Forest

A forest is an ecosystem characterized by a dense community of trees.[1] Hundreds of

definitions of forest are used throughout the world, incorporating factors such as tree density,
tree height, land use, legal standing, and ecological function.[2][3][4] The United Nations' Food and
Agriculture Organization (FAO) defines a forest as, "Land spanning more than 0.5 hectares with
trees higher than 5 meters and a canopy cover of more than 10 percent, or trees able to reach
these thresholds in situ. It does not include land that is predominantly under agricultural or urban
use."[5] Using this definition, Global Forest Resources Assessment 2020 (FRA 2020) found that
forests covered 4.06 billion hectares (10.0 billion acres; 40.6 million square kilometres;
15.7 million square miles), or approximately 31 percent of the world's land area in 2020.[6]

The Amazon rainforest alongside the Solimões

River, a tropical rainforest. These forests are the
most biodiverse and productive ecosystems in the
world.

Forests are the largest terrestrial ecosystems of Earth by area, and are found around the globe.[7]
45 percent of forest land is in the tropical latitudes. The next largest share of forests are found in
subarctic climates, followed by temperate, and subtropical zones.[8]

Forests account for 75% of the gross primary production of the Earth's biosphere, and contain
80% of the Earth's plant biomass. Net primary production is estimated at 21.9 gigatonnes of
biomass per year for tropical forests, 8.1 for temperate forests, and 2.6 for boreal forests.[7]

Forests form distinctly different biomes at different latitudes and elevations, and with different
precipitation and evapotranspiration rates.[9] These biomes include boreal forests in subarctic
climates, tropical moist forests and tropical dry forests around the Equator, and temperate
forests at the middle latitudes. Forests form in areas of the Earth with high rainfall, while drier
conditions produce a transition to savanna. However, in areas with intermediate rainfall levels,
forest transitions to savanna rapidly when the percentage of land that is covered by trees drops
below 40 to 45 percent.[10] Research conducted in the Amazon rainforest shows that trees can
alter rainfall rates across a region, releasing water from their leaves in anticipation of seasonal
rains to trigger the wet season early. Because of this, seasonal rainfall in the Amazon begins two
to three months earlier than the climate would otherwise allow.[11][12] Deforestation in the
Amazon and anthropogenic climate change hold the potential to interfere with this process,
causing the forest to pass a threshold where it transitions into savanna.[13]

Deforestation threatens many forest ecosystems. Deforestation occurs when humans remove
trees from a forested area by cutting or burning, either to harvest timber or to make way for
farming. Most deforestation today occurs in tropical forests. The vast majority of this
deforestation is because of the production of four commodities: wood, beef, soy, and palm
oil.[14] Over the past 2,000 years, the area of land covered by forest in Europe has been reduced
from 80% to 34%. Large areas of forest have also been cleared in China and in the eastern
United States,[15] in which only 0.1% of land was left undisturbed.[16] Almost half of Earth's forest
area (49 percent) is relatively intact, while 9 percent is found in fragments with little or no
connectivity. Tropical rainforests and boreal coniferous forests are the least fragmented,
whereas subtropical dry forests and temperate oceanic forests are among the most fragmented.
Roughly 80 percent of the world's forest area is found in patches larger than 1 million hectares
(2.5 million acres). The remaining 20 percent is located in more than 34 million patches around
the world – the vast majority less than 1,000 hectares (2,500 acres) in size.[8]

Human society and forests can affect one another positively or negatively.[17] Forests provide
ecosystem services to humans and serve as tourist attractions. Forests can also affect people's
health. Human activities, including unsustainable use of forest resources, can negatively affect
forest ecosystems.[18]
Definitions

Forest in the Scottish Highlands

Although the word forest is commonly used, there is no universally recognised precise definition,
with more than 800 definitions of forest used around the world.[4] Although a forest is usually
defined by the presence of trees, under many definitions an area completely lacking trees may
still be considered a forest if it grew trees in the past, will grow trees in the future,[19] or was
legally designated as a forest regardless of vegetation type.[20][21]

There are three broad categories of definitions of forest in use: administrative, land use, and land
cover.[20] Administrative definitions are legal designations, and may not reflect the type of
vegetation that grows upon the land; an area can be legally designated "forest" even if no trees
grow on it.[20] Land-use definitions are based on the primary purpose the land is used for. Under
a land-use definition, any area used primarily for harvesting timber, including areas that have
been cleared by harvesting, disease, fire, or for the construction of roads and infrastructure, are
still defined as forests, even if they contain no trees. Land-cover definitions define forests based
upon the density of trees, area of tree canopy cover, or area of the land occupied by the cross-
section of tree trunks (basal area) meeting a particular threshold.[20] This type of definition
depends upon the presence of trees sufficient to meet the threshold, or at least of immature
trees that are expected to meet the threshold once they mature.[20]

Under land-cover definitions, there is considerable variation on where the cutoff points are
between a forest, woodland, and savanna. Under some definitions, to be considered a forest
requires very high levels of tree canopy cover, from 60% to 100%,[22] which excludes woodlands
and savannas, which have a lower canopy cover. Other definitions consider savannas to be a
type of forest, and include all areas with tree canopies over 10%.[19]
Some areas covered with trees are legally defined as agricultural areas, for example Norway
spruce plantations, under Austrian forest law, when the trees are being grown as Christmas trees
and are below a certain height.

