Dedication

Praise be to Allah
To our families

For their support, guidance and their Patience

The happiest moments of my life have been the few which I have passed at home in
the bosom of my family

To our teachers
The dream begins with a teacher who believes in you, who tugs and pushes and leads
you to the next plateau, sometimes poking you with a sharp stick called "truth."

To friends and colleagues who stood by us shoulder by shoulder in this three years
journey

I
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We wish to thank our college staff members who were more than generous with their
expertise and precious time. A special thanks to Mr. Mohamed Yousif, our supervisor for his
countless hours of reflecting, reading, encouraging, and most of all patience throughout the
entire process.

II
Abstract
Protection system is the heart and soul of the power system, it‘s one of the most important
fields in Power Electrical Engineering. Main protection is the first line of defence and the
guard of the power system , when primary protection fails to function within the prescribed
time, backup protection then asked to take the leading role and protect the power system, but
the time and manner through which backup protection intervene is of the essence because if
backup protection did not clear the fault in the specified time the system become absolutely
defenseless, so in this research coordination between primary protection and backup
protection is studied for when and how the backup protection is coordinated with respect to
main protection
We employ overcurrent relay coordination with an existing software called ETAP that is easy
to deal with and understandable. Through analyzing the time current characteristics we
analyzed Kuku substation protection system as a case study and performed the protective
device coordination on it.
Backup protection for the primary relay is achieved through the effective coordination time
interval between the relays. Proper relay coordination effectively clears out the fault thus
making the protection more reliable. Relay coordination using ETAP applicable to all sorts of
power system from a single radial feeder to an entire inter connected power system

III
 Table of contents
Subject Page
‫االية‬ ……………………………………………………... I
Dedication …………………………………………………… II
Acknowledgement ……………………………………………………. III
Abstract …………………………………………………… IV
‫المستخلص‬ …………………………………………………… V
Table of contents ………………………………………………… IV
List of figures ………………………………………………… IIIV
List of tables ………………………………………………… IX
List of abbreviations ………………………………………………… X
List of Symbols ………………………………………………… XI

Chapter One
Introduction
1.1 General …………………………………………………… 2
1.2 Protection requirements …………………………………………….. 4

Chapter two
POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION COMPONENTS

2.1 protection zones ………………………………………………. 6

2.2 Primary and back-up protection ………………………………………. 7
2.3 Directional protection …………………………………………… 8

2.4 Differential protection …………………………………………….. 8

2.5 Distance protection ……………………………………………… 9

2.6 Power system protection components …………………………….

10
2.6.1 Essential Features of protection components …………………….. 10

IV
2.6.2 Protective relays ……………………………………………………. 11
2.6.2.1 Classification of relay ……………………………………………. 12
2.6.2.2 electromechanical relays 12
2.6.2.3. Numerical relays ……………………………………………… 13
2.6.3 Circuit breakers ………………………………………………. 13
2.6.3.1. Operating principle ……………………………………………. 14
2.6.3.2. Arc Phenomenon …………………………………………… 15
2.6.3.3 Principles of Arc Extinction ……………………………………. 15
2.6.3.4 Classification of Circuit Breakers ……………………………… 16
2.6.3.4.1. Oil Circuit Breakers …………………………………….. 16
2.6.3.4.1.2. Types of Oil Circuit Breakers …………………………………….. 16
2.6.3.4.2 Air-Blast Circuit Breakers 16
2.6.3.4.3 Sulphur Hexafluoride (SF6) Circuit Breakers ………………….. 17
2.6.3.4.4. Vacuum Circuit Breakers (VCB) ……………………….... 19
2.6.3.5. Circuit Breaker Rating ……………………………………… 20
2.6.4. Instrument transformers ………………………………………. 21
2.6.4.1 Current Transformer ……………………………………….. 21
2.6.4.2 Voltage Transformer ………………………………………. 22

Chapter three
BACKUP PROTECTION, OVER CURRENT PROTECTION,
EARTH FAULT PROTECTION AND COORDINATION
3.1 Backup Protection ………………………………………………………. 25
3.2 Overcurrent protection …………………………………………………. 26
3.2.1 Types of over current relay ………………………………………….. 27
3.2.1.1 Definite-current relays …………………………………………. 27
3.2.1.2 Definite-time/current or definite-time relays ………………………. 28
3.2.1.3. Inverse-time relays …………………………………………… 28
3.2.2 Setting over current relays …………………………………………… 29
3.3 Earth fault protection …………………………………………… 31
3.4 Fuses …………………………………………………….. 33
3.4.4 Types of Fuses …………………………………………………….. 34
3.5 Co-ordination ………………………………………………. 37

V
3.6 Principles of time/current grading ……………………………………….. 37
3.6.1 Discrimination by Time …………………………………………… 38
3.6.2 Discrimination by Current ……………………………………… 38
3.6.3 Discrimination by both Time and Current ……………………….. 41
4.1 ETAP …………………………………………………………………. 42
4.2 Kuku Substation ………………………………………………………. 45

Chapter five
Conclusion and Recommendations

5.1 Conclusion ………………………………………………….. 62

5.2 Recommendations …………………………………………………… 62
References ………………………………………………….. 63
Appendices ……………………………………………………. 64
Appendix (A) ……………………………………………………… 64
Appendix (B) ……………………………………………………… 65
Appendix (C) ……………………………………………………… 69

VI
 List of Figures
Figure Title Page
1 the center pivot irrigation 7
2 A layout of center pivot 11
3 Center Pivot Irrigation System. 12
4 electric center pivot 13
5 hydraulic motor for wheel 14
6 Block diagram of open loop control system 17
7 Block diagram of closed loop control system 17
8 ATMEGA16 21
9 pin configuration of ATmega16 22
10 Stepper motor -Cross-section of variable reluctance 28
motor
11 Cross-section of permanent magnet stepper 29
12 Cross-section of HSM 29
13 Cut view of HSM 30
14 type of driver 31
15 the project circuit 35
16 stepper motor 36
17 LM-35 Pin out 37
18 Uln2003A Driver 38
19 PIN CONFIGURATION 38
20 relay design 39
21 motor pump 41
22 LEDs 42
23 Resistors 43
24 humidity sensor 44
25 LCD (Liquid Crystal Display) 44
26 loading program from PC to microcontroller 45

VII
 List of Abbreviations
EMRs Electromechanical Relays
CTs current transformers
VTs voltage transformers
IEEE Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
A.C Alternating current
D.C Direct current
O.V over current
C.Bs Circuit breakers
SF6 Sulphur hexafluoride
VCB Vacuum Circuit Breakers
r.m.s. Root mean square
MCCBs Moulded-case circuit breakers
IDMT Inverse definite minimum time
H.R.C. High-Rupturing capacity
ETAP Electrical Transient and Analysis Program
DSP Digital signal processor
PTO Power Take Off
NO Normally Open
NC Normally Closed
UART Universal Asynchronous Receiver and Transmitter
GSM Global System of mobile communications

VIII
 List of Symbols
Z Impedance , electrical quantity measured in Ohms
V Voltage, both symbol & measure for electrical potential difference
I Electrical current

