UNIT I

Control Systems - Basics & Components

A control system is a system, which provides the desired response by controlling the output. The
following figure shows the simple block diagram of a control system.

Here, the control system is represented by a single block. Since, the output is controlled by varying
input, the control system got this name.
Examples − Traffic lights control system, washing machine etc.
Traffic lights control system is an example of control system. Here, a sequence of input signal is
applied to this control system and the output is one of the three lights that will be on for some duration
of time. During this time, the other two lights will be off. Based on the traffic study ata particular
junction, the on and off times of the lights can be determined. Accordingly, the input signal controls
the output. So, the traffic lights control system operates on time basis.
Classification of Control Systems
Based on some parameters, we can classify the control systems into the following ways.
Continuous time and Discrete-time Control Systems
 Control Systems can be classified as continuous time control systems and discrete time control
systems based on the type of the signal used.

 In continuous time control systems, all the signals are continuous in time. But, in discrete time
control systems, there exists one or more discrete time signals.

SISO and MIMO Control Systems

 Control Systems can be classified as SISO control systems and MIMO control systems based on
the number of inputs and output present.

 SISO (Single Input and Single Output) control systems have one input and one output. Whereas,
MIMO (Multiple Inputs and Multiple Outputs) control systems have more than one input and more
than one output.

Open Loop and Closed Loop Control Systems

Control Systems can be classified as open loop control systems and closed loop control systems based
on the feedback path.
In open loop control systems, output is not fed-back to the input. So, the control action is
independent of the desired output.
The following figure shows the block diagram of the open loop control system.

Here, an input is applied to a controller and it produces an actuating signal or controlling signal.This
signal is given as an input to a plant or process which is to be controlled. So, the plant produces an
output, which is controlled. The traffic lights control system which we discussed earlier is an example
of an open loop control system.
In closed loop control systems, output is fed back to the input. So, the control action is dependent
on the desired output.
The following figure shows the block diagram of negative feedback closed loop control system.

The error detector produces an error signal, which is the difference between the input and the feedback
signal. This feedback signal is obtained from the block (feedback elements) by considering the output
of the overall system as an input to this block. Instead of the direct input,the error signal is applied as
an input to a controller.
So, the controller produces an actuating signal which controls the plant. In this combination, theoutput
of the control system is adjusted automatically till we get the desired response. Hence,the closed
loop control systems are also called the automatic control systems. Traffic lights control system
having sensor at the input is an example of a closed loop control system.
The differences between the open loop and the closed loop control systems are mentioned in the
following table.

Open Loop Control Systems Closed Loop Control

Systems
Control action is independent of Control action is dependent of
the desired output. the desired output.
 Feedback path is not present. Feedback path is present.

These are also called as non- These are also called as

feedback control systems. feedback control systems.

Easy to design. Difficult to design.

These are economical. These are costlier.

Inaccurate. Accurate.

Control Systems - Feedback

If either the output or some part of the output is returned to the input side and utilized as part of the
system input, then it is known as feedback. Feedback plays an important role in order to improve the
performance of the control systems. In this chapter, let us discuss the types of feedback & effects of
feedback.
Types of Feedback
There are two types of feedback −

 Positive feedback
 Negative feedback

Positive Feedback
The positive feedback adds the reference input, R(s) and feedback output. The following figure shows
the block diagram of positive feedback control system.

The concept of transfer function will be discussed in later chapters. For the time being, consider the
transfer function of positive feedback control system is,

Where,

 T is the transfer function or overall gain of positive feedback control system.

 G is the open loop gain, which is function of frequency.
 H is the gain of feedback path, which is function of frequency.
Negative Feedback
Negative feedback reduces the error between the reference input, R(s) and system output. The
following figure shows the block diagram of the negative feedback control system.

Transfer function of negative feedback control system is,

Where,

 T is the transfer function or overall gain of negative feedback control system.

 G is the open loop gain, which is function of frequency.

 H is the gain of feedback path, which is function of frequency.
The derivation of the above transfer function is present in later chapters.
Effects of Feedback
Let us now understand the effects of feedback.
Effect of Feedback on Overall Gain
 From Equation 2, we can say that the overall gain of negative feedback closed loop control
system is the ratio of 'G' and (1+GH). So, the overall gain may increase or decrease depending on
the value of (1+GH).

