate all other tribes of the
state. Laskars and Notias are the other two
groups of tribes. This group belongs to the Bodo
race. The Mundas, Oraons, Santhals, Bhils,
Lepchas, Bhutis migrated to Tripura in recent
past. The Kukis form another group of tribes in
the state.. A diverse ethnic element among the
people of Tripura is that- there are two major
racial elements, namely, the Indo Aryans
 represented by Bengalese and the Indo-
Mongoloids represented by a few communities
like the Tripuris, the Reangs, the Jamatis, the
Noatias, the Kukis, the Halmas, the Chakma,
the Mogh and the Lushai. Besides these major
tribes, there are ten more tribes. All the tribes
are classified as “scheduled tribes.” They have
partrilineal system. The tribal structure of
Tripura is tribe-sub-group-clan-family-
individual (Vidarthi, 1976).
• The three main tribal groups residing in
Meghalaya are: Khasis, Jaintias, Mikris and
Garos, who are said to have inhabited this area
before the reign of Christians. Women play a
more important role in the social system than
the man. They believe that women are
personification of nature and so they believe that
where women are honoured, there Gods are
pleased. The three major tribes prohibit
marriage within same clan. They have matrilineal
society. The matrilineal
system of the khasis also carries within it the
underpinnings of the relationship between
nature and mother built into the complex
mechanism of their land tenure system, the
social customs and laws. The youngest daughter
of the family acts as a custodian of its land and
property. Property is inherited to female line. It
is managed by male Mahari. Household
 responsibilities are shared between the maternal
uncle and the father.

The clan relationship regulates the social behavior.

The matrix of the tribal community of the north
eastern India based on the distinct factor of
endogamous unity of the tribe ( means marriage take
place inside the tribe) and exogamous unity of the
clan ( means no take place within a clan). (Thomas T.
Jacob, Indian Tribal Culture: A Rediscovery of Gospel
Values). Most of the tribes having patrilineal system
(means lineage is traced through the father side);
some exception like Garo of Meghalaya is matrilineal.
In Khasis of the Meghalaya the marriage is forbidden
in both in mother’s clan as well as in the father’s clan.
Breaking the marriage rules is considered a very
severe crime and strict punishment is given to the
rule breakers of the marriage. Punishment may
include the loss of the property rights and even the
expulsion from the village. Clan plays the role of the
extended family, clan look after the weaker members
of the tribes like sick, widows, orphans. Weak
members can ask for the food, shelter and work from
the other members. Village administration of the
tribal people is carried out by the village council
which includes all the elders of the families. Village
council has the judicial powers. Women generally
enjoy the equal status but don’t have any role in the
decision making bodies of the village council even in
the matrilineal tribes like Khasis. The very popular
saying among the Khasis that “the war and politics is
for men and the property and children is for the
women” (Thomas T. Jacob, Indian Tribal Culture: A
Rediscovery of Gospel Values). Tribal democracy is
doesn’t depends on the majority or the minority, they
believe on the principle that anyone can be superior
to anyone else. Tribal people of the north eastern
India considers the land and the water is the public
property. All members work together on the same
land and follow the “slash and burn” method called
jhoom cultivation. Hunting is also very common
among them. The game meat is shared by all the
members. Tribal communities generally don’t have
class system. Social status is depends on the merits
of the individuals. They always give importance to
community over individual. They don’t believe in
accumulation rather they believe in distribution. The
act like organizing the social feast not only enhances
their social status and prestige among their tribes
but also it ensures the better rewards and peaceful
life even after the death. They believe that the lazy
people and greedy people the life will be difficult
even after the death.
5. POLITICAL STRUCTURE OF THE TRIBES OF
THE INDIA’S NORTH EAST:

Political life is tribal communities is where the

monarchy and democracy co-exist. The members of
the tribes are united by the kinship and marriage,
thus it become difficult to differentiate between the
political matters and domestic matters. Lineage
segmentation is main principle of the political
structure of the tribal communities. The tribal laws
are depends on the Agnatic relations like clan and
lineage, Moral principles and public opinions are the
matter of consideration. Oaths are considered as the
important mode of the evidence. They believe that
the supernatural power also gives the punishment to
offenders. The institutions are mainly of five types
(Sengupta, 2003):

i) The council of the elders- where the elders of the

clan look after matter. Lushias have their ‘upas’ they
deal with their matters and also give advice to tribal
chief who can disregard. The Ao clan elders are
elected from different clans. The clans elders play
crucial role among Nagas. A man’s position in the
community is determined by the intelligence,
character and by the wealth. The Khasis and
Tripuries also have this institution of clan elders.
(Sengupta, 2003)

ii) The village headman- it is honored and obeyed

by the rest of the members. This post is heredity.
The Khasis have the ‘tynmen shnong’ as their village
head. The tripuris have ‘chandhari’ as village head.
Among the Purums ‘khullapka’ (khul means village,
lakpa means protector) is the village head. After the
British rule, the village head loses his power but the
customary law prevails. (Sengupta, 2003).

