Set Theory - Weeks 4-5

Wednesday, September 27, 2023 8:09 AM

SET THEORY:
A set is a collection of specified objects.
The objects are called elements or members of the set.

If x is an element and A is a set, we write x ⋿ A to mean x is an element of A.

For any object x we must decide whether x ∈ A is true or false.
If x is not a member of the set A, we write x ∉ A.

Consider the following example:

A = {a, e, i, o, u}
We can say a ∈ A but b ∉ A.

SUBSETS:
Let A and B be sets, if x ∈ A → x ∈ B is true for all x, we say that A is a subset of B and we write
𝐴 ⊆ 𝐵. i.e. every element of A is an element of B.
A is not a subset of B if and only if there is an element x such that 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 and 𝑥 ∉ 𝐵. In this case
we write 𝐴 ⊈ 𝐵.

Note: There is a difference between ∈ and ⊆.

Consider the example:
Let A = { a, b, c, {a, c}}. 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴, but 𝑎 ⊈ 𝐴.
{𝑎, 𝑏} ⊆ 𝐴, but {𝑎, 𝑏} ∉ 𝐴.
{𝑎, 𝑐} ∈ 𝐴, and {𝑎, 𝑐} ⊆ 𝐴.
We can have sets whose elements are sets. But {a} is different from a.

SET EQUALITY
“Two sets are equal if and only if they have the same elements.”

If the sets A and B are equal we write A = B.

This means 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 ⇔ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵 is true for all x, which is equivalent to
𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 ⇒ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵 and 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵 ⇒ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 is true for all x, or equivalently
𝐴 ⊆ 𝐵 and 𝐵 ⊆ 𝐴.
That means, A = B if and only if 𝐴 ⊆ 𝐵 and 𝐵 ⊆ 𝐴.
If the sets A and B are not equal we write 𝐴 ≠ 𝐵. This means that there is an element x such
that (𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 and 𝑥 ∉ 𝐵) or (𝑥 ∈ 𝐵 and 𝑥 ∉ 𝐴).

Note: 𝐴 ⊆ 𝐴 for every set A.

PROPER SUBSETS
If 𝐴 ⊆ 𝐵 and 𝐴 ≠ 𝐵, we say that A is a proper subset of B, and we write 𝐴 ⊂ 𝐵.
This means, 𝐴 ⊆ 𝐵 and there exists an element x such that 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵 and 𝑥 ∉ 𝐴.
e.g. A = {1, 3, 5, 7}, B = {1, 2, 3, 5, 7}.

EMPTY SETS:
These are sets with no elements.
Let ∅ be an empty set. Then, for any set A, ∅ ⊆ A. This is because
𝑥 ∈ ∅ ⇒ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 is true for all x.
Empty sets are unique. Let ∅1 and ∅2 be two empty sets.
Then, ∅1 ⊆ ∅2 and ∅2 ⊆ ∅1.
Therefore, ∅1 = ∅2 . We say the empty set and not an empty set.

UNIVERSAL SETS:
In a given situation, we can assume that all the objects under discussion belong to some “big set”
which we call a universal set. This is sometimes denoted by U or E. Therefore, for any set we are
considering A ⊆ U.

COMPLEMENTS:
If A is a set, the set whose elements are not members of A (but are members of our universal
set) is called the complement of A, and denoted by A’.

Other ways of specifying sets:

By description (using predicates). Let P(x) be a statement involving a variable x, i.e. a predicate.

Consider this example where Set Builder Notation is used:

A = { x ∈ 𝑈 | P(x)} to mean the set of all objects x in our universal set such that P(x) is true.
A’ = { 𝑥 ∈ 𝑈 | 𝑥 ∉ 𝐴}.

OPERATIONS ON SETS:
Set Intersection:
Let A and B be two sets. The intersection of A and B, denoted by A ∩ B, is defined by:

A ∩ B = { 𝑥 | 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 and 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵},

For example, let A be the set of even integers. Let B be the set of integers divisible by 3. Then A
∩ B is the set of integers divisible by both 2 and 3.