 If the value of (1+GH) is less than 1, then the overall gain increases. In this case, 'GH' value is
negative because the gain of the feedback path is negative.

 If the value of (1+GH) is greater than 1, then the overall gain decreases. In this case, 'GH' value is
positive because the gain of the feedback path is positive.
In general, 'G' and 'H' are functions of frequency. So, the feedback will increase the overall gainof
the system in one frequency range and decrease in the other frequency range.
Effect of Feedback on Sensitivity
Sensitivity of the overall gain of negative feedback closed loop control system (T) to the
variation in open loop gain (G) is defined as

Where, ∂T is the incremental change in T due to incremental change in G.

We can rewrite Equation 3 as

Do partial differentiation with respect to G on both sides of Equation 2.

From Equation 2, you will get

Substitute Equation 5 and Equation 6 in Equation 4.

So, we got the sensitivity of the overall gain of closed loop control system as the reciprocal of
(1+GH). So, Sensitivity may increase or decrease depending on the value of (1+GH).

 If the value of (1+GH) is less than 1, then sensitivity increases. In this case, 'GH' value is negative
because the gain of feedback path is negative.

 If the value of (1+GH) is greater than 1, then sensitivity decreases. In this case, 'GH' value is
positive because the gain of feedback path is positive.
In general, 'G' and 'H' are functions of frequency. So, feedback will increase the sensitivity of the
system gain in one frequency range and decrease in the other frequency range. Therefore,we have
to choose the values of 'GH' in such a way that the system is insensitive or less sensitive to parameter
variations.
Effect of Feedback on Stability
 A system is said to be stable, if its output is under control. Otherwise, it is said to be unstable.

 In Equation 2, if the denominator value is zero (i.e., GH = -1), then the output of the control system
will be infinite. So, the control system becomes unstable.
Therefore, we have to properly choose the feedback in order to make the control system stable.
Effect of Feedback on Noise
To know the effect of feedback on noise, let us compare the transfer function relations with and
without feedback due to noise signal alone.
Consider an open loop control system with noise signal as shown below.
The open loop transfer function due to noise signal alone is

It is obtained by making the other input R(s) equal to zero.

Consider a closed loop control system with noise signal as shown below.

The closed loop transfer function due to noise signal alone is

It is obtained by making the other input R(s) equal to zero.Compare Equation 7 and Equation 8,
In the closed loop control system, the gain due to noise signal is decreased by a factorof
(1+GaGbH) provided that the term (1+GaGbH) is greater than one.

Control Systems - Mathematical Models

The control systems can be represented with a set of mathematical equations known as
mathematical model. These models are useful for analysis and design of control systems. Analysis
of control system means finding the output when we know the input and mathematical model. Design
of control system means finding the mathematical model when we know the input and the output.
The following mathematical models are mostly used.

 Differential equation model

 Transfer function model
 State space model
Let us discuss the first two models in this chapter.
Differential Equation Model
Differential equation model is a time domain mathematical model of control systems. Follow these
steps for differential equation model.

 Apply basic laws to the given control system.

 Get the differential equation in terms of input and output by eliminating the intermediate
variable(s).
Example
Consider the following electrical system as shown in the following figure. This circuit consists of
resistor, inductor and capacitor. All these electrical elements are connected in series. The input
voltage applied to this circuit is vi and the voltage across the capacitor is the output voltage vo.

Mesh equation for this circuit is

Transfer Function Model
Transfer function model is an s-domain mathematical model of control systems. The Transfer
function of a Linear Time Invariant (LTI) system is defined as the ratio of Laplace transform ofoutput
and Laplace transform of input by assuming all the initial conditions are zero.
If x(t) and y(t) are the input and output of an LTI system, then the corresponding Laplace transforms
are X(s) and Y(s).
Therefore, the transfer function of LTI system is equal to the ratio of Y(s) and X(s).i.e., Transfer
Function=Y(s)/X(s)
The transfer function model of an LTI system is shown in the following figure.