iii) The tribal chief- it is also the heredity post and

have the ultimate judicial power. Chieftainship is
common features of many tribes like the Nagas,
Khasis, Lushais, etc. (Sahay, 1969: 160). The
democratic spirit is can be observed in indigenous
tribal administrative organizations. The
constitutional monarchs were
the Khasis Siems . They hardly take any decision
independently. It is their ministers take decision for
them. But the Lushai chiefs are more powerful, even
they could disregard the decision taken by
their upas (village elders). Thus we can observe that
although the chiefs and the Siems are heredietary
principles their administration is thoroughly
democratic (Vidhyarthi, 1976). Social disputes are
sorted in the court also. In some cases women are
allowed during the trials. Since the independence
whole administration in the region has changed. In
the Konyak villages the chieftainship is known as
the Ang or Wang still present but the chieftainship is
losing its importance to the new elected and
educated leaders (Vidhyarthi, 1976).
iv) The village Panchayat- in this all villagers are the
members who are above age of twenty years. They sit
together to discuss the problems. There is no formal
voting each person gives their opinion. The village
headman has no real power than any other villager
but pay more attention due to prestige of his
position. The punishment to rule breakers is given by
village council. The concept of the punishment is
compensate the loss, or to purify the guilty, or to
readmit the guilty after paying the fine. The Ao
of Nagas has the institution of village council. The
village council has the two chambers – Unger
Menden (clan elders) and Saman Menden (village
elders). Saman Menden is concerned with the
secular matters. The democratic Konyak villages had
village council in which the representatives are from
different morung (men’s house). Their position
as morung was either hereditary or selection was
made for a limited period (Vidhyarthi, 1976).

v) The union of the village- Pragan Panchayat – In

this the villages (around 200 villages) are grouped in
lose unions. Such a union is known as the parha or
pargana. This has a court of appeal; in some cases
they have power to readmission to the tribe
(Sacchidanand, 1968: 123). Among the Nagas Long
Phang is the regional head and work with the
different village headmen member villagers.
The Khasis have Siem Ried (regional head) who
works with the Gaon Burhas and other
representatives of the village. The tripuri villages
have the Thakurs, Kobras and Sardars.
 6. FESTIVALS OF INDIA’S NORTH EAST:

a) Tribal Festivals of Arunachal Pradesh:

In Arunachal Pradesh there is the huge importance

of the festivals. Their all festivals are related to the
mainly to the agriculture. They celebrate the festivals
to increase the crop production or to express their
thankfulness to the god for providing the blessing of
the crops. Some major festivals of the people of the
Arunachal Pradesh are:

i) Mol (Tangsa)
ii) Mopin and Solung (Adi)
iii) Ojhiale (Wancho)
iv) Nyokum (Nishing)
v) Reh (Mishmi)
vi) Lossar (Monpa)
vii) Boori-Boot (Hill Miris)

b) Tribal festivals of Assam:

Important festivals of the Assam are Magh Bihu

(celebrated in January), BohagBihu (celebrated
in april), Kati Bihu (celebrated in may). People
together celebrate these festivals irrespective of
caste, gender and age. The Assamese people also
celebrate Diwali, Id, Janamshtami, Muharram,
Durgapuja There are other festivals also celebrated
by tribal people of the Assam like:

i) Ali-Ai-Ligang (Mishing tribe)

ii) Baishagu (Bodo tribe)
iii) Baikho (Rabha tribe)
iv) HarniGarba (Dimasa tribe)
v) Ambubhashi Mela
vi) JonbillMela

Figure-4 Bihu dance of Assam; source:

http://www.travelmasti.com/images/assam/assa
m_festival.jpg

c) Tribal Festivals of Nagaland:

Tribal festivals of the Nagaland are majorly related

to the agriculture. Their participation in their
festivals considered as sacred and compulsory.
Various arts performed here are Music and dance,
Pottery , Crafts, wood-carvings, Morung Pillars,
Kharu, Wooden log-drum, Black smithy etc. Naga
people enjoy playing musical instruments like
Trumpets and drums in their festivals.