Etymology

Since the 13th century, the

Niepołomice Forest in Poland has had
special use and protection. In this
view from space, different coloration
can indicate different functions.[23]

The word forest derives from the Old French forest (also forès), denoting "forest, vast expanse
covered by trees"; forest was first introduced into English as the word denoting wild land set
aside for hunting[24] without necessarily having trees on the land.[25] Possibly a borrowing,
probably via Frankish or Old High German, of the Medieval Latin foresta, denoting "open wood",
Carolingian scribes first used foresta in the capitularies of Charlemagne, specifically to denote
the royal hunting grounds of the king. The word was not endemic to the Romance languages,
e.g., native words for forest in the Romance languages derived from the Latin silva, which
denoted "forest" and "wood(land)" (cf. the English sylva and sylvan; the Italian, Spanish, and
Portuguese selva; the Romanian silvă; the Old French selve). Cognates of forest in Romance
languages—e.g., the Italian foresta, Spanish and Portuguese floresta, etc.—are all ultimately
derivations of the French word.
 A forest near Vinitsa, North
Macedonia

The precise origin of Medieval Latin foresta is obscure. Some authorities claim the word derives
from the Late Latin phrase forestam silvam, denoting "the outer wood"; others claim the word is a
latinisation of the Frankish *forhist, denoting "forest, wooded country", and was assimilated to
forestam silvam, pursuant to the common practice of Frankish scribes. The Old High German
forst denoting "forest"; Middle Low German vorst denoting "forest"; Old English fyrhþ denoting
"forest, woodland, game preserve, hunting ground" (English frith); and Old Norse fýri, denoting
"coniferous forest"; all of which derive from the Proto-Germanic *furhísa-, *furhíþija-, denoting "a
fir-wood, coniferous forest", from the Proto-Indo-European *perkwu-, denoting "a coniferous or
mountain forest, wooded height" all attest to the Frankish *forhist.

Uses of forest in English to denote any uninhabited and unenclosed area are presently
considered archaic.[26] The Norman rulers of England introduced the word as a legal term, as
seen in Latin texts such as Magna Carta, to denote uncultivated land that was legally designated
for hunting by feudal nobility (see Royal Forest).[26][27]

These hunting forests did not necessarily contain any trees. Because that often included
significant areas of woodland, "forest" eventually came to connote woodland in general,
regardless of tree density. By the beginning of the fourteenth century, English texts used the
word in all three of its senses: common, legal, and archaic.[26] Other English words used to
denote "an area with a high density of trees" are firth, frith, holt, weald, wold, wood, and woodland.
Unlike forest, these are all derived from Old English and were not borrowed from another
language. Some present classifications reserve woodland for denoting a locale with more open
space between trees, and distinguish kinds of woodlands as open forests and closed forests,
premised on their crown covers.[28] Finally, sylva (plural sylvae or, less classically, sylvas) is a
peculiar English spelling of the Latin silva, denoting a "woodland", and has precedent in English,
including its plural forms. While its use as a synonym of forest, and as a Latinate word denoting
a woodland, may be admitted; in a specific technical sense it is restricted to denoting the
species of trees that comprise the woodlands of a region, as in its sense in the subject of
silviculture.[29] The resorting to sylva in English indicates more precisely the denotation that the
use of forest intends.

Evolutionary history
The first known forests on Earth arose in the Middle Devonian (approximately 390 million years
ago), with the evolution of cladoxylopsid plants like Calamophyton.[30] Appeared in the Late
Devonian, Archaeopteris was both tree-like and fern-like plant, growing to 20 metres (66 ft) in
height or more.[31] It quickly spread throughout the world, from the equator to subpolar
latitudes.[31] It is the first species known to cast shade due to its fronds and by forming soil from
its roots. Archaeopteris was deciduous, dropping its fronds onto the forest floor, the shade, soil,
and forest duff from the dropped fronds creating the early forest.[31] The shed organic matter
altered the freshwater environment, slowing its flow and providing food. This promoted
freshwater fish.[31]