Cm Centimeter
mA Milliampere
kA kilo ampere

R Resistor
kV Kilovolt

MVA Mega volt-ampere , apparent power measurement unit

kg Kilogram

torr a unit of pressure used in measuring partial vacuums

E Voltage
 Ohms

IX
CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1
 CHAPTER ONE
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 General
An electrical power system consists of three principal components: the generation
stations, the transmission lines and the distribution systems. The transmission lines are the
connecting links between all the generating stations and the distribution systems. A
distribution system connects all the individual loads in a given area to the transmission lines.
With the increasing dependence on electricity supplies, in both developing and developed
countries, the need to achieve an acceptable level of reliability, quality and safety at an
economic price becomes even more important to customers. A further requirement is the
safety of the electricity supply. A priority of any supply system is that it has been well
Designed and properly maintained in order to limit the number of faults that might occur.
Amongst the principal causes of faults are lightning discharges, the deterioration of insulation,
vandalism, and tree branches and animals contacting the electricity circuits
The majority of faults are of a transient nature and can often be cleared with no loss of supply,
or just the shortest of interruptions, whereas permanent faults can result in longer outages. In
order to avoid damage, suitable and reliable protection should be installed on all circuits and
electrical equipment.
Protective relays initiate the isolation of faulted sections of the network in order to maintain
supplies elsewhere on the system.
A properly coordinated protection system is vital to ensure that an electricity distribution
network can operate within preset requirements for safety for individual items of equipment,
staff and public, and the network overall.
The economic costs and the benefits of a protection system must be considered in order to
arrive at a suitable balance between the requirements of the scheme and the available financial
resources.
The protection must be sensitive enough to operate when a fault occurs under minimum fault
conditions, yet be stable enough not to operate when its associated equipment is carrying the
maximum rated current, which may be a short-time value. It must also be fast enough to
operate in order to clear the fault from the system quickly to minimize damage to system
components and be reliable in operation.
Back-up protection to cover the possible failure of the main protection is provided in order to
improve the reliability of the protection system.

2
 Figure (1-1) Basic elements of a Power system
1.2 Protection systems requirements
The protection arrangements for any power system must take into account the following basic
principles:
Reliability: Ability of an equipment to perform its intended task within the prescribed
conditions
A reliable relaying system must be:
Dependability The ability of the relay to operate correctly for all faults for which it is
required to operate.
Security A measure of certainty that the relay will not operate incorrectly for any fault.
Selectivity: Ability to obtain the desired operation to avoid unnecessary tripping.
A relay is secure if it responds to faults within its own zone
Stability: The ability of the protection system to remain unaffected by conditions external to
the protected zone
Sensitivity: Ability to detect abnormal quantities.
Relays or protection schemes are said to be sensitive if their primary operating parameters are
low.
Speed: minimum operating time to clear a fault in order to avoid damage to equipment.
Cost: maximum protection at the lowest cost possible.
Since it is practically impossible to satisfy all the above-mentioned points simultaneously,
inevitably a compromise is required to obtain the optimum protection system.
1.3 Problems statement
 Lack of proper coordination

3
In power system protection relay and circuit breakers is the major instrument for large
interconnected power system. We need proper protection to isolate the faulted region from
healthier network. When two protective apparatus installed in series have certain
characteristics, which provide a specified operating sequence, they are said to be coordinated
or selective
In some cases a state of a deficiency exist in coordination between main protection and
backup protection. Also there are some problems associated with Sequence-of-Operation
particularly when main protection fail
 Low Speed
The operating time to clear a fault in order to avoid damage to equipment. is longer
 Lack of simplicity
Coordination setting adopt other software like MATLAB for example is rather complex
 Ambiguous Zones of protection
Zones of protection are not clearly defined in Protective device coordination based on
programs other than ETAP
1.4 Objectives of the project
• To learn how to use the protective device coordination program.
• Create a user guide easy to understand about how to use software program
• Using ETAP software to analyze Kuku substation protection system
• To achieve selectivity without loosening sensitivity
• minimization of fault durations
• To increase reliability of the protection system
• Outage possibility of the system is minimized.
• The extent and duration of service interruption is limited.
1.5 Constraints
• How to install ETAP program.
• Ways to use library of ETAP program.
• Interpret results in the program.
• Establish coordination of a protection system.
• Run the program with all kind of requisites.
• Find right protective devices for design coordination.
• Understand how to program protective devices settings of equipments to use.
1.6 The significance of project

4
ETAP is easy to understand and can be easy installed in personnel computer it‘s features can
be easily adopted and applicable to various sorts of power system from single radial feeder to
a whole power utility.
Sudan is vast and extended country most of its transmitted and distributed power are
distributed over hundreds of kilo meters, installing ETAP as means of protection save both
time and manpower and isolate only the faulty section
1.7 Methodology
The methodologies adopted for the research work are enlisted
Below:
 ETAP software installed in laptop
The following features of ETAP were used
 Short Circuit Software
Short Circuit Software Featured Highlights
 Unbalanced L-G, L-L, & L-L-G fault current analysis
 Compares protective device ratings with calculated short circuit values
 ETAP Star™
ETAP Star™ overcurrent device protection and coordination evaluation software provides an
intuitive and logical approach to Time-Current Characteristic curve selectivity analysis
 Star Sequence-of-Operation (SQOP) software
Star Sequence-of-Operation (SQOP) software evaluates, verifies, and confirms the operation
and selectivity of the protective devices for various types of faults for any location directly
from the one-line diagram and via normalized Time Current Characteristic Curve (TCC) view
 Protective Device Library
Verified & Validated Engineering libraries provide complete verified and validated data based
on equipment manufacturer‘s published data
Protective Device Library
• Fuse
• Relay
• Recloser
• Electronic Controller
• HV Circuit Breaker
• LV Circuit Breaker
• CT

5
 Single line diagram of Kuku substation
 Setup various protection components ( CTs, relays)
 Using ETAP features inserting faults in various sections in the single line diagram of the
substation
 ETAP software gives the simulation , flashes and result
1.8 project layout
The research is structured in five chapters. Chapter one Describes in general power system
components, and power system protection, its need and its essential features
The problem statements, objectives, Constraints, the significance of project, methodology and
project layout.
In Chapter two protection system components were described in detail, the different types of
protection were mentioned and the concept of coordination was introduce
Chapter three focus on Kuku substation and its analysis using ETAP software. Chapter four
contains the result chapter five discusses the conclusion and possible future work.