Figure Sumi dance of Nagaland; SOURCE:

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons
/c/cf/Sumi_dancer_girls.jpg

The important festivals of Nagaland are:

i) Moastsu (Ao tribe)

ii) Ngada (Rengma)
iii) Monyu (Phom)
iv) Nikanyulum (Chang)
v) Sekrenyi (Agami)
vi) Sukurnye(Chakhensang)

d) Tribal Festivals of Manipur:

 All the festivals of the Manipur have special place
for music and dance. The Lai Haraobai is the dance
is performed by priests and priestess presenting the
Lord Shiva and Goddess Parvati, depicting the
creation of the life. It celebrated during March- April
for almost 15 days. Holi is one of the important
festivals in the Manipur. The boys and girls sprinkle
colored water on each other. It is celebrated during
the Vasant Purnima day. Also they perform
the Thabal Chouba dance on the holi. Ras Lila is very
famous dance which depicts the eternal love of Lord
Krishna and Radha, especially during the vasant
purnima, sarat purnima and kartika purnima. The
beautiful costumes add more beauty to this dance
form.
Figure 5 Rasleela of Manipur; Source:
http://kanglaonline.com/wp-
content/uploads/2012/08/ras-lila-leela-manipur-
classical-dance.jpg

e) Tribal Festivals of Mizoram:

In the festivals of Mizoram various art forms

practiced by the people like Dance, Music, etc. The
main festivals of the Mizoram are:

i) Chapcharkut:
 It is also known as the spring festival. They
celebrate it on the completion of their heavy job of
jungle clearing for jhoom cultivation. On this day all
people irrespective of ages decorate themselves in
traditional colorful costumes, and together they
perform folk dance and sing the folk songs.

ii) Mimkut:
It is also known as the maize festival. It is the festival
celebrated on occasion of maize harvest. It is
celebrated in month of the August and September.
They perform folk dances and together sing folk
songs. They drink rice beer on this occasion. Some
portion of their harvest is given for their ancestors.

Figure 6 bamboo dance of Mizoram; Source:

http://assamportal.com/wp-
content/uploads/2014/02/Chapchar-Kut-
Festival-Mizoram.jpg

The major folk dance is Cheraw the Bamboo

Dance which is very famous in the Mizoram. In this
dance long bamboo stave is used.
 f) Tribal Festivals of Tripura:

The major festivals of the Tripura are:

i) Kharchi Puja: it is celebrated in july. On these

festivals people worship the 14 deities of head image
in the Chaturdaus Deutas temple in Agartala.

Figure 7 Kharchi puja; Source: https://encrypted-

tbn2.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcQRdumkY5
ODwKos2DPrukNh-jB6l-
f82OnO5Sgb6mmnFloGZS3uFw

ii) Gariya Puja: it is beileive this festival brings

prosperity into their lives. It is celebrated on the 7th
day of the month of vaishakh. On this day sacrifices
of cock is performed by tribal people.

iii) Ker Puja: this festival is celebrated within

specific boundaries, for this they take permission
from the gazette office. No outsider is allowed in the
specific boundaries.
 iv) Durga Puja: it is celebrated for the goddess
Durga, it is believe that she is the protector their
family. At the end of the festival the idol of goddess
Durga is immersed in the water.

g) Tribal Festivals of Meghalaya:

The following are the major festivals celebrated in

the state of the Meghalaya:

i) Wangle festival: it is celebrated during October-

November. It is the celebrated to worship the God
Sun. It is celebrated by Garo tribe.

Figure 8 wangle festival; Source:

https://meghalayatours.files.wordpress.com/2013
/01/wangala -festival-meghalaya-tours.jpg
ii) Shad Sukmyseium: It is the festival of Kasis.
It is celebrated during the second of the April.
iii) Bhehdiengkhlam: It is main festival of the
Jaintias. It is celebrated in July.
 iv) Christmas: it is celebrated by Christian
community of the state. It is celebrated in
December.

7. FOOD CULTURE OF NORTH EASTERN INDIA:

The food culture of the North east India is different

from the rest of the India and it is largely same in
these seven states. North India cuisine is highly
influenced by Chinese, Burmese, and Mongolian
cuisine. North eastern Indians are basically non-
vegetarians.