Ecology

Temperate rainforest in Tasmania's

Hellyer Gorge

Forests account for 75% of the gross primary productivity of the Earth's biosphere, and contain
80% of the Earth's plant biomass.[7] biomass per unit area is high compared to other vegetation
communities. Much of this biomass occurs below ground in the root systems and as partially
decomposed plant detritus. The woody component of a forest contains lignin, which is relatively
slow to decompose compared with other organic materials such as cellulose or carbohydrate.
The world's forests contain about 606 gigatonnes of living biomass (above- and below-ground)
and 59 gigatonnes of dead wood. The total biomass has decreased slightly since 1990, but
biomass per unit area has increased.[32]

Forest ecosystems broadly differ based on climate; latitudes 10° north and south of the equator
are mostly covered in tropical rainforest, and the latitudes between 53°N and 67°N have boreal
forest. As a general rule, forests dominated by angiosperms (broadleaf forests) are more
species-rich than those dominated by gymnosperms (conifer, montane, or needleleaf forests),
although exceptions exist. The trees that form the principal structural and defining component
of a forest may be of a great variety of species (as in tropical rainforests and temperate
deciduous forests), or relatively few species over large areas (e.g., taiga and arid montane
coniferous forests). The biodiversity of forests also encompasses shrubs, herbaceous plants,
mosses, ferns, lichens, fungi, and a variety of animals.

Trees rising up to 35 meters (115 ft) in height add a vertical dimension to the area of land that
can support plant and animal species, opening up numerous ecological niches for arboreal
animal species, epiphytes, and various species that thrive under the regulated microclimate
created under the canopy.[33] Forests have intricate three-dimensional structures that increase in
complexity with lower levels of disturbance and greater variety of tree species.[34]

The biodiversity of forests varies considerably according to factors such as forest type,
geography, climate, and soils – in addition to human use.[35] Most forest habitats in temperate
regions support relatively few animal and plant species, and species that tend to have large
geographical distributions, while the montane forests of Africa, South America, Southeast Asia,
and lowland forests of Australia, coastal Brazil, the Caribbean islands, Central America, and
insular Southeast Asia have many species with small geographical distributions.[35] Areas with
dense human populations and intense agricultural land use, such as Europe, parts of
Bangladesh, China, India, and North America, are less intact in terms of their biodiversity.[35]
Northern Africa, southern Australia, coastal Brazil, Madagascar, and South Africa are also
identified as areas with striking losses in biodiversity intactness.[35]
Components

Even, dense old-growth stand of

beech trees (Fagus sylvatica)
prepared to be regenerated by their
saplings in the understory, in the
Brussels part of the Sonian Forest.

A forest consists of many components that can be broadly divided into two categories: biotic
(living) and abiotic (non-living). The living parts include trees, shrubs, vines, grasses and other
herbaceous (non-woody) plants, mosses, algae, fungi, insects, mammals, birds, reptiles,
amphibians, and microorganisms living on the plants and animals and in the soil, connected by
mycorrhizal networks.[36]
Layers

Spiny forest at Ifaty, Madagascar,

featuring various Adansonia (baobab)
species, Alluaudia procera
(Madagascar ocotillo) and other
vegetation

The main layers of all forest types are the forest floor, the understory, and the canopy. The
emergent layer, above the canopy, exists in tropical rainforests. Each layer has a different set of
plants and animals, depending upon the availability of sunlight, moisture, and food.

The Forest floor is covered in dead plant

material such as fallen leaves and
decomposing logs, which detritivores
break down into new soil. The layer of
decaying leaves that covers the soil is
necessary for many insects to
overwinter and for amphibians, birds,
and other animals to shelter and forage
for food. Leaf litter also keeps the soil
moist, stops erosion, and protects roots
against extreme heat and cold.[37] The
fungal mycelium that helps form the
mycorrhizal network transmits nutrients
from decaying material to trees and
other plants. The forest floor supports a
variety of plants, ferns, grasses, and tree
seedlings, as well as animals such as
ants, amphibians, spiders, and
millipedes.
Understory is made up of bushes,
shrubs, and young trees that are
adapted to living in the shade of the
canopy.
 Canopy is formed by the mass of
intertwined branches, twigs, and leaves
of mature trees. The crowns of the
dominant trees receive most of the
sunlight. This is the most productive
part of the trees, where maximum food
is produced. The canopy forms a shady,
protective "umbrella" over the rest of the
forest.
Emergent layer exists in a tropical rain
forest and is composed of a few
scattered trees that tower over the
canopy.[38]
In botany and countries like Germany and Poland, a different classification of forest vegetation
is often used: tree, shrub, herb, and moss layers (see stratification (vegetation)).
Types

Proportion and distribution of global forest area by

climatic domain, 2020[39]

Forests are classified differently and to different degrees of specificity. One such classification is
in terms of the biomes in which they exist, combined with leaf longevity of the dominant species
(whether they are evergreen or deciduous). Another distinction is whether the forests are
composed predominantly of broadleaf trees, coniferous (needle-leaved) trees, or mixed.