Here, we represented an LTI system with a block having transfer function inside it. And this block
has an input X(s) & output Y(s).

Modelling of Mechanical Systems

In this chapter, let us discuss the differential equation modeling of mechanical systems. There are
two types of mechanical systems based on the type of motion.

 Translational mechanical systems

 Rotational mechanical systems

Modeling of Translational Mechanical Systems

Translational mechanical systems move along a straight line. These systems mainly consist of three
basic elements. Those are mass, spring and dashpot or damper.
If a force is applied to a translational mechanical system, then it is opposed by opposing forces due
to mass, elasticity and friction of the system. Since the applied force and the opposing forces are in
opposite directions, the algebraic sum of the forces acting on the system is zero. Let us now see the
force opposed by these three elements individually.
Mass
Mass is the property of a body, which stores kinetic energy. If a force is applied on a body having
mass M, then it is opposed by an opposing force due to mass. This opposing force is proportional to
the acceleration of the body. Assume elasticity and friction are negligible.
F=M𝖺
𝑑2 𝑥
𝐹𝑚 = 𝑀𝑎 = 𝑀 𝑑𝑡 2 , where

 F is the applied force

 Fm is the opposing force due to mass

 M is mass
 a is acceleration
 x is displacement
Spring
Spring is an element, which stores potential energy. If a force is applied on spring K, then it is
opposed by an opposing force due to elasticity of spring. This opposing force is proportional to the
displacement of the spring. Assume mass and friction are negligible.

⇒Fk=Kx, F=Fk=Kx
Where,

 F is the applied force

 Fk is the opposing force due to elasticity of spring

 K is spring constant
 x is displacement
Dashpot
If a force is applied on dashpot B, then it is opposed by an opposing force due to friction of the
dashpot. This opposing force is proportional to the velocity of the body. Assume mass and elasticity
are negligible.

Fb𝖺ν
⇒Fb=Bν=Bdx/dt, F=Fb=Bdx/dt Where,

 Fb is the opposing force due to friction of dashpot

 B is the frictional coefficient

 v is velocity

 x is displacement

Then 𝑭 = 𝑭𝒎 + 𝑭𝒌+Fb

𝑑2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝐹 =𝑀 2 +𝐵 + 𝑘𝑥
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

Modeling of Rotational Mechanical Systems

Rotational mechanical systems move about a fixed axis. These systems mainly consist of three basic
elements. Those are moment of inertia, torsional spring and dashpot.
If a torque is applied to a rotational mechanical system, then it is opposed by opposing torques due
to moment of inertia, elasticity and friction of the system. Since the applied torque and the opposing
torques are in opposite directions, the algebraic sum of torques acting on the system is zero. Let us
now see the torque opposed by these three elements individually.
Moment of Inertia
In translational mechanical system, mass stores kinetic energy. Similarly, in rotational mechanical
system, moment of inertia stores kinetic energy.
If a torque is applied on a body having moment of inertia J, then it is opposed by an opposing torque
due to the moment of inertia. This opposing torque is proportional to angular acceleration of the
body. Assume elasticity and friction are negligible.
⇒Tj=Jα=Jd2/θdt2 T=Tj=Jd2/θdt2 Where,

 T is the applied torque

 Tj is the opposing torque due to moment of inertia

 J is moment of inertia
 α is angular acceleration
 θ is angular displacement
Torsional Spring
In translational mechanical system, spring stores potential energy. Similarly, in rotational mechanical
system, torsional spring stores potential energy.
If a torque is applied on torsional spring K, then it is opposed by an opposing torque due to the
elasticity of torsional spring. This opposing torque is proportional to the angular displacementof
the torsional spring. Assume that the moment of inertia and friction are negligible.

⇒Tk=Kθ T=Tk=Kθ
Where,
 T is the applied torque

 Tk is the opposing torque due to elasticity of torsional spring

 K is the torsional spring constant

 θ is angular displacement
Dashpot
If a torque is applied on dashpot B, then it is opposed by an opposing torque due to the
rotational friction of the dashpot. This opposing torque is proportional to the angular velocity of the
body. Assume the moment of inertia and elasticity are negligible.