6
CHAPTER TWO
POWER SYSTEM
PROTECTION
COMPONENTS

5
 CHAPTER TWO
2. POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION COMPONENTS
Power system protection components
The apparatus used for switching, controlling and protecting the electrical circuits and
equipment
 Essential Features of protection components
 Complete reliability.
With the continued trend of interconnection and the increasing capacity of generating stations,
the need for a reliable switchgear has become of paramount importance.
 Absolutely certain discrimination.
When fault occurs on any section of the power system, the switchgear must be able to
discriminate between the faulty section and the healthy section. It should isolate the faulty
section from the system without affecting the healthy section.
 Quick operation.
When fault occurs on any part of the power system, the switchgear must operate quickly so
that no damage is done to generators, transformers and other equipment by the short-circuit
currents.
 Provision for manual control.
A switchgear must have provision for manual control.
 Provision for instruments.
There must be provision for instruments which may be required.
These may be in the form of ammeter or voltmeter on the unit itself or the necessary current
and voltage transformers for connecting to the main switchboard or a separate instrument
panel.
2.1 Elements of Protection System
2.1.1 Fuses
Fuses are the oldest protective devices that have survived from the dawn of the age of
electricity to the present times.
The fuse allows the normal current to flow but melts itself out, thus breaking the circuit, when
the current exceeds a certain magnitude for a certain amount of time, it combines the
functions of sensing, comparing, and interrupting the current into one.
The waveform of the short- circuit current interrupted by a fuse is shown in Figure (2-l) where
it can be seen that the fuse interrupts the current even before it attains its peak value

6
 Figure (2-l) c) Short-circuit current interrupted by a fuse

Fig (2-2) a fuse inverse time-current characteristics

2.1.2 Instrument Transformers

CTs and PTs are the eyes and ears of the protective system
They extract information from the power system and form an important link between the
high-voltage high-current power system and the low-voltage low-current protective system.

Types of Instrument Transformer

• Current transformers
 Main tasks of current transformer
• Measurement of Current.
• Isolation between High voltage and Low Voltage.
• Inputs to Relays & Protection Systems.

7
 Fig (2-3) Current transformer

Measurement CT and Protective CT

• A protection CT is required to faithfully transform the primary current throughout its
entire range from normal load current to short-circuit current.
• Measurement CT, on the other hand, is designed to saturate at currents more than around
1.2 times the full-load current, and thus save the measuring instruments from possible
damage.

Figure (2-4) Standard symbol for current transformers

 Errors in Instrument Transformers

• Ratio error
• Phase angle error
• Voltage transformers
 Main tasks of Voltage transformer
• Measurement of Voltage
• Isolation between High Voltage & Low Voltage.
• Inputs to Relay/Protection systems
• PLCC (Power line Carrier Communication)

8
2.1.3 Relays
The IEEE defines protective relays as: ―relays whose function is to detect defective lines or
apparatus or other power system conditions of an abnormal or dangerous nature and to initiate
appropriate control circuit action‖
Relays detect and locate faults by measuring electrical quantities in the power system which
are different during normal and intolerable conditions. The most important role of protective
relays is to first protect Individuals, and second to protect equipment.
2.1.3.1 Relay Objectives:
• To convert the signals from the monitoring devices
• To give instructions to open a circuit under faulty conditions.
• To give alarms when the equipment being protected.
2.1.3.2 Relay Requirements:
• Define the undesirable conditions
• Remove only the faulted equipment and to maintain the un-faulted portion of the system
A typical relay circuit is shown in Fig. (2-5) this diagram shows one phase of 3-phase system
for simplicity. The relay circuit connections can be divided into three parts
First part is the primary winding of a current transformer (C.T.) which is connected in series
with the line to be protected.
Second part consists of secondary winding of C.T. and the relay operating coil.
Third part is the tripping circuit which may be either a.c. or d.c. It consists of a source of
supply, the trip coil of the circuit breaker and the relay stationary contacts.

Figure (2-5) a typical relay circuit

2.1.3.3 Classification
Protection relays can be classified in accordance with their construction, the incoming signal
and function.
2.1.3.3.1 Construct
• Electromechanical

9
• Solid state
• Microprocessor
• Numerical
• Non-electric (thermal, pressure, etc.)
2.1.3.3.2 Incoming signal
• Current
• Voltage
• Power
• Frequency
• Temperature
• Pressure
• Speed
• Others
2.1.3.3.3 Function
• Over current
• Directional over current
• Distance
• Overvoltage
• Differential
• Reverse power
• Others
2.1.3.4 Electromechanical relays
These relays are constructed with electrical, magnetic and mechanical components and have
an operating coil and various contacts, and are very robust and reliable.
They are also referred to as electromagnetic relays due to their magnetic components. Their
construction characteristics can be classified in three groups,
• Attraction relays
• Relays with moveable coils
• Induction relays
2.1.3.5 Numerical relays
Operation of a numerical relay involves analog to digital conversion of voltage and currents
obtained from VT and CTs. These samples are fed to the microprocessor or DSP where the
protection algorithms process these signals and necessary decisions are taken.

11
 Advantages of Numerical relays
 Maximum flexibility
 Provides multiple functionality
 Self-checking and communication facility.

Figure (2-6) General arrangement of numerical relays

2.1.4 DC batteries
These give uninterrupted power source to the relays and breakers that is independent of the
main power source being protected
2.1.5 Circuit Breakers
• A circuit breaker is basically a switch to interrupt the flow of current.
• These are used to break the circuit carrying the fault currents for a few cycles based on
feedback from the relays.
o Trip Circuit of a CB
- The circuit breaker contacts are in a closed position by the force of a spring. Energy is
stored in the spring during the closing operation.
- In order to trip the circuit breaker, it is necessary to release a latch either manually or by
energizing the trip-coil of the circuit breaker .
- The trip-battery supplies energy to the trip-coil for this operation .
- The relay output contact is wired in series with the trip-battery and the trip-coil. Thus
when the relay operates, the trip-coil gets energized and the circuit breaker quickly parts
its contacts. Fig (2-7)

11
 Figure (2-7) Trip circuit of a circuit breaker.

o Arc Phenomenon
When a short-circuit occurs, a heavy current flows through the contacts of the circuit breaker
before they are opened by the protective system. At the instant when the contacts begin to
separate, the contact area decreases rapidly and large fault current causes increased current
density and hence rise in temperature. The heat produced in the medium between contacts
(usually the medium is oil or air) is sufficient to ionize the air or vaporize and ionize the oil.
The ionized air or vapor acts as conductor and an arc is struck between the contacts. The p.d.
between the contacts is quite small and is just sufficient to maintain the arc. The arc provides
a low resistance path and consequently the current in the circuit remains uninterrupted so long
as the arc persists.
During the arcing period, the current flowing between the contacts depends upon the arc
resistance.
The greater the arc resistance, the smaller the current that flows between the contacts.