Boreal forests occupy the subarctic

zone and are generally evergreen and
coniferous.
Temperate zones support both
broadleaf deciduous forests (e.g.,
temperate deciduous forest) and
evergreen coniferous forests (e.g.,
temperate coniferous forests and
temperate rainforests). Warm temperate
zones support broadleaf evergreen
forests, including laurel forests.
Tropical and subtropical forests include
tropical and subtropical moist forests,
tropical and subtropical dry forests, and
tropical and subtropical coniferous
forests.
Forests are classified according to
physiognomy based on their overall
physical structure or developmental
stage (e.g. old growth vs. second
growth).
Forests can also be classified more
specifically based on the climate and
 the dominant tree species present,
resulting in numerous different forest
types (e.g., Ponderosa pine/Douglas fir
forest).
The number of trees in the world, according to a 2015 estimate, is 3 trillion, of which 1.4 trillion
are in the tropics or sub-tropics, 0.6 trillion in the temperate zones, and 0.7 trillion in the
coniferous boreal forests. The 2015 estimate is about eight times higher than previous
estimates, and is based on tree densities measured on over 400,000 plots. It remains subject to
a wide margin of error, not least because the samples are mainly from Europe and North
America.[40]

Forests can also be classified according to the amount of human alteration. Old-growth forest
contains mainly natural patterns of biodiversity in established seral patterns, and they contain
mainly species native to the region and habitat. In contrast, secondary forest is forest regrowing
following timber harvest and may contain species originally from other regions or habitats.[41]

Different global forest classification systems have been proposed, but none has gained universal
acceptance.[42] UNEP-WCMC's forest category classification system is a simplification of other,
more complex systems (e.g. UNESCO's forest and woodland 'subformations'). This system
divides the world's forests into 26 major types, which reflect climatic zones as well as the
principal types of trees. These 26 major types can be reclassified into 6 broader categories:
temperate needleleaf, temperate broadleaf and mixed, tropical moist, tropical dry, sparse trees
and parkland, and forest plantations.[42] Each category is described in a separate section below.

Temperate needleleaf
Temperate needleleaf forests mostly occupy the higher latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere, as
well as some warm temperate areas, especially on nutrient-poor or otherwise unfavourable soils.
These forests are composed entirely, or nearly so, of coniferous species (Coniferophyta). In the
Northern Hemisphere, pines Pinus, spruces Picea, larches Larix, firs Abies, Douglas firs
Pseudotsuga, and hemlocks Tsuga make up the canopy; but other taxa are also important. In the
Southern Hemisphere, most coniferous trees (members of Araucariaceae and Podocarpaceae)
occur mixed with broadleaf species, and are classed as broadleaf-and-mixed forests.[42]

Temperate broadleaf and mixed

Broadleaf forest in Bhutan

Temperate broadleaf and mixed forests include a substantial component of trees of the
Anthophyta group. They are generally characteristic of the warmer temperate latitudes, but
extend to cool temperate ones, particularly in the southern hemisphere. They include such forest
types as the mixed deciduous forests of the United States and their counterparts in China and
Japan; the broadleaf evergreen rainforests of Japan, Chile, and Tasmania; the sclerophyllous
forests of Australia, central Chile, the Mediterranean, and California; and the southern beech
Nothofagus forests of Chile and New Zealand.[42]

Tropical moist
There are many different types of tropical moist forests, with lowland evergreen broad-leaf
tropical rainforests: for example várzea and igapó forests and the terra firme forests of the
Amazon Basin; the peat swamp forests; dipterocarp forests of Southeast Asia; and the high
forests of the Congo Basin. Seasonal tropical forests, perhaps the best description for the
colloquial term "jungle", typically range from the rainforest zone 10 degrees north or south of the
equator, to the Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn. Forests located on mountains are also
included in this category, divided largely into upper and lower montane formations, on the basis
of the variation of physiognomy corresponding to changes in altitude.[43]

Tropical dry
Tropical dry forests are characteristic of areas in the tropics affected by seasonal drought. The
seasonality of rainfall is usually reflected in the deciduousness of the forest canopy, with most
trees being leafless for several months of the year. Under some conditions, such as less fertile
soils or less predictable drought regimes, the proportion of evergreen species increases and the
forests are characterised as "sclerophyllous". Thorn forest, a dense forest of low stature with a
high frequency of thorny or spiny species, is found where drought is prolonged, and especially
where grazing animals are plentiful. On very poor soils, and especially where fire or herbivory are
recurrent phenomena, savannas develop.[42]