Disjoint sets:
Two sets A and B are disjoint if and only if A ∩ B = ∅.
e.g. A = {a, b, c} , B = {x, y, z}.

Set Union:
Let A and B be two sets. The union of A and B, denoted by A ∪ B, is defined by:
A ∪ B = { 𝑥 | 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 or 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵}.

For example, let C be the set of farmers who grow cassava. Let B be the set of farmers who grow
bananas.
Then C ∪ B is the set of famers who grow either cassava or bananas, or both.

Set Difference:
Let A and B be two sets. The set difference, A - B, is defined by:
A - B = { 𝑥 | 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 or 𝑥 ∉ 𝐵}.

For example, let C be the set of farmers who grow cassava. Let B be the set of farmers who grow
bananas.
Then C – B is the set of farmers who grow cassava but not bananas.
Note: A - B = A ∩ B’
Note: Symmetric Difference: A ⨁ B = (A – B) ∪ (B – A) = (A ∪ B) – (A ∩ B)

Algebra of Sets:
For all sets A and B the following are true:
• A∩B=B∩A
• A ∩ (B ∩ C) = (A ∩ B) ∩ C
• A ∩ (B ∪ C) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C)
• A∪B=B∪A
• A ∪ (B ∪ C) = (A ∪ B) ∪ C
• A ∪ (B ∩ C) = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C)
• (A ∩ B)’ = A’ ∪ B’
• (A ∪ B)’ = A’ ∩ B’

Other Rules:
• A∩A=A
• A∩∅=∅
• A∪U=U
• A ∩ A’ = ∅
• A∪A=A
• A∪∅=A
• A ∪ A’ = U
• A∩U=A

To prove these we have to go back to basic definitions and logic.

These can be used as “rules” for proving further results.

For example, let us prove that:

(A ∩ B)’ = A’ ∪ B’ for all sets A and B.

Proof:
𝑥 ∈ (A ∩ B)’ ⇔ 𝑥 ∉ (A ∩ B)
⇔ not [𝑥 ∈ (A ∩ B)]
⇔ not [𝑥 ∈ A and 𝑥 ∈ B]
⇔ [not 𝑥 ∈ A] or [not 𝑥 ∈ B]
⇔ [𝑥 ∉ A] or [𝑥 ∉ B]
⇔ 𝑥 ∈ A’ or 𝑥 ∈ B’
⇔ 𝑥 ∈ A’ ∪ B’
Therefore, (A ∩ B)’ = A’ ∪ B’ for all sets A and B.
□ (formal proof)

For another example,

Use Set Algebra to show that
(A – B) ∪ (B – A) = (A ∪ B) – (A ∩ B).

Proof:
(A – B) ∪ (B – A) = (A ∩ B’) ∪ (B ∩ A’)

= [(A ∩ B’) ∪ B] ∩ [(A ∩ B’) ∪ A’] (Distributive Law)

= [(A ∪ B) ∩ (B’ ∪ B)] ∩ [(A ∪ A’) ∩ (B’ ∪ A’)] (Distributive Law)
= [(A ∪ B) ∩ U] ∩ [U ∩ (B’ ∪ A’)] (Set Algebra Rule)
= (A ∪ B) ∩ (B’ ∪ A’) (Set Algebra Rule)
= (A ∪ B) ∩ (B ∩ A)’ (De Morgan's Laws)
= (A ∪ B) – (A ∩ B).
□ (formal proof)

Consider: Use Set Algebra to show that A – (B ∩ C) = (A - B) ∪ (A - C).

Proof: Taking the RHS:

= (A ∩ B’) ∪ (A ∩ C’)
By the Distributive Law
= A ∩ (B’ ∪ C’)
By De Morgan’s Law:
= A ∩ (B ∩ C)’
= A – (B ∩ C)
□

The following is an example by a formal proof:

Prove A ∪ B = A ∩ B ⇒ A = B.

Proof:
Assume A ∪ B = A ∩ B. Let 𝑥 ∈ A, then 𝑥 ∈ A or 𝑥 ∈ B. Then 𝑥 ∈ A ∪ B ⇒ 𝑥 ∈ A ∩ B, from our
assumption.
⇒ 𝑥 ∈ A and 𝑥 ∈ B. ⇒ 𝑥 ∈ B.
i.e. 𝑥 ∈ A ⇒ 𝑥 ∈ B.
Therefore A ⊆ B. By symmetry B ⊆ A. So, A = B.