2.1.5.1 Classification of Circuit Breakers

There are several ways of classifying the circuit breakers. However, the most general way of
classification is on the basis of medium used for arc extinction. The medium used for arc

12
extinction is usually oil, air, Sulphur hexafluoride (SF6) or vacuum. Accordingly, circuit
breakers may be classified into:
2.1.5.1.1 Oil Circuit Breakers
In such circuit breakers, some insulating oil (e.g., transformer oil) is used as an arc quenching
medium. The contacts are opened under oil and an arc is struck between them. The heat of the
arc evaporates the surrounding oil and dissociates it into a substantial volume of gaseous
hydrogen at high pressure. The hydrogen gas occupies a volume about one thousand times
that of the oil decomposed. The oil is, therefore, pushed away from the arc and an expanding
hydrogen gas bubble surrounds the arc region and adjacent portions of the contacts (Fig. 2-8).
The arc extinction is facilitated mainly by two processes. Firstly, the hydrogen gas has high
heat conductivity and cools the arc, thus aiding the de-ionization of the medium between the
contacts. Secondly, the gas sets up turbulence in the oil and forces it into the space between
contacts, thus eliminating the arcing products from the arc path. The result is that arc is
extinguished and circuit current interrupted.
 Types of Oil Circuit Breakers
• Bulk oil circuit breakers
• Low oil circuit breakers

Figure (2-8) Oil Circuit Breakers

2.1.5.1.2 Air-Blast Circuit Breakers
These breakers employ a high pressure air-blast as an arc quenching medium. The contacts
are opened in a flow of air-blast established by the opening of blast valve. The air-blast cools
the arc and sweeps away the arcing products to the atmosphere. This rapidly increases the
dielectric strength of the medium between contacts and prevents from re-establishing the arc.
Consequently, the arc is extinguished and flow of current is interrupted
 Types of Air-Blast Circuit Breakers
Depending upon the direction of air-blast in relation to the arc, air-blast circuit breakers are
classified into:

13
 Axial-blast type
In which the air-blast is directed along the arc path as shown in Fig.
(2-9)(i)
 Cross-blast type
In which the air-blast is directed at right angles to the arc path as shown in Fig. (2-9) (ii).
 Radial-blast type
In which the air-blast is directed radially as shown in Fig. (2-9) (iii)

i. Axial ii. Cross iii. Radial

Fig. (2-9) Types of Air-Blast Circuit Breakers
2.1.5.1.3 Sulphur Hexafluoride (SF6) Circuit Breakers
In such circuit breakers, Sulphur hexafluoride (SF6) gas is used as the arc quenching medium.
The SF6 is an electro-negative gas and has a strong tendency to absorb free electrons. The
contacts of the breaker are opened in a high pressure flow of SF6 gas and an arc is struck
between them. The conducting free electrons in the arc are rapidly captured by the gas to form
relatively immobile negative ions. This loss of conducting electrons in the arc quickly builds
up enough insulation strength to extinguish the arc. The SF6 circuit breakers have been found
to be very effective for high power and high voltage service.
 Construction
Fig. (2-10) shows the parts of a typical SF6 circuit breaker. It consists of fixed and moving
contacts enclosed in a chamber (called arc interruption chamber) containing SF6 gas. This
chamber is connected to SF6 gas reservoir. When the contacts of breaker are opened, the
valve mechanism permits a high pressure SF6 gas from the reservoir to flow towards the arc
interruption chamber. The fixed contact is a hollow cylindrical current carrying contact fitted
with an arc horn.
The moving contact is also a hollow cylinder with rectangular holes in the sides to permit the
SF6 gas to let out through these holes after flowing along and across the arc. The tips of fixed
contact, moving contact and arcing horn are coated with copper-tungsten arc resistant
material. Since SF6 gas is costly, it is reconditioned and reclaimed by suitable auxiliary
system after each operation of the breaker.

14
 Fig. (2-10) a typical SF6 circuit breaker
 Applications
A typical SF6 circuit breaker consists of interrupter units each capable of dealing with
currents up to 60 kA and voltages in the range of 50 — 80 kV. A number of units are
connected in series according to the system voltage. SF6 circuit breakers have been developed
for voltages 115 kV to 230 kV, power ratings 10 MVA to 20 MVA and interrupting time less
than 3 cycles.
2.1.5.1.4 Vacuum Circuit Breakers (VCB)
In such breakers, vacuum (degree of vacuum being in the range from 10−7 to 10−5 torr) is
used as the arc quenching medium. Since vacuum offers the highest insulating strength, it has
far superior arc quenching properties than any other medium. For example, when contacts of a
breaker are opened in vacuum, the interruption occurs at first current zero with dielectric
strength between the contacts building up at a rate thousands of times higher than that
obtained with other circuit breakers.
Principle
The production of arc in a vacuum circuit breaker and its extinction can be explained As
follows:
When the contacts of the breaker are opened in vacuum (10−7 to 10−5 torr), an arc is
produced between the contacts by the ionization of metal vapors of contacts. However, the arc
is quickly extinguished because the metallic vapors, electrons and ions produced during arc

15
rapidly condense on the surfaces of the circuit breaker contacts, resulting in quick recovery of
dielectric strength. As soon as the arc is produced in vacuum, it is quickly extinguished due to
the fast rate of recovery of dielectric strength in vacuum.
 Construction
Fig. (2-11) shows the parts of a typical vacuum circuit breaker. It consists of fixed contact,
moving contact and arc shield mounted inside a vacuum chamber. The movable member is
connected to the control mechanism by stainless steel bellows. This enables the permanent
sealing of the vacuum chamber so as to eliminate the possibility of leak. A glass vessel or
ceramic vessel is used as the outer insulating body. The arc shield prevents the deterioration
of the internal dielectric strength by preventing metallic vapors falling on the inside surface of
the outer insulating cover.
 Applications
Where distances are quite large and accessibility to remote areas difficult, the installation of
such outdoor, maintenance free circuit breakers should prove a definite advantage. Vacuum
circuit breakers are being employed for outdoor applications ranging from 22 kV to 66 kV.
Even with limited rating of say 60 to 100 MVA, they are suitable for a majority of
applications in rural areas.

Fig. (2-11) a typical vacuum circuit breake

16
2.1.5.2 Circuit Breaker Ratings
 Breaking capacity
It is current (r.m.s.) that a circuit breaker is capable of breaking at given recovery voltage and
under specified conditions (e.g., power factor, rate of rise of restriking voltage).
 Making capacity
The peak value of current (including D.C. component) during the first cycle of current wave
after the closure of circuit breaker
 short-time capacity.
It is the period for which the circuit breaker is able to carry fault current while remaining
closed
2.2 Protection zones
The general philosophy for the use of relays is to divide the system into separate zones, which
can be individually protected and disconnected on the occurrence of a fault, in order to permit
the rest of the system to continue in service wherever possible. In general a power system can
be divided into protection zones - generators, transformers, groups of generator transformers,
motors, bus bars and lines.
Figure (2-12) shows a system with different protection zones. It should be noted that the
zones overlap at some points indicating that, if a fault occurs in these overlap areas, more than
one set of protection relays should operate.
The overlap is obtained by connecting the protection relays to the appropriate current
transformers as illustrated in Figure (2-13)

17
 Figure (2-12) Protection zones

Figure (2-13) Overlap of protection zones

2.2.1 Primary and back-up protection
All the elements of the power system must be correctly protected so that the relays only
operate on the occurrence of a fault. Some relays, designated as unit type protection, operate
only for faults within their protection zone. Other relays designated as non-unit protection, are
able to detect faults both within a particular zone and also outside it, usually in adjacent