Arunachal Pradesh: People here generally are non

vegetarian. Food is highly influenced from the
Chinese cuisine. Apong (local drinks made from rice
or millets) is also a famous among the tribal people.

Assam: food of Assam is mainly based on rice and

fish. Rice is the main diet in Assam. The Assamese eat
a huge variety of rice based breakfast cereals with
the milk, yogurt or thick cream akhoi (puffed rice),
chira (chura), the muri, komal chaul ( a specially
processed rice which doesn’t require but just an
hour’s soak in cold water). For dessert there is wide
range in “pithas”(cakes). Also various kinds of pitha
that is prepared from rice powder. Very little oil is
used and practically no spices. Mustard oil is used for
cooking and occasionally clarified butter or ghee.
 Figure 2. khar; Source:
http://s3.scoopwhoop.com/ach/NE/1.JPG

Nagaland: The food habits of Nagaland are very

different from the other region. Both the men and
women are fond of drinks. Some of the popular
drinks are Zutho, Ruhi, Dzutse where are made up of
rice. They are basically non-vegetarian and eat of all
kinds of animals like dog, spiders, crabs, beef and
even elephants. In general, they don’t throw any part
of the animal, even intestine and skin considered as
dishes.

Manipur: The traditional Manipuri fine dining with

the banana-leaf plates. The rice is the major food.
Some take rice with meat and some prefer
fish. Kabok, traditional dish (fried rice with
vegetables) is very famous. Also Iromba, is another
famous Manipuri dish.

Figure 2. Iromba Manipuri chutney; Source:

http://www.ndtv.com/cooks/images/Iromba_60
0.jpg
 Mizoram: The people are basically non-vegetarian.
They prefer spicy food but cooked on such a way that
the nutritional value is restored. “Zu” (tea)
is popular drink. Both men and women are fond of
smoking.

Tripura: Food is highly influenced by Bengali

cuisine. Fish is their inseparable part of their diet.
Many Bengali recipes are also famous here. The
traditional dish of Tripura ‘Moi buruk‘ is also very
famous.

Meghalaya: The Meghalayan cuisine is famous for

meat particularly, pork. “Jadoh”- spicy dish of rice
and pork is very famous. Chinese food is also famous
here. “Kyat”, the local brew made from rice is famous
on special occasion.
8. SUMMARY:

• Thus we can conclude that the India’s north east

have great diversity in the term of language,
religion, cultures.
• All the seven states have a uniqueness of their
own.
• Ethnic affinity is of
majority have mongoloid elements.
• Languages belong to the Sino-Tibetan linguistic
family.
• Every states have their own distinct festivals.
• Tribal economy is majorly depends on
agriculture.
• Social organization is depends on the clan
relationship.
• Most of tribes have patrinilineal system.
• In general there is Endogamous unity of tribe,
Exogamous unity of clan.
• The political institutions are mainly of five types:
The council of the elders- where the elders of
the clan look after matter. Lushias have their
‘upas’ they deal with their matters and also give
advice to tribal chief who can disregard.
The Ao clan elders are elected from different
clans. The clans elders play crucial role
among Nagas. The village headman- it is
honored and obeyed by the rest of the members.
This post is heredity. The Khasis have the
‘tynmen shnong’ as their village head. The tribal
chief- it is also the heredity post and have the
ultimate judicial power. Chieftainship is common
features of many tribes like the Nagas, Khasis,
Lushais, etc. The village Panchayat- in this all
villagers are the members who are above age of
twenty years. They sit together to discuss the
problems.Strict punishment given to rule
breakers.
• Each state has unique festivals of their own.
• The food culture of the North east India is
different from the rest of the India and it is
 largely same in these seven states. North India
cuisine is highly influenced by Chinese, Burmese,
and Mongolian cuisine.

you can view video on Tribes of India’s North East

References:

1. Sengupta, Sarthak. Tribes of North-East India:

Biological and Cultural Perspectives. New Delhi:
Gyan Publishing House, 2003.
2. Vidyarthi, L.P., and Binaykumar Rai. The Tribal
Culture of India. New Delhi: Concept Publishing
Company, 1985.
3. Ali, A.N.M. Irshaad. “Tribal Situation in North
East India.”Kamla-Raj, 2003.
http://www.google.co.in/url?q=http://www.k
republishers.com/02-Journals/T%25.
4. Thomas, T. Jacob. “Indian Tribal Culture: A
Rediscovery of Gospel Values.”
http://www.google.co.in/url?q=http://biblical
studies.org.uk/pdf/ijt/35-2_064

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