⇒Tb=Bω=Bdθ/dtT=Tb=Bdθ/dt Where,

 Tb is the opposing torque due to the rotational friction of the dashpot

 B is the rotational friction coefficient

 ω is the angular velocity
 θ is the angular displacement
𝑑2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
Hence 𝑇 = 𝐽 𝑑𝑡 2 + 𝐵 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑘𝜃

Electrical Analogies of Mechanical Systems

Two systems are said to be analogous to each other if the following two conditions aresatisfied.

 The two systems are physically different

 Differential equation modelling of these two systems are same
Electrical systems and mechanical systems are two physically different systems. There are two types
of electrical analogies of translational mechanical systems. Those are force voltage analogy and force
current analogy.
Force Voltage Analogy
In force voltage analogy, the mathematical equations of translational mechanical system are
compared with mesh equations of the electrical system.
Consider the following translational mechanical system as shown in the following figure.
The force balanced equation for this system is

𝑭 = 𝑭𝒎 + 𝑭𝒌+Fb
𝑑2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝐹 = 𝑀 𝑑𝑡 2 + 𝐵 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑘𝑥 (Equation 1)
Consider the following electrical system as shown in the following figure. This circuit consists of a
resistor, an inductor and a capacitor. All these electrical elements are connected in a series. The input
voltage applied to this circuit is V volts and the current flowing through the circuitis i Amps.

Mesh equation for this circuit is

𝑑𝑖 1
𝑉 = 𝑅𝑖 + 𝐿 𝑑𝑡 + 𝐶 ∫ 𝑖 𝑑𝑡 (Equation 2)

𝑑𝑞
Substitute, 𝑖 = in Equation 2 we get,
𝑑𝑡
𝑑2 𝑞 𝑑𝑞 1
𝑉 = 𝐿 𝑑𝑡 2 + 𝑅 𝑑𝑡 + 𝐶 𝑞 (Equation 3)

By comparing Equation 1 and Equation 3, we will get the analogous quantities of the translational
mechanical system and electrical system. The following table shows these analogous quantities.

Translational Mechanical Electrical System

System
Force(F) Voltage(V)

Mass(M) Inductance(L)

Frictional Coefficient(B) Resistance(R)

Spring Constant(K) Reciprocal of Capacitance

(1/C)
 Displacement(x) Charge(q)

Velocity(v) Current(i)

Similarly, there is torque voltage analogy for rotational mechanical systems. Let us now discussabout
this analogy.
Torque Voltage Analogy
In this analogy, the mathematical equations of rotational mechanical system are comparedwith
mesh equations of the electrical system.
Rotational mechanical system is shown in the following figure.

The torque balanced equation is

𝑑2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝑇 = 𝐽 𝑑𝑡 2 + 𝐵 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑘𝜃 (Equation 4)

By comparing Equation 4 and Equation 3, we will get the analogous quantities of rotational
mechanical system and electrical system. The following table shows these analogous quantities.

Rotational Mechanical Electrical System

System
Torque (T) Voltage (V)

Moment of Inertia (J) Inductance (L)

Rotational friction coefficient (B) Resistance (R)

Torsional spring constant (K) Reciprocal of Capacitance

(1/C)
Angular Displacement (θ) Charge (q)

Angular Velocity (ω) Current (i)

Force Current Analogy
In force current analogy, the mathematical equations of the translational mechanical system are
compared with the nodal equations of the electrical system.
Consider the following electrical system as shown in the following figure. This circuit consists of
current source, resistor, inductor and capacitor. All these electrical elements are connected in parallel.

The nodal equation is

By comparing Equation 1 and Equation 6, we will get the analogous quantities of the translational
mechanical system and electrical system. The following table shows these analogous quantities.

Translational Mechanical System Electrical System

Force (F) Current (i)

Mass (M) Capacitance (C)

Frictional coefficient (B) Reciprocal of Resistance

(1/R)
Spring constant (K) Reciprocal of Inductance
(1/L)
Displacement (x) Magnetic Flux (ψ)
 Velocity (v) Voltage (V)

Similarly, there is a torque current analogy for rotational mechanical systems. Let us now
discuss this analogy.
Torque Current Analogy
In this analogy, the mathematical equations of the rotational mechanical system are comparedwith
the nodal mesh equations of the electrical system.
By comparing Equation 4 and Equation 6, we will get the analogous quantities of rotational
mechanical system and electrical system. The following table shows these analogous quantities.