18
zones, and can be used to back up the primary protection as a second line of defence. It is
essential that any fault is isolated, even if the associated main protection does not operate.
Therefore, wherever possible, every element in the power system should be protected by both
primary and back-up relays.
 Primary protection
Primary protection should operate every time an element detects a fault on the power system.
The protection element covers one or more components of the power system, such as
electrical machines, lines and bus bars.
It is possible for a power system component to have various primary protection devices.
However, this does not imply that they all have to operate for the same fault, and it should be
noted that the primary protection for one item of system equipment might not necessarily be
installed at the same location as the system equipment; in some cases it can be sited in an
adjacent substation.
 Back-up protection
Back-up protection is installed to operate when, for whatever reason, the primary protection
does not work.
To achieve this, the back-up protection relay has a sensing element which may or may not be
similar to the primary protection, but which also includes a time-delay facility to slow down
the operation of the relay so as to allow time for the primary protection to operate first.
One relay can provide back-up protection simultaneously to different pieces of system
equipment.
Equally the same equipment can have a number of different back-up protection relays and it is
quite common for a relay to act as primary protection for one piece of equipment and as back-
up for another.
2.3 Types of protection
2.3.1 Directional protection
An important characteristic of some types of protection is their capacity to be able to
determine the direction of the flow of power and, by this means, their ability to inhibit
opening of the associated switch when the fault current flows in the opposite direction to the
setting of the relay. Relays provided with this characteristic are important in protecting mesh
networks, or where there are various generation sources, when fault currents can circulate in
both directions around the mesh.

19
In these cases, directional protection prevents the unnecessary opening of switchgear and
thus improves the security of the electricity supply.
On protection schematic diagrams the directional protection is usually represented by an
arrow underneath the appropriate symbol, indicating the direction of current flow for relay
operation.

Figure (2-14) directional protection

2.3.2 Differential protection
Differential protection functions when the vector difference of two or more similar electrical
magnitudes exceeds a predetermined value. Almost any type of relay can function as
differential protection - it is not so much the construction of the relay that is important but
rather its method of connection in the circuit.
The majority of the applications of differential relays are of the current-differential type, but
they can also be of the voltage-differential type, operating on the same principle as the current
relays; the difference lies in the fact that the operating signal is derived from a voltage across
a shunt resistance.
A simple example of a differential arrangement is shown in Figure (2-15) the secondary‘s of
the current transformers (CTs) are interconnected and the coil of an over current relay is
connected across these.
Although the currents I1 and I2 may be different, provided that both sets of CTs have
appropriate ratios and connections then, under normal load conditions or when there is a fault
outside the protection zone of the element, the secondary currents will circulate between the
two CTs and will not flow through the over current relay.
However, if a fault occurs in the section between the two CTs the fault current would flow
towards the short-circuit from both sides and the sum of the secondary currents would flow
through the differential relay.
In all cases the current in the differential relay would be proportional to the vector difference
between the currents that enter and leave the protected element; if the current through the
differential relay exceeds the setting value then the relay will operate.

21
 Figure (2-15) Differential protection - current balance
2.3.3 Distance protection
It is essential that any faults on a power system circuit are cleared quickly; otherwise they
could result in the disconnection of customers, loss of stability in the system and damage to
equipment.
Distance protection meets the requirements of reliability and speed needed to protect these
circuits, and for these reasons is extensively used on power system networks.
Distance protection is a non-unit type of protection and has the ability to discriminate between
faults occurring in different parts of the system, depending on the impedance measured.
Essentially, this involves comparing the fault current, as seen by the relay, against the voltage
at the relay location to determine the impedance down the line to the fault. For the system
shown in Figure (2-16), a relay located at A uses the line current and the line voltage to
evaluate Z = V/I. The value of the impedance Z for a fault at F1 would be ZAF1, and (ZAB +
ZBF2) for a fault at F2.
The main advantage of using a distance relay is that its zone of protection depends on the
impedance of the protected line that is a constant virtually independent of the magnitudes of
the voltage and current. Thus, the distance relay has a fixed reach, in contrast to over current
units where the reach varies depending on system conditions.

Figure (2-16) Faults occurring on different parts of a power system

21
CHAPTER THREE
BACKUP
PROTECTION,
OVER CURRENT
PROTECTION,
EARTH FAULT
PROTECTION AND
COORDINATION
22
 CHAPTER THREE
3. BACKUP PROTECTION, OVER CURRENT PROTECTION,
EARTH FAULT PROTECTION AND COORDINATION
3.1 Backup Protection
This protection is only used in case of primary protection failure
The tie circuit breaker (T) is assumed to work normally closed for a fault at CD, Line
Breakers 5 and 6 should operate as the primary protection. If Protection 5 fails to operate,
with existing technology, we have two possibilities for cutting the fault current contribution
from A, B, and F: open Breakers 1, 3 and 8; or open Breakers 2 and T. In any case, backup
protection needs time delay. The primary protection needs to be given an opportunity to
operate before using the decision of a backup operation.

Figure (3-1) backup protection

3.1.1 Local Backup Protection
Breakers 2 and T represent local backup protection, which is located in the same substation as
the primary protection. Local backup protection is more expensive than remote backup
because additional equipment is needed. Advantages of local backup over remote backup are
greater sensitivity, greater selectivity, and faster operation speed

23
 Figure (3-2) Local backup protection
3.1.2 Remote Backup Protection
Breakers 1, 3 and 8 are located in a remote substation. This is the remote backup protection.
An advantage of remote backup protection is low cost: the remote backup protection comes
from protection equipment that is needed for primary protection functions of adjacent system
elements. Therefore, there is no need for additional investment

Figure (3-3) remote backup protection

3.2 Overcurrent protection
Very high current levels in electrical power systems are usually caused by faults on the
system. These currents can be used to determine the presence of faults and operate protection
devices, which can vary in design depending on the complexity and accuracy required.
Among the more common types of protection are thermo-magnetic switches, moulded-case
circuit breakers (MCCBs), fuses, and over current relays

24
The first two types have simple operating arrangements and are principally used in the
protection of low voltage equipment.
Fuses are also often used at low voltages, especially for protecting lines and distribution
transformers.
Over current relays, are the most common form of protection used to deal with excessive
currents on power systems They should not be installed purely as a means of protecting
systems against overloads – which are associated with the thermal capacity of machines or
lines - since over current protection is primarily intended to operate only under fault
conditions.
However, the relay settings that are selected are often a compromise in order to cope with
both overload and over current conditions.
3.2.1 Types of over current relay
Based on the relay operating characteristics, over current relays can be classified into three
groups: definite current or instantaneous, definite time, and inverse time. The characteristic
curves of these three types are shown in Figures (3-4), (3-5) and (3-6) respectively
3.2.1.1 Definite-current relays
This type of relay operates instantaneously when the current reaches a predetermined value.
The setting is chosen so that, at the substation furthest away from the source the relay will
operate for a low current value and the relay operating currents are progressively increased at
each substation, moving towards the source.
Thus, the relay with the lower setting operates first and disconnects load at the point nearest
to the fault.
This type of protection has the drawback of having little selectivity at high values of short-
circuit current. Another disadvantage is the difficulty of distinguishing between the fault
current at one point or another when the impedance between these points is small in
comparison to the impedance back to the source, leading to the possibility of poor
discrimination.
If the protection settings are based on maximum fault level conditions, then these settings
may not be appropriate for the situation when the fault level is lower. However, if a lower
value of fault level is used when calculating the relay settings, this could result in some
breakers operating unnecessarily if the fault level increases. As a consequence, definite
current relays are not used as the only overcurrent protection, but their use as an instantaneous
unit is common where other types of protection are in use.