Sparse trees and savanna

Sparse trees and savanna are forests with sparse tree-canopy cover. They occur principally in
areas of transition from forested to non-forested landscapes. The two major zones in which
these ecosystems occur are in the boreal region and in the seasonally dry tropics. At high
latitudes, north of the main zone of boreal forestland, growing conditions are not adequate to
maintain a continuously closed forest cover, so tree cover is both sparse and discontinuous.
This vegetation is variously called open taiga, open lichen woodland, and forest tundra. A
savanna is a mixed woodland–grassland ecosystem characterized by the trees being sufficiently
widely spaced so that the canopy does not close. The open canopy allows sufficient light to
reach the ground to support an unbroken herbaceous layer that consists primarily of grasses.
Savannas maintain an open canopy despite a high tree density.[42]

Plantations
Forest plantations are generally intended for the production of timber and pulpwood. Commonly
mono-specific, planted with even spacing between the trees, and intensively managed, these
forests are generally important as habitat for native biodiversity. Some are managed in ways that
enhance their biodiversity protection functions and can provide ecosystem services such as
nutrient capital maintenance, watershed and soil structure protection and carbon storage.[41][42]

Area

Share of land that is covered by forest

The annual net loss of forest area has decreased since 1990, but the world is not on track to
meet the target of the United Nations Strategic Plan for Forests to increase forest area by 3
percent by 2030.[35]

Share of forest area in total land area, top countries

(2021)
While deforestation is taking place in some areas, new forests are being established through
natural expansion or deliberate efforts in other areas. As a result, the net loss of forest area is
less than the rate of deforestation; and it, too, is decreasing: from 7.8 million hectares (19 million
acres) per year in the 1990s to 4.7 million hectares (12 million acres) per year during 2010–
2020.[35] In absolute terms, the global forest area decreased by 178 million hectares (440 million
acres; 1,780,000 square kilometres; 690,000 square miles) between 1990 and 2020, which is an
area about the size of Libya.[35]

Societal significance

Redwood tree in northern California

redwood forest, where many redwood
trees are managed for preservation
and longevity, rather than being
harvested for wood production

Burned forest on Thasos

Ecosystem services
Forests provide a diversity of ecosystem services including:
Converting carbon dioxide into oxygen
and biomass. A full-grown tree produces
about 100 kilograms (220 lb) of net
oxygen per year.[44]
Acting as a carbon sink. Therefore, they
are necessary to mitigate climate
change.[45]
Aiding in regulating climate. For
example, research from 2017 shows
that forests induce rainfall. If the forest
is cut, it can lead to drought,[46] and in
the tropics to occupational heat stress
of outdoor workers.[47]
Purifying water.
 Mitigating natural hazards such as
floods.
Serving as a genetic reserve.
Serving as a source of lumber and as
recreational areas.
Serving as a source of woodlands and
trees for millions of people dependent
almost entirely on forests for
subsistence for their essential fuelwood,
food, and fodder needs.[48]
The main ecosystem services can be summarized in the next table:[49]
Main ecosystem services of the 3 main types of forest

Type of
Carbon stored Biodiversity Other
forest

1,042 billion tonnes of Biodiversity services given

carbon, more than currently by Canada forest alone are
Primary
found in the atmosphere, 2 estimated as 703 billion Contain 60% of world
Boreal
times more than all human dollars per year. Important surface freshwater.
Forests
caused emissions since for almost half of the birds
the year 1870. in North America.

Some trees can live

Old growth forest has very 1,000 years providing
Primary 119 billion tonnes (like all
high biodiversity. Some many services to
Temperate CO2 emitted by humans in
species link terrestrial humans. Help to
Forests 2005–2017)
ecosystems to marine. protect people from
floods and droughts.

471 billion tonnes (more

Primary Contain about two thirds of
than all CO2 emissions
Tropical all species of terrestrial Creates clouds, rainfall.
from fossil fuel industry
Forests animals and plants.
from the year 1750)

Some researchers state that forests do not only provide benefits, but can in certain cases also
incur costs to humans.[50][51] Forests may impose an economic burden,[52][53] diminish the
enjoyment of natural areas,[54] reduce the food-producing capacity of grazing land[55] and
cultivated land,[56] reduce biodiversity,[57][58] reduce available water for humans and wildlife,[59][60]
harbour dangerous or destructive wildlife,[50][61] and act as reservoirs of human and livestock
disease.[62][63]

