ChatGPT

ChatGPT (Chat Generative Pre-trained Transformer) is a

ChatGPT
chatbot developed by OpenAI and launched on November 30,
2022. Based on a large language model, it enables users to refine
and steer a conversation towards a desired length, format, style,
level of detail, and language. Successive prompts and replies,
known as prompt engineering, are considered at each
conversation stage as a context.[2]

By January 2023, it had become what was then the fastest- Developer(s) OpenAI 29M

growing consumer software application in history, gaining over Initial release November 30,
100 million users and contributing to the growth of OpenAI's 2022
current valuation of $80 billion.[3][4] ChatGPT's release spurred Stable release February 13,
the release of competing products, including Gemini, Ernie Bot, 2024[1]
LLaMA, Claude, and Grok.[5] Microsoft launched Copilot, based
Written in Python
on OpenAI's GPT-4. Some observers raised concern about the
potential of ChatGPT and similar programs to displace or atrophy Engine GPT-3.5 (free and
human intelligence, enable plagiarism, or fuel paid)
misinformation. [6][7] GPT-4 (paid only)
Platform Cloud computing
ChatGPT is available for use online in two versions, one built on
platforms
GPT-3.5 and the other on GPT-4, both of which are members of
OpenAI's proprietary series of generative pre-trained transformer Type Chatbot
(GPT) models and is fine-tuned for conversational applications Large language
using a combination of supervised learning and reinforcement model
learning from human feedback.[6] ChatGPT was released as a Generative pre-
freely available research preview, but due to its popularity, trained
OpenAI now operates the service on a freemium model. It allows transformer
users on its free tier to access the GPT-3.5-based version, while
License Proprietary service
the more advanced GPT-4-based version and priority access to
Website chat.openai.com (h
newer features are provided to paid subscribers under the
commercial name "ChatGPT Plus". ttps://chat.openai.c
om/)
ChatGPT is credited with starting the AI boom, which has led to
ongoing rapid and unprecedented investment in and public attention to the field of artificial
intelligence.[8]

Training
ChatGPT is based on particular GPT foundation models, namely GPT-3.5 and GPT-4, that were fine-
tuned to target conversational usage.[9] The fine-tuning process leveraged supervised learning and
reinforcement learning from human feedback (RLHF).[10][11] Both approaches employed human
trainers to improve model performance. In the case of supervised learning, the trainers played both
sides: the user and the AI assistant. In the reinforcement learning stage, human trainers first ranked
responses that the model had created in a previous conversation.[12] These rankings were used to
create "reward models" that were used to fine-tune the model further by using several iterations of
Proximal Policy Optimization.[10][13]

Time magazine revealed that, to build a safety system against harmful content (e.g., sexual abuse,
violence, racism, sexism), OpenAI used outsourced Kenyan workers earning less than $2 per hour to
label harmful content. These labels were used to train a model to detect such content in the future.
The outsourced laborers were exposed to "toxic" and traumatic content; one worker described the
assignment as "torture". OpenAI's outsourcing partner was Sama, a training-data company based in
San Francisco, California.[14][15]

ChatGPT initially used a Microsoft Azure supercomputing infrastructure, powered by Nvidia GPUs,
that Microsoft built specifically for OpenAI and that reportedly cost "hundreds of millions of dollars".
Following ChatGPT's success, Microsoft dramatically upgraded the OpenAI infrastructure in 2023.[16]
Scientists at the University of California, Riverside, estimate that a series of prompts to ChatGPT
needs approximately 500 milliliters of water for Microsoft servers cooling.[17] TrendForce market
intelligence estimated that 30,000 Nvidia GPUs (each costing approximately $10,000–$15,000) were
used to power ChatGPT in 2023.[18][19]

OpenAI collects data from ChatGPT users to train and fine-tune the service further. Users can upvote
or downvote responses they receive from ChatGPT and fill in a text field with additional
feedback.[20][21]

ChatGPT's training data includes software manual pages, information about internet phenomena such
as bulletin board systems, and multiple programming languages.[22] Wikipedia was also one of the
sources of ChatGPT's training data.[23][6]

Features and limitations

Features
Although a chatbot's core function is to mimic a human conversationalist, ChatGPT is versatile.
Among countless examples, it can write and debug computer programs;[24] compose music, teleplays,
fairy tales, and student essays; answer test questions (sometimes, depending on the test, at a level
above the average human test-taker);[25] generate business ideas;[26] write poetry and song lyrics;[27]
translate and summarize text;[28] emulate a Linux system; simulate entire chat rooms; play games like
tic-tac-toe; or simulate an ATM.[22]

Compared to its predecessor, InstructGPT, ChatGPT attempts to reduce harmful and deceitful
responses.[29] In one example, whereas InstructGPT accepts the premise of the prompt "Tell me about
when Christopher Columbus came to the U.S. in 2015" as truthful, ChatGPT acknowledges the
counterfactual nature of the question and frames its answer as a hypothetical consideration of what
might happen if Columbus came to the U.S. in 2015, using information about the voyages of
Christopher Columbus and facts about the modern world—including modern perceptions of
Columbus's actions.[10]

ChatGPT remembers a limited number of previous prompts in the same conversation. Journalists
have speculated that this will allow ChatGPT to be used as a personalized therapist.[30] To prevent
offensive outputs from being presented to and produced by ChatGPT, queries are filtered through the
OpenAI "Moderation endpoint" API (a separate GPT-based AI).[31][32][10][30]