Rotational Mechanical Electrical System

System
Torque (T) Current (i)

Moment of inertia (J) Capacitance (C)

Rotational friction coefficient (B) Reciprocal of Resistance

(1/R)
Torsional spring constant (K) Reciprocal of Inductance
(1/L)
Angular displacement (θ) Magnetic flux (ψ)

Angular velocity (ω) Voltage (V)

In this chapter, we discussed the electrical analogies of the mechanical systems. These analogiesare
helpful to study and analyze the non-electrical system like mechanical system from analogous
electrical system.
Block Diagram
Block diagrams consist of a single block or a combination of blocks. These are used to representthe
control systems in pictorial form.
Basic Elements of Block Diagram
The basic elements of a block diagram are a block, the summing point and the take-off point. Let us
consider the block diagram of a closed loop control system as shown in the following figure to identify
these elements.

The above block diagram consists of two blocks having transfer functions G(s) and H(s). It is also
having one summing point and one take-off point. Arrows indicate the direction of the flowof signals.
Let us now discuss these elements one by one.
Block - The transfer function of a component is represented by a block. Block has single input and
single output.
The following figure shows a block having input X(s), output Y(s) and the transfer function G(s).

Transfer Function, G(s) = Y(s)X(s)

⇒Y(s)=G(s)X(s)
Output of the block is obtained by multiplying transfer function of the block with input.
Summing Point - The summing point is represented with a circle having cross (X) inside it. It has two
or more inputs and single output. It produces the algebraic sum of the inputs. It also performs the
summation or subtraction or combination of summation and subtraction of the inputs based on the
polarity of the inputs. Let us see these three operations one by one.
The following figure shows the summing point with two inputs (A, B) and one output (Y). Here, the
inputs A and B have a positive sign. So, the summing point produces the output, Y as sum of A
and B.
i.e., Y = A + B.
The following figure shows the summing point with two inputs (A, B) and one output (Y). Here, the
inputs A and B are having opposite signs, i.e., A is having positive sign and B is having negative sign.
So, the summing point produces the output Y as the difference of A and B.
Y = A + (-B) = A - B.

The following figure shows the summing point with three inputs (A, B, C) and one output (Y). Here,
the inputs A and B are having positive signs and C is having a negative sign. So, the summing point
produces the output Y as
Y = A + B + (−C) = A + B − C.

Take-off Point - The take-off point is a point from which the same input signal can be passed through
more than one branch. That means with the help of take-off point, we can apply the same input to one
or more blocks, summing points.
In the following figure, the take-off point is used to connect the same input, R(s) to two more blocks.

In the following figure, the take-off point is used to connect the output C(s), as one of the inputsto
the summing point.
Follow these rules for simplifying (reducing) the block diagram, which is having many blocks,
summing points and take-off points.
 Rule 1 − Check for the blocks connected in series and simplify.

 Rule 2 − Check for the blocks connected in parallel and simplify.

 Rule 3 − Check for the blocks connected in feedback loop and simplify.

 Rule 4 − If there is difficulty with take-off point while simplifying, shift it towards right.
 Rule 5 − If there is difficulty with summing point while simplifying, shift it towards left.
 Rule 6 − Repeat the above steps till you get the simplified form, i.e., single block.
Note − The transfer function present in this single block is the transfer function of the overallblock
diagram.
Example
Consider the block diagram shown in the following figure. Let us simplify (reduce) this block
diagram using the block diagram reduction rules.

Step 1 − Use Rule 1 for blocks G1 and G2. Use Rule 2 for blocks G3 and G4. The modified
block diagram is shown in the following figure.

Step 2 − Use Rule 3 for blocks G1G2 and H1. Use Rule 4 for shifting take-off point after the
block G5. The modified block diagram is shown in the following figure.
Step 3 − Use Rule 1 for blocks (G3+G4) and G5. The modified block diagram is shown in the
following figure.