Consider now:
Let Q be the set of integers divisible by 4.
Let S be the set of integers divisible by 6.
Let T be the set of integers divisible by 12.
Prove formally that Q ∩ S = T.

Proof:
Let 𝑥 ∈ Q ∩ S:
Then 𝑥 ∈ Q and 𝑥 ∈ S.
i.e. x is divisible by 4 and x is divisible by 6.
⇒ 𝑥 = 4𝑎 and 𝑥 = 6𝑏, where a and b are integers.
⇒4𝑎 = 6𝑏 ⇒ 2𝑎 = 3𝑏.
So 2a is divisible by 3, and since 2 and 3 are relatively prime, a must be divisible by 3.
i.e. a = 3c, where c is an integer.

⇒ 𝑥 = 4𝑎 = 4(3𝑐) = 12𝑐
⇒ x is divisible by 12
⇒ 𝑥 ∈ T.
Therefore, Q ∩ S ⊆ T. (1)

Now, let 𝑥 ∈ T:
Then x is divisible by 12
⇒ 𝑥 = 12𝑐 = 4(3𝑐)
⇒ x is divisible by 4
⇒ 𝑥 ∈ Q.
But also 𝑥 = 12𝑐 = 6(2𝑐)
⇒ x is divisible by 6
⇒ 𝑥 ∈ S.
So 𝑥 ∈ Q and 𝑥 ∈ S ⇒ 𝑥 ∈ Q ∩ S.
Therefore, T ⊆ Q ∩ S. (2)

From (1) and (2):

Q ∩ S = T.
□ (Formal proof)

Power sets:
Let A be a set. The power set of A is the set of all subsets of A, denoted by Ƿ(A).
Ƿ(A) = {B | B ⊆ A}

For example:
Let A = {a, b, c}.
Ƿ(A) = {ф, {a}, {b}, {c}, {b, c}, {a, c}, {a, b}, {a, b, c}}.

B = {a, b, c, d}
Ƿ(B) = {ф, {a}, {b}, {c}, {d}, {a, b}, {a, c}, {a, d}, {b, c}, {b, d}, … , {a, b, c}, … , {a, b, c, d}}.

Note: If A has an n elements then Ƿ(A) has 2n elements.

Ordered Pairs:
These are sets with two elements where the order is important.
We use () to denote ordered pairs. For an ordered pair (a, b), a is called the first component,
and b is called the second component. (a, b) = (b, a) if and only if a = b.
(a, b) = (c, d) if and only if a = c and b = d.

Ordered Triples:
These are sets with three elements where the order is important.
For example, using (x, y, z) or (x1, x2, x3).
Note: (x1, x2, x3) = (y1, y2, y3) if and only if xi = yi, for i = 1, 2, 3.

This follows the same for ordered n-tuples.

Cartesian Product:
If A and B are nonempty sets, the Cartesian product of A and B, denoted by A × B, is the set of all
ordered pairs (a, b) such that 𝑎 ∈ A and 𝑏 ∈ B, that is:
A × B = {(a, b) | 𝑎 ∈ A and 𝑏 ∈ B}

For example:
Let A = {2, 3, 4}, and B = {J, Q, K, A}
Then A × B = {(2, J), (2, Q), (2, K), (2, A), (3, J), (3, Q), (3, K), (3, A), (4, J), (4, Q), (4, K), (4,A)}.
And A × A = {(2, 2), (2, 3), (2, 4), (3, 2), (3, 3), (3, 4), (4, 2), (4, 3), (4, 4)}.

Partitions:
A partition of a set A is a collection of pairwise disjoint nonempty subsets of A whose union is A.
Consider:
Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}
{{1, 4}, {2, 3, 5}, {6, 8}, {7} } is a partition of A.
{{1, 3, 5, 7}, {2, 4, 6, 8} } is also a partition of A.