An important consideration regarding carbon sequestration is that forests can turn from a
carbon sink to a carbon source if plant diversity, density or forest area decreases, as has been
observed in different tropical forests[64][65][66] The typical tropical forest may become a carbon
source by the 2060s.[67] An assessment of European forests found early signs of carbon sink
saturation, after decades of increasing strength.[68] The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change (IPCC) concluded that a combination of measures aimed at increasing forest carbon
stocks, andsustainable timber offtake will generate the largest carbon sequestration benefit.[69]
Forest-dependent people
The term forest-dependent people is used to describe any of a wide variety of livelihoods that
are dependent on access to forests, products harvested from forests, or ecosystem services
provided by forests, including those of Indigenous peoples dependent on forests.[70] In India,
approximately 22 percent of the population belongs to forest-dependent communities, which live
in close proximity to forests and practice agroforestry as a principal part of their livelihood.[71]
People of Ghana who rely on timber and bushmeat harvested from forests and Indigenous
peoples of the Amazon rainforest are also examples of forest-dependent people.[70] Though
forest-dependence by more common definitions is statistically associated with poverty and rural
livelihoods, elements of forest-dependence exist in communities with a wide range of
characteristics. Generally, richer households derive more cash value from forest resources,
whereas among poorer households, forest resources are more important for home consumption
and increase community resilience.[72]

Indigenous peoples
Forests are fundamental to the culture and livelihood of indigenous people groups that live in
and depend on forests,[73] many of which have been removed from and denied access to the
lands on which they lived as part of global colonialism. Indigenous lands contain 36% or more of
intact forest worldwide, host more biodiversity, and experience less deforestation.[74][75][76]
Indigenous activists have argued that degradation of forests and indigenous peoples'
marginalization and land dispossession are interconnected.[77][78] Other concerns among
indigenous peoples include lack of Indigenous involvement in forest management and loss of
knowledge related for the forest ecosystem.[79] Since 2002, the amount of land that is legally
owned by or designated for indigenous peoples has broadly increased, but land acquisition in
lower-income countries by multinational corporations, often with little or no consultation of
indigenous peoples, has also increased.[80] Research in the Amazon rainforest suggests that
indigenous methods of agroforestry form reservoirs of biodiversity.[81] In the U.S. state of
Wisconsin, forests managed by indigenous people have more plant diversity, fewer invasive
species, higher tree regeneration rates, and higher volume of trees.[82]

Management

World production of selected forest

products

The management of forests is often referred to as forestry. Forest management has changed
considerably over the last few centuries, with rapid changes from the 1980s onward, culminating
in a practice now referred to as sustainable forest management. Forest ecologists concentrate
on forest patterns and processes, usually with the aim of elucidating cause-and-effect
relationships. Foresters who practice sustainable forest management focus on the integration of
ecological, social, and economic values, often in consultation with local communities and other
stakeholders.

Priest River winding through Whitetail

Butte with lots of forestry to the east
—these lot patterns have existed
since the mid-19th century. The white
patches reflect areas with younger,
smaller trees, where winter snow
cover shows up brightly to the
astronauts. Dark green-brown
squares are parcels
Humans have generally decreased the amount of forest worldwide. Anthropogenic factors that
can affect forests include logging, urban sprawl, human-caused forest fires, acid rain, invasive
species, and the slash and burn practices of swidden agriculture or shifting cultivation. The loss
and re-growth of forests lead to a distinction between two broad types of forest: primary or old-
growth forest and secondary forest. There are also many natural factors that can cause changes
in forests over time, including forest fires, insects, diseases, weather, competition between
species, etc. In 1997, the World Resources Institute recorded that only 20% of the world's original
forests remained in large intact tracts of undisturbed forest.[83] More than 75% of these intact
forests lie in three countries: the boreal forests of Russia and Canada, and the rainforest of
Brazil.

According to Food and Agriculture Organization's (FAO) Global Forest Resources Assessment
2020, an estimated 420 million hectares (1.0 billion acres) of forest have been lost worldwide
through deforestation since 1990, but the rate of forest loss has declined substantially. In the
most recent five-year period (2015–2020), the annual rate of deforestation was estimated at
10 million hectares (25 million acres), down from 12 million hectares (30 million acres) annually
in 2010–2015.[32]

The forest transition

The transition of a region from forest loss to net gain in forested land is referred to as the forest
transition. This change occurs through a few main pathways, including increase in commercial
tree plantations, adoption of agroforestry techniques by small farmers, or spontaneous
regeneration when former agricultural land is abandoned. It can be motivated by the economic
benefits of forests, the ecosystem services forests provide, or cultural changes where people
increasingly appreciate forests for their spiritual, aesthetic, or otherwise intrinsic value.[84]
According to the Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C of the Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change, to avoid temperature rise by more than 1.5 degrees above pre-industrial levels,
there will need to be an increase in global forest cover equal to the land area of Canada
(10 million square kilometres (3.9 million square miles)) by 2050.[45]