25
3.2.1.2 Definite-time/current or definite-time relays
This type of relay enables the setting to be varied to cope with different levels of current by
using different operating times.
The settings can be adjusted in such a way that the breaker nearest to the fault is tripped in
the shortest time, and then the remaining breakers are tripped in succession using longer time
delays, moving back towards the source.
The difference between the tripping times for the same current is called the
discrimination margin.
Since the operating time for definite-time relays can be adjusted in fixed steps, the protection
is more selective.
The big disadvantage with this method of discrimination is that faults near to the source,
which result in bigger currents, may be cleared in a relatively long time.
This type of relay has a current or pick-up setting – also known as the plug or tap setting - to
select the value at which the relay will start, plus a time dial setting to obtain the exact timing
of the relay operation.
It should be noted that the time-delay setting is independent of the value of the over current
required to operate the relay.
These relays are used a great deal when the source impedance is large compared to that of the
power system element being protected when fault levels at the relay position are similar to
those at the end of the protected element.
3.2.1.3. Inverse-time relays
The fundamental property of these relays is that they operate in a time that is inversely
proportional to the fault current.
Their advantage over definite-time relays is that, for very high currents, much shorter tripping
times can be obtained without risk to the protection selectivity.
Inverse time relays are generally classified in accordance with their characteristic curve that
indicates the speed of operation; based on this they are commonly defined as being inverse,
very inverse, or extremely inverse.
Inverse-time relays are also referred to as inverse definite minimum time or IDMT over
current relays.

26
 Figure (3-4) definite current relay

Figure (3-5) definite time relay

Figure (3-6) inverse time relay

3.2.2 Setting over current relays
Over current relays are normally supplied with an instantaneous element and a time - delay
element within the same unit.
When electromechanical relays were more popular, the over current protection was made up
from separate single-phase units.

27
The more modern microprocessor protection has a three-phase over current unit and an earth-
fault unit within the same case. Setting over current relays involves selecting the parameters
that define the required time/current characteristic of both the time - delay and instantaneous
units.
This process has to be carried out twice, once for the phase relays and then repeated for the
earth-fault relays.
Although the two processes are similar, the three-phase short-circuit current should be used
for setting the phase relays while the phase-to-earth fault current should be used for the earth-
fault relays.
3.2.2.1Setting instantaneous units
Instantaneous units are more effective when the impedances of the power system elements
being protected are large in comparison to the source impedance, as indicated earlier.
They offer two fundamental advantages:
1. They reduce the operating time of the relays for severe system faults;
2. They avoid the loss of selectivity in a protection system consisting of relays with different
characteristics; this is obtained by setting the instantaneous units so that they operate before
the relay characteristics cross, as shown in Figure (3-7)

Figure (3-7) Preservation of selectivity using instantaneous units

3.2.2.2 Setting the parameters of time delay over current relays
The operating time of an over current relay has to be delayed to ensure that, in the presence of
a fault, the relay does not trip before any other protection situated closer to the fault. The
curves of inverse-time over current relays associated with two breakers on the same feeder in
a typical system are shown in Figure (3-8) illustrating the difference in the operating time of
these relays at the same fault levels in order to satisfy the discrimination margin requirements.

28
Definite-time relays and inverse-time relays can be adjusted by selecting two parameters - the
time dial or time multiplier setting, and the pick-up or plug setting (tap setting).

Figure (3-8) over current inverse-time relay curves associated with two breakers on the same
feeder
3.3 Earth fault protection
Earth-fault relay is used to protect feeder against faults involving ground. Typically, earth
faults are single line to ground and double line to ground faults. For the purpose of setting and
Coordination, only single line to ground faults are considered. Consider a radial system as
shown in fig (3-9) for a fault near the source, the maximum fault current for a-g fault is given
by

If we model the utility system with identical values for all the sequence impedances then,

This value is identical to the bolted three phase fault current. If however, ZS0 < ZS1 then the
bolted single line to ground fault current can be higher than the three phase fault current. As
we move away from the source, for a bolted fault, fault current reduces due to larger feeder
impedance contribution to the denominator. Since, for a feeder, zero sequence impedance can
be much higher than the positive or negative sequence impedance, it is apparent that fault
current for bolted fault reduces significantly as we go away from source. Thus, as we go away
from the source, the bolted three phase fault current will be higher than corresponding ground
fault current as it does not depend upon zero sequence impedance of the feeder. In addition,

29
if the single line to ground fault has an impedance ZF, then the fault current can fall even
below the bolted a-g fault value,

In contrast, for a balanced system, three phase fault current is independent of the value of ZF.

Figure (3-9) a simple radial distribution system

Thus, we conclude that there can be significant variation in the earth fault current values.
They can be even below the load current due to large impedance to ground. Hence, to provide
sensitive protection, earth fault relays use zero sequence current rather than phase current for
fault detection. Note that the zero sequence component is absent in normal load current or
phase faults. Hence, pickup with zero sequence current can be much below the load current
value, thereby providing sensitive earth fault protection. In what follows, we will discuss the
setting and coordination of earth fault relays.

Figure (3-10) phase and earth fault relay configuration

In practice, distribution systems are inherently unbalanced. Thus, load current would also
have a small percentage of zero sequence due to unbalance. Hence, it is mandatory to keep the
pickup current above the maximum unbalance expected under normal conditions. A rule of
thumb is to assume maximum unbalance factor to be between 5 to 10%. It should be also
observed that earth fault relays will not respond to the three phase or line to line faults. One

31
earth fault relay is adequate to provide protection for all types of earth fault (a-g, b-g, c-g, a-b-
g etc). Three phase relays are required to provide protection against phase faults (three phase,
a-b, b-c, c-a). Thus with four relays as shown in fig (3-10) complete overcurrent protection
can be provided.
3.4 Co-ordination
Correct overcurrent relay application requires knowledge of the fault current that can flow in
each part of the network. Since large-scale tests are normally impracticable, system analysis
must be used
The data required for a relay setting study are:
1. A one-line diagram of the power system involved, showing the type and rating of the
protection devices and their associated current transformers
2. The impedances in ohms, per cent or per unit, of all power transformers, rotating machine
and feeder circuits
3. The maximum and minimum values of short circuit currents that are expected to flow
through each protection device
4. The maximum load current through protection devices
The relay settings are first determined to give the shortest operating times at maximum fault
levels and then checked to see if operation will also be satisfactory at the minimum fault
current expected. It is always advisable to plot the curves of relays and other protection
devices, such as fuses, that are to operate in series, on a common scale. It is usually more
convenient to use a scale corresponding to the current expected at the lowest voltage base, or
to use the predominant voltage base. The alternatives are a common MVA base or a separate
current scale for each system voltage.
The basic rules for correct relay co-ordination can generally be stated as follows:
1. Whenever possible, use relays with the same operating characteristic in series with each
other
2. make sure that the relay farthest from the source has current settings equal to or less than
the relays behind it, that is, that the primary current required to operate the relay in front is
always equal to or less than the primary current required to operate the relay behind it.
3.4.1 Principles of time/current grading
Among the various possible methods used to achieve correct relay co-ordination are those
using either time or overcurrent, or a combination of both. The common aim of all three

31
methods is to give correct discrimination. That is to say, each one must isolate only the faulty
section of the power system network, leaving the rest of the system undisturbed.
3.4.1.1 Discrimination by Time
In this method, an appropriate time setting is given to each of the relays controlling the circuit
breakers in a power system to ensure that the breaker nearest to the fault opens first. A simple
radial distribution system is shown in Figure (3-14), to illustrate the principle.