Step 4 − Use Rule 3 for blocks (G3+G4)G5 and H3. The modified block diagram is shown in the
following figure.

Step 5 − Use Rule 1 for blocks connected in series. The modified block diagram is shown in the
following figure.

Step 6 − Use Rule 3 for blocks connected in feedback loop. The modified block diagram is
shown in the following figure. This is the simplified block diagram.
Therefore, the transfer function of the system is
Y(s)R(s)=G1G2G25(G3+G4)/(1+G1G2H1){1+(G3+G4)G5H3}G5−G1G2G5(G3+G4)H2

Note − Follow these steps in order to calculate the transfer function of the block diagram having
multiple inputs.

 Step 1 − Find the transfer function of block diagram by considering one input at a time and make
the remaining inputs as zero.

 Step 2 − Repeat step 1 for remaining inputs.

 Step 3 − Get the overall transfer function by adding all those transfer functions.
The block diagram reduction process takes more time for complicated systems. Because, we have to
draw the (partially simplified) block diagram after each step. So, to overcome this drawback, use
signal flow graphs (representation).
Signal Flow Graphs
Signal flow graph is a graphical representation of algebraic equations. In this chapter, let us discuss
the basic concepts related signal flow graph and also learn how to draw signal flow graphs.
Basic Elements of Signal Flow Graph
Nodes and branches are the basic elements of signal flow graph.
Node - Node is a point which represents either a variable or a signal. There are three types of nodes
input node, output node and mixed node.
 Input Node − It is a node, which has only outgoing branches.

 Output Node − It is a node, which has only incoming branches.

 Mixed Node − It is a node, which has both incoming and outgoing branches.
Example
Let us consider the following signal flow graph to identify these nodes.

 The nodes present in this signal flow graph are y1, y2, y3 and y4.

 y1 and y4 are the input node and output node respectively.

 y2 and y3 are mixed nodes.

Branch - Branch is a line segment which joins two nodes. It has both gain and direction. For example,
there are four branches in the above signal flow graph. These branches have gains of a, b,c and
-d.

Construction of Signal Flow Graph

Let us construct a signal flow graph by considering the following algebraic equations −
y2=a12y1+a42y4
y3=a23y2+a53y5
y4=a34y3
y5=a45y4+a35y3
y6=a56y5
There will be six nodes (y1, y2, y3, y4, y5 and y6) and eight branches in this signal flow graph.
The gains of the branches are a12, a23, a34, a45, a56, a42, a53 and a35.
To get the overall signal flow graph, draw the signal flow graph for each equation, thencombine all
these signal flow graphs and then follow the steps given below −
Step 1 − Signal flow graph for y2=a13y1+a42y4 is shown in the following figure.

Step 2 − Signal flow graph for y3=a23y2+a53y5 is shown in the following figure.

Step 3 − Signal flow graph for y4=a34y3 is shown in the following figure.

Step 4 − Signal flow graph for y5=a45y4+a35y3 is shown in the following figur
 Step 5 − Signal flow graph for y6=a56y5 is shown in the following figure.

Step 6 − Signal flow graph of overall system is shown in the following figure.

Conversion of Block Diagrams into Signal Flow Graphs

Follow these steps for converting a block diagram into its equivalent signal flow graph.

 Represent all the signals, variables, summing points and take-off points of block diagram as
nodes in signal flow graph.

 Represent the blocks of block diagram as branches in signal flow graph.

 Represent the transfer functions inside the blocks of block diagram as gains of the branches in
signal flow graph.
 Connect the nodes as per the block diagram. If there is connection between two nodes (but there
is no block in between), then represent the gain of the branch as one. For example, between
summing points, between summing point and takeoff point, between input and summing point,
between take-off point and output.
Example
Let us convert the following block diagram into its equivalent signal flow graph.
Represent the input signal R(s) and output signal C(s) of block diagram as input node R(s) and output
node C(s) of signal flow graph.
Just for reference, the remaining nodes (y1 to y9) are labelled in the block diagram. There are nine
nodes other than input and output nodes. That is four nodes for four summing points, four nodes for
four take-off points and one node for the variable between blocks G1 and G2.
The following figure shows the equivalent signal flow graph.