China instituted a ban on logging, beginning in 1998, due to the erosion and flooding that it
caused.[85] In addition, ambitious tree-planting programmes in countries such as China, India, the
United States, and Vietnam – combined with natural expansion of forests in some regions –
have added more than 7 million hectares (17 million acres) of new forests annually. As a result,
the net loss of forest area was reduced to 5.2 million hectares (13 million acres) per year
between 2000 and 2010, down from 8.3 million hectares (21 million acres) annually in the
1990s. In 2015, a study for Nature Climate Change showed that the trend has recently been
reversed, leading to an "overall gain" in global biomass and forests. This gain is due especially to
reforestation in China and Russia.[86] New forests are not equivalent to old growth forests in
terms of species diversity, resilience, and carbon capture. On 7 September 2015, the FAO
released a new study stating that over the last 25 years the global deforestation rate has
decreased by 50% due to improved management of forests and greater government
protection.[87][88]

Proportion of forest in protected

areas, by region, 2020[32]

There is an estimated 726 million hectares (1.79 billion acres) of forest in protected areas
worldwide. Of the six major world regions, South America has the highest share of forests in
protected areas, at 31 percent. The area of such areas globally has increased by 191 million
hectares (470 million acres) since 1990, but the rate of annual increase slowed in 2010–
2020.[32]

Smaller areas of woodland in cities may be managed as urban forestry, sometimes within public
parks. These are often created for human benefits; Attention Restoration Theory argues that
spending time in nature reduces stress and improves health, while forest schools and
kindergartens help young people to develop social as well as scientific skills in forests. These
typically need to be close to where the children live.
Canada

Garibaldi Provincial Park, British

Columbia

Canada has about 4 million square kilometres (1.5 million square miles) of forest land. More
than 90% of forest land is publicly owned and about 50% of the total forest area is allocated for
harvesting. These allocated areas are managed using the principles of sustainable forest
management, which include extensive consultation with local stakeholders. About eight percent
of Canada's forest is legally protected from resource development.[89][90] Much more forest land
—about 40 percent of the total forest land base—is subject to varying degrees of protection
through processes such as integrated land use planning or defined management areas, such as
certified forests.[90]

By December 2006, over 1.2 million square kilometres (460,000 square miles) of forest land in
Canada (about half the global total) had been certified as being sustainably managed.[91]
Clearcutting, first used in the latter half of the 20th century, is less expensive, but devastating to
the environment; and companies are required by law to ensure that harvested areas are
adequately regenerated. Most Canadian provinces have regulations limiting the size of new
clear-cuts, although some older ones grew to 110 square kilometres (42 sq mi) over several
years.

The Canadian Forest Service is the government department which looks after Forests in Canada.
Latvia

Latvian Pine Forest in Ķegums

Municipality

Latvia has about 3.27 million hectares (8.1 million acres; 12,600 square miles) of forest land,
which equates to about 50.5% of Latvia's total area of 64,590 square kilometres (24,938 sq mi)
1.51 million hectares (3.7 million acres) of forest land (46% of total forest land) is publicly
owned and 1.75 million hectares (4.3 million acres) of forest land (54% of the total) is in private
hands. Latvia's forests have been steadily increasing over the years, which is in contrast to many
other nations, mostly due to the forestation of land not used for agriculture. In 1935, there were
only 1.757 million hectares (4.34 million acres) of forest; today this has increased by more than
150%. Birch is the most common tree at 28.2%, followed by pine (26.9%), spruce (18.3%), grey
alder (9.7%), aspen (8.0%), black alder (5.7%), oak/ash (1.2%), with other hardwood trees making
up the rest (2.0%).[92][93]

United States
In the United States, most forests have historically been affected by humans to some degree,
though in recent years improved forestry practices have helped regulate or moderate large-scale
impacts. The United States Forest Service estimated a net loss of about 2 million hectares
(4.9 million acres) between 1997 and 2020; this estimate includes conversion of forest land to
other uses, including urban and suburban development, as well as afforestation and natural
reversion of abandoned crop and pasture land to forest. In many areas of the United States, the
area of forest is stable or increasing, particularly in many northern states. The opposite problem
from flooding has plagued national forests, with loggers complaining that a lack of thinning and
proper forest management has resulted in large forest fires.[94][95]