Figure (3-14) Radial system with time discrimination

Overcurrent protection is provided at B, C, D and E, that is, at the infeed end of each section
of the power system. Each protection unit comprises a definite-time delay overcurrent relay in
which the operation of the current sensitive element simply initiates the time delay element.
Provided the setting of the current element is below the fault current value, this element plays
no part in the achievement of discrimination. For this reason, the relay is sometimes described
as an ‗independent definite-time delay relay‘, since its operating time is for practical purposes
independent of the level of overcurrent. It is the time delay element, therefore, which provides
the means of discrimination. The relay at B is set at the shortest time delay possible to allow
the fuse to blow for a fault at A on the secondary side of the transformer. After the time delay
has expired, the relay output contact closes to trip the circuit breaker. The relay at C has a
time delay setting equal to t1 seconds, and similarly for the relays at D and E. If a fault occurs
at F, the relay at B will operate in t seconds and the subsequent operation of the circuit
breaker at B will clear the fault before the relays at C, D and E have time to operate. The time
interval t1 between each relay time setting must be long enough to ensure that the upstream
relays do not operate before the circuit breaker at the fault location has tripped and cleared the
fault. The main disadvantage of this method of discrimination is that the longest fault
clearance time occurs for faults in the section closest to the power source, where the fault
level (MVA) is highest.
3.4.1.2 Discrimination by Current
Discrimination by current relies on the fact that the fault current varies with the position of the
fault because of the difference in impedance values between the source and the fault. Hence,
typically, the relays controlling the various circuit breakers are set to operate at suitably
32
tapered values of current such that only the relay nearest to the fault trips its breaker. Figure
(3-15) illustrates the method

Figure (3-15): Radial system with current discrimination

For a fault at F1, the system short-circuit current is given by:

Where Zs = source impedance

ZL1 = cable impedance between C and B= 0.24 

Hence

So, a relay controlling the circuit breaker at C and set to operate at a fault current of 8800A
would in theory protect the whole of the cable section between C and B.
However, there are two important practical points that affect this method of co-
ordination:
1. It is not practical to distinguish between a fault at F1 and a fault at F2, since the distance
between these points may be only a few meters, corresponding to a change in fault current of
approximately 0.1%
2. In practice, there would be variations in the source fault level, typically from 250MVA to
130MVA. At this lower fault level the fault current would not exceed 6800A, even for a cable
fault close to C. A relay set at 8800A would not protect any part of the cable section
concerned

33
Discrimination by current is therefore not a practical proposition for correct grading between
the circuit breakers at C and B. However, the problem changes appreciably when there is
significant impedance between the two circuit breakers concerned. Consider the grading
required between the circuit breakers at C and A in Figure (3-15) Assuming a fault at F4, the
short circuit current is given by:

Where ZS = source impedance = 0.485 

ZL1 = cable impedance between C and B = 0.24 
ZL2 = cable impedance between B and 4 MVA transformer = 0.04 
ZT = transformer impedance

= 2.12 
Hence

= 2200 A
For this reason, a relay controlling the circuit breaker at B and set to operate at a current of
2200A plus a safety margin would not operate for a fault at F4 and would thus discriminate
with the relay at A. Assuming a safety margin of 20% to allow for relay errors and a further
10% for variations in the system impedance values, it is reasonable to choose a relay setting
of 1.3 x 2200A, that is 2860A, for the relay at B. Now, assuming a fault at F3, at the end of
the 11kV cable feeding the 4MVA transformer, the short-circuit current is given by:

Thus, assuming a 250MVA source fault level:

= 8300 A

34
Alternatively, assuming a source fault level of 130MVA:

= 5250 A
In other words, for either value of source level, the relay at B would operate correctly for
faults anywhere on the 11kV cable feeding the transformer.
3.4.1.3 Discrimination by both Time and Current
Each of the two methods described so far has a fundamental disadvantage. In the case of
discrimination by time alone, the disadvantage is due to the fact that the more severe faults
are cleared in the longest operating time. On the other hand, discrimination by current can be
applied only where there is appreciable impedance between the two circuit breakers
concerned. It is because of the limitations imposed by the independent use of either time or
current co-ordination that the inverse time overcurrent relay characteristic has evolved. With
this characteristic, the time of operation is inversely proportional to the fault current level and
the actual characteristic is a function of both ‗time‘ and 'current' settings. Figure (3-16)
illustrates the characteristics of two relays given different current/time settings. For a large
variation in fault current between the two ends of the feeder, faster operating times can be
achieved by the relays nearest to the source, where the fault level is the highest. The
disadvantages of grading by time or current alone are overcome. The selection of overcurrent
relay characteristics generally starts with selection of the correct characteristic to be used for
each relay, followed by choice of the relay current settings. Finally the grading margins and
hence time settings of the relays are determined. An iterative procedure is often required to
resolve conflicts, and may involve use of non-optimal characteristics, current or time grading
settings.

35
Figure (3-16) Relay characteristics for different settings

36
CHAPTER FOUR

CASE STUDY

37
4.1 ETAP
ETAP stands for Electrical Transient and Analysis Program (software program for electrical
engineers)
Founded in 1986, Operation Technology, Inc. / ETAP is the designer and developer of the
ETAP software, ETAP is headquartered in Irvine, California, USA.
According to its manufacturer, ―ETAP offers a suite of fully integrated Electrical Engineering
software solutions including arc flash, load flow, short circuit, transient stability, relay
coordination, cable ampacity, optimal power flow, and more. Its modular functionality can be
customized to fit the needs of any company, from small to large power systems.‖
―ETAP is the most comprehensive analysis software for the design, simulation, operation,
monitoring, control, optimization, and automation of power systems‖. ETAP is the industry
leader used worldwide in all types and sizes of power systems, including generation,
transmission, distribution, and industrial systems such as oil and gas, manufacturing, steel,
cement, mining, data centers, nuclear facilities, transportation, smart grid solutions, renewable
energy, and more.‖
4.1.1 ETAP applications
Engineers, operators, and managers put their trust in ETAP. ETAP has become the de facto
standard for power system analysis for all types and sizes of electrical industries.
4.1.1.1 Transmission

ETAP has gained significant market share in the T&D sector by offering industry specific

solutions to increase the reliability, stability, flexibility, & energy delivery capabilities of their
power network.