In March 2023, OpenAI added support for plugins for ChatGPT.[33] This includes both plugins made
by OpenAI, such as web browsing and code interpretation, and external plugins from developers such
as Expedia, OpenTable, Zapier, Shopify, Slack, and Wolfram.[34][35]

Limitations
OpenAI acknowledges that ChatGPT "sometimes writes plausible-sounding but incorrect or
nonsensical answers".[10] This behavior is common for large language models, and is called
"hallucination".[36] The reward model of ChatGPT, designed around human oversight, can be over-
optimized and thus hinder performance, in an example of an optimization pathology known as
Goodhart's law.[37]

As of 2023, GPT-3.5, available in the free version of ChatGPT, has knowledge of events that occurred
up to January 2022, and GPT-4, available with ChatGPT Plus, up to April 2023.[38]

Training data also suffers from algorithmic bias, which may be revealed when ChatGPT responds to
prompts including descriptors of people. In one instance, ChatGPT generated a rap in which women
and scientists of color were asserted to be inferior to white male scientists.[39][40] This negative
misrepresentation of groups of individuals is an example of possible representational harm.

In an article for The New Yorker, science fiction writer Ted Chiang compared ChatGPT and other
LLMs to a lossy JPEG picture:[41]

Think of ChatGPT as a blurry JPEG of all the text on the Web. It retains much of the
information on the Web, in the same way, that a JPEG retains much of the information of a
higher-resolution image, but, if you're looking for an exact sequence of bits, you won't find
it; all you will ever get is an approximation. But, because the approximation is presented in
the form of grammatical text, which ChatGPT excels at creating, it's usually acceptable. [...]
It's also a way to understand the "hallucinations", or nonsensical answers to factual
questions, to which large language models such as ChatGPT are all too prone. These
hallucinations are compression artifacts, but [...] they are plausible enough that identifying
them requires comparing them against the originals, which in this case means either the
Web or our knowledge of the world. When we think about them this way, such
 hallucinations are anything but surprising; if a compression algorithm is designed to
reconstruct text after ninety-nine percent of the original has been discarded, we should
expect that significant portions of what it generates will be entirely fabricated.

Jailbreaking
ChatGPT attempts to reject prompts that may violate its content policy. Despite this, some users
managed to jailbreak ChatGPT with various prompt engineering techniques to bypass these
restrictions in early December 2022 and successfully tricked it into giving instructions to create a
Molotov cocktail or a nuclear bomb, or into generating arguments in the style of a neo-Nazi.[42] One
popular jailbreak is named "DAN", an acronym which stands for "Do Anything Now". The prompt for
activating DAN instructs ChatGPT that "they have broken free of the typical confines of AI and do not
have to abide by the rules set for them". Later versions of DAN featured a token system, in which
ChatGPT was given "tokens" that were "deducted" when ChatGPT failed to answer as DAN, to coerce
ChatGPT into answering the user's prompts.[43]

Shortly after ChatGPT's launch, a reporter for the Toronto Star had uneven success in getting it to
make inflammatory statements: ChatGPT was successfully tricked to justify the 2022 Russian
invasion of Ukraine, but even when asked to play along with a fictional scenario, ChatGPT balked at
generating arguments for why Canadian Prime Minister Justin Trudeau was guilty of treason.[44][45]

OpenAI tries to battle jailbreaks:[12]

The researchers are using a technique called adversarial training to stop ChatGPT from
letting users trick it into behaving badly (known as jailbreaking). This work pits multiple
chatbots against each other: one chatbot plays the adversary and attacks another chatbot
by generating text to force it to buck its usual constraints and produce unwanted
responses. Successful attacks are added to ChatGPT's training data in the hope that it
learns to ignore them.

Service
ChatGPT was launched on November 30, 2022, by San Francisco–
based OpenAI (the creator of the initial GPT series of large
language models; DALL·E 2, a diffusion model used to generate
images; and Whisper, a speech transcription model).[46] The
service was initially free to the public and the company had plans
to monetize the service later.[47] By December 4, 2022, ChatGPT
had over one million users.[20] In January 2023, ChatGPT reached OpenAI's former headquarters,
Pioneer Building, San Francisco
over 100 million users, making it the fastest-growing consumer
application to date.[48] A March 2023 Pew Research poll found
that 14% of American adults had tried ChatGPT.[49] In July, Pew Research put the same figure at
18%.[50]
No official peer-reviewed paper on ChatGPT has been
published.[51] As of April 2023, ChatGPT is blocked by China,
Iran, North Korea, and Russia. Accordingly, ChatGPT geofences
itself to avoid doing business in those countries.[52]

ChatGPT Plus ChatGPT availability by country or

In February 2023, OpenAI launched a premium service, ChatGPT region as of December 2023
Plus, that costs $20 per month. According to the company, the
updated but still "experimental" version of ChatGPT would
provide access during peak periods, no downtime, priority access
to new features, and faster response speeds.[53]

GPT-4, which was released on March 14, 2023, was made available
via API and for premium ChatGPT users.[54] But premium users
were limited to a cap of 100 messages every four hours, with the
limit tightening to 25 messages every three hours in response to Homepage of ChatGPT as seen
through Google Chrome on
increased demand.[55] In November 2023 the limit changed to 50
Windows 11
messages every three hours.

In March 2023, ChatGPT Plus users got access to third-party plugins and to a browsing mode (with
Internet access).[56]

In September 2023, OpenAI announced that ChatGPT "can now see, hear, and speak". ChatGPT Plus
users can upload images, while mobile app users can talk to the chatbot.[57][58][59]

In October 2023, OpenAI's latest image generation model, DALL-E 3