See also

Ecology
portal
Environment
portal
Trees portal

Agroforestry
Ancient woodland, an official
classification of ancient forest in the
United Kingdom.
Bioproducts
Chase (land)
Chemnitz petrified forest
Close to nature forestry
Cloud forest
Dendrology
Dendrometry
Ecological succession
Forest dynamics
Forest migration
Forest pathology
Forest restoration
Great Green Wall (Africa)
History of the forest in Central Europe
Hyrcanian forests
Illegal logging
Intact forest landscape
Kelp forest (A forest made mostly if not
entirely of Kelp; an underwater forest)
List of countries by forest area
List of old-growth forests
List of superlative trees
List of tree genera
List of trees and shrubs by taxonomic
family
Natural environment
Natural landscape
Orchard
Permaforestry
Primeval forest, a term often used
interchangeably with old growth forest
Rainforest
REDD-plus
Savanna
Silviculture
Stand level modelling
Stratification (vegetation)
Subalpine forest
Taiga, a biome characterized by
coniferous forests
Temperate broadleaf and mixed forests
Temperate coniferous forest
Tree allometry
Tree farm
Tree plantations (forestry)
Tree
Trees of the world
Tropical and subtropical coniferous
forests
Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf
forests
Tropical rainforest
Urban forest
Urban reforestation
Wildcrafting
Wilderness
Woodland management
 Woodland

Sources
This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 (license
statement/permission (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Global_Forest_Resources_Ass
essment_2020_%E2%80%93_Key_findings.pdf) ). Text taken from Global Forest Resources
Assessment 2020 Key findings​(http://www.fao.org/3/CA8753EN/CA8753EN.pdf) , FAO, FAO.

This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 (license
statement/permission (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:The_State_of_the_World%E2%
80%99s_Forests_2020._In_brief.pdf) ). Text taken from The State of the World's Forests 2020. In
brief – Forests, biodiversity and people​(https://doi.org/10.4060/ca8985en) , FAO & UNEP, FAO &
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93. "Buklets "Meža nozare Latvijā" " (https://ww
w.zm.gov.lv/mezi/statiskas-lapas/nozares-i
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re-latvija-?nid=1088#jump) .
www.zm.gov.lv. Archived (https://web.archi
ve.org/web/20171222053235/https://www.
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-latvija-?nid=1088#jump) from the original
on 22 December 2017. Retrieved
21 December 2017.
94. "Wildfires Ignite Forest Management
Debate" (https://web.archive.org/web/2013
0509225620/http://www.wildrockiesallianc
e.org/issues/wildfire/enn.html) .
Wildrockiesalliance.org. Archived from the
original (http://www.wildrockiesalliance.or
g/issues/wildfire/enn.html) on 9 May
2013. Retrieved 3 July 2013.
95. Brock, Emily K. (2015). Money Trees: The
Douglas Fir and American Forestry, 1900–
1944. Oregon State University Press.

External links

Forest
at Wikipedia's sister projects
 Definitions
from
Wiktionary
Media from
Commons
Quotations
from
Wikiquote
Texts from
Wikisource

Forests in danger (http://www.barramed

a.com.ar/ecology/forests-in-danger.ht
m)
Intact Forests (https://web.archive.org/
web/20150908225225/http://intactfore
sts.org/) with maps and reports
(archived 8 September 2015)
Global Forest Resources Assessment
2005 (http://www.fao.org/docrep/008/a
0400e/a0400e00.htm) by the Food and
Agriculture Organization
CoolForests.org – Conservation Cools
the Planet (https://web.archive.org/we
b/20080124171741/http://www.coolfor
ests.org/) (archived 24 January 2008)
Forest area is land under natural or
planted stands of trees of at least 5
meters in situ, whether productive or not,
and excludes tree stands in agricultural
production systems (http://data.worldba
nk.org/indicator/AG.LND.FRST.ZS)
Forest area (sq. km) (http://www.googl
e.com/publicdata/explore?ds=d5bncppj
of8f9_&ctype=l&strail=false&nselm=h&
met_y=ag_lnd_frst_k2&hl=en&dl=en)
data from the World Bank's World
Development Indicators, made available
by Google
Luck Baker, Andrew (18 November
2008). "The first forests – Discovery
2008" (https://www.bbc.co.uk/worldserv
ice/specials/948_discovery_2008/page
12.shtml) . BBC Online.
"The World's 10 Most Threatened Forest
Hotspots" (http://www.conservation.or
g/newsroom/pressreleases/Pages/The-
 Worlds-10-Most-Threatened-Forest-Hots
pots.aspx) . Conservation International.
2 February 2011.
Schlich, Wilhelm; Pinchot, Gifford
(1911). "Forests and Forestry" (https://e
n.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C
3%A6dia_Britannica/Forests_and_Forest
ry) . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.).
Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 10
(11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
pp. 645–660.

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