Figure (4-1) ETAP application to distribution systems

38
 Figure (4-2) ETAP application to transmission systems
4.1.1.2 Generation
ETAP is the leading power system analysis platform for the power generation industry. In
fact, 42% of the leading generation plants have standardized on ETAP to enable them provide
reliable, clean, & cost effective power to their customers.

+
Figure (4-3) ETAP application to generation systems
4.1.1.3 Transportation
Transportation engineers use ETAP to design & maintain electrical systems for critical mass

transit networks, as well as major terminals such as airports & seaports.

39
 Figure (4-4) ETAP application to transportation systems
4.1.1.4 Education
Colleges and universities use ETAP to teach students in electrical engineering to design,
model, & analyze electrical power systems. ETAP offers an educational software package for
instructors, university computer labs, & students.
4.1.2 ETAP features
ETAP is a suite of fully integrated electrical engineering software that provides engineers,

operators, and managers a platform for continuous functionality from modeling to operation.

4.1.2.1 Modeling & Visualization

 One-Line Diagram
 Geographic Information Systems
 Feeder & Substation Views
4.1.2.2 Analysis & Optimization
 Network Analysis
 Dynamic & Transients
 Cable Systems
 Power Quality
4.1.2.3 Protection & Coordination
Fully integrated Protective Device Coordination software for steady-state and dynamic device
coordination, protection, and testing. ETAP provides intelligent tools and powerful
capabilities to analyze system protection and troubleshoot false trips, relay and breaker mis
operation, mis-coordination, and more.
 Protective Device Coordination – Star™
 Auto Protection & Coordination Evaluation

41
  Distance Relay Coordination – StarZ™
 Sequence-of-Operation
 Protective Device Library
 Selectivity Zone Detection
4.1.2.4 Benefits
 Enables system engineers to easily & efficiently perform Protective device
coordination studies
 Provide an accurate & realistic operating characteristic, Time, & state of protective
devices
 Offers insight into troubleshooting false trips, relay misoperation, & mis-
coordination
4.2 KUKU Substation
Operation of kuku substation was commenced in 1980th. Kuku substation lies on the east side
of Khartoum Bahri city, belonging currently to the Sudanese transmission company.
Represent significant part of the 110 kV ring that dedicated to serve Khartoum area loads.
Also the 110 kV known as the internal ring of Khartoum

4.2.1 Capacity

Kuku substation comprises of three windings three phase three power transformers. The
capacity of each one is 30 MVA, 110 kv Primary 33 kv secondary and 11 kv tertiary sides
but, the 11kv line is currently not active. it is connected through two lines of 110 kv to both
Bahri thermal station and kilo ashara . as port of the ring, and serve Khartoum east station
through two lines of 110 kv .

It provides the load area with feeders of 33 kV as follow

Algadesia 1&2

Awad jabour 1&2

Almoled-saad geshra
Shandi bus station
Albahar 1&2
The Sudanese holding company line
Auxiliary for the substation it self
4.2.2 Busbar arrangements

41
Double bus bar – single breaker with bus coupler scheme each bus bar is aluminum conductor
800mm double per phase
4.2.3 Nature of the load
Residential load represent 80% of total load capacity of kuku substation. Kuku substation
serve the following residential areas. Helat kuku – alteriaph east and west – Alhaj yousif and
kaforie . And also serve Um dawan ban and soba east as a backup in case of Eid babekir
station failed.
Kobar Industrial area takes about 10% of kuku station capacity and the other 10% dedicated
to Aselait south agriculture project
4.2.4 Protection employed
 Line protection
Distance protection as primary protection and over current and earth fault as a backup
protection except for Khartoum east line which is short there for differential protection is used
instead of distance protection.

 Busbar protection

Busbar protection and breaker failure

 Transformer protection

Main protection is differential – mechanical protection – Buchholtz - pressure relief –

temperature detector for – oil level backup protection – over current and earth fault protection
 4.3 Create a user guide and perform ETAP Star™
 Creating new project using ETAP

42
 1

Figure (4-5) Creating new project using ETAP

 Draw a single line diagram of kuku substation

Figure (4-6) draw a single line diagram of kuku substation

43
 Figure (4-7) complete a single line diagram of kuku substation
 calculating the short circuit current in each breaker and in the bus tie

Figure (4-8) calculating the short circuit current in each breaker and in the bus tie

44
 Setting CTs in the feeders

Figure (4-9) Setting CTs in the feeders

45
 Setting the relay in the furthest point in the feeder to operate instantaneous (0 s)
during faults

Figure (4-10) Setting the relay in the furthest point in the feeder to operate instantaneous
during faults

46
 The relay output to the breaker

Figure (4-11) the relay output to the breaker

47
Figure (4-12) overcurrent relay characteristics

48
 Setting the CT in the primary side of the transformer

Figure (4-13) Setting the CT in the primary side of the transformer

49
 Setting the bus tie breaker to open in a time delay

Figure (4-14) Setting the bus tie breaker to open in a time delay

51
 Setting the CT in the secondary side of the transformer

Figure (4-15) Setting the CT in the secondary side of the transformer

51
 Setting the relay in the secondary side of the transformer

Figure (4-16) Setting the relay in the secondary side of the transformer

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‫‪ /7‬ضبط محول التيار و الرايلي جانب االبتدائي في المحول‬

‫‪53‬‬
‫الرايلي‬

‫خرج الرايلي‬

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‫‪/‬ضبط المفتاح المين‬

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 CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUTION AND

RECOMMENDATIONS

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 5. Chapter five
5.1. Conclusion
Protective device coordination using ETAP software gives the most accurate results which
implies that it is the best program for studying and setting relay coordination
Through the use of relay time grading with ETAP we were able to build a reliable relying
system that decreased the fault durations and fault extension along with the best selectivity
options
The coordination between main protection and backup protection using overcurrent relays
were successfully achieved
5.2. Recommendations
We recommend that protective device coordination using ETAP must be applied to all
substations using state of the art in ETAP features that‘s Automated Protection &
Coordination Design that provides automatic detection and evaluation of system protection
and coordination / selectivity based on customized design criteria and industry guidelines.
Also research facilities and universities in Sudan should be provided with electrical
laboratories to do an experimental scenarios before applying ETAP coordination setting to
real world to check for errors and miscalculation

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REFERENCES
[1] Y.G. Paithankar and S.R. Bhide ―Fundamentals of power system protection‖ Prentice-
Hall of lndia Private Limited, New Delhi. 2003
[2] Juan M. Gers and Edward J. Holmes ―Protection of Electricity Distribution Networks- 2nd
Edition‖ The Institution of Electrical Engineers, London, United Kingdom
[3] Principles of Power System V.K. Mehta and Rohit Mehta Published by S. Chand
Publisher, 2006
[4] Acharya Sandesh, Shrestha Ravi, Nishchal Tamang, Jha Shailendra Kumar Res. J.
Engineering Sci., Volume 5, Issue (5), Pages 1-8, May, 26 (2016)
[5] Hima A. Patel, Vaibhav M. Sharma, Anuradha Deshpande , Relay Coordination using
ETAP, International Journal of Scientific & Engineering Research, Volume 6, Issue 5, May-
2015

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