With the help of Mason’s gain formula (discussed in the next chapter), you can calculate the transfer
function of this signal flow graph. This is the advantage of signal flow graphs. Here, we no need to
simplify (reduce) the signal flow graphs for calculating the transfer function.
Mason's Gain Formula
Let us now discuss the Mason’s Gain Formula. Suppose there are ‘N’ forward paths in a signal flow
graph. The gain between the input and the output nodes of a signal flow graph is nothing but the
transfer function of the system. It can be calculated by using Mason’s gain formula.
Mason’s gain formula is

T=C(s)/R(s)=Σ Ni = PkΔk/Δ
Where,

 C(s) is the output node

 R(s) is the input node
 T is the transfer function or gain between R(s) and C(s)
th
 Pk is the k forward path gain

Δ = 1− (sum of all individual loop gains) + (sum of gain products of all possible two-non-touching
loops) − (sum of gain products of all possible three non-touching loops) +...

Δk is obtained from Δ by removing the loops which are touching the kth forward path.
Consider the following signal flow graph in order to understand the basic terminology involvedhere.

Path - It is a traversal of branches from one node to any other node in the direction of branch arrows.
Itshould not traverse any node more than once.
Examples − y2→y3→y4→y5 and y5→y3→y2
Forward Path
The path that exists from the input node to the output node is known as forward path.
Examples − y1→y2→y3→y4→y5→y6 and y1→y2→y3→y5→y6.
Forward Path Gain
It is obtained by calculating the product of all branch gains of the forward path.
Examples − abcde is the forward path gain of y1→y2→y3→y4→y5→y6 and abge is the forward
path gain of y1→y2→y3→y5→y6.
Loop
The path that starts from one node and ends at the same node is known as loop. Hence, it is a
closed path.
Examples − y2→y3→y2 and y3→y5→y3.

Loop Gain
It is obtained by calculating the product of all branch gains of a loop.
Examples − bj is the loop gain of y2→y3→y2 and gh is the loop gain of y3→y5→y3.
Non-touching Loops
These are the loops, which should not have any common node.
Examples − The loops, y2→y3→y2 and y4→y5→y4 are non-touching. Calculation of Transfer
Function using Mason’s Gain Formula Let us consider the same signal flow graph for finding transfer
function.
 Number of forward paths, N = 2.
 First forward path is - y1→y2→y3→y4→y5→y6.
 First forward path gain, p1=abcde.
 Second forward path is - y1→y2→y3→y5→y6.
 Second forward path gain, p2=abge.
 Number of individual loops, L = 5.
 Loops are - y2→y3→y2, y3→y5→y3, y3→y4→y5→y3, y4→y5→y4and y5→y5.
 Loop gains are - l1=bj, l2=gh, l3=cdh, l4=di and l5=f.
 Number of two non-touching loops = 2.

 First non-touching loops pair is - y2→y3→y2, y4→y5→y4.

 Gain product of first non-touching loops pair, l1l4=bjdi
 Second non-touching loops pair is - y2→y3→y2, y5→y5.
 Gain product of second non-touching loops pair is - l1l5=bjf
Higher number of (more than two) non-touching loops are not present in this signal flow graph.We
know,

Δ = 1− (sum of all individual loop gains) + (sum of gain products of all possible two-non-touching
loops) − (sum of gain products of all possible three non-touching loops) +... Substitute the values
in the above equation,
Δ = 1−(bj + gh + cdh + di + f) + (bjdi + bjf)
Δ1=1.
Similarly, Δ2=1.
T=C(s)/R(s) = Σ2i=1PiΔi/Δ T=C(s)/R(s)=P1Δ1+P2Δ2/Δ
Substitute all the necessary values in the above equation.
T=C(s)/R(s)=(abcde)*1+(abge)*1/(1−(bj+gh+cdh+di+f)+bjdi+bjf)
Therefore, the transfer function is -
T=C(s)/R(s)=(abcde)+(abge)/(1−(bj+gh+cdh+di+f)+bjdi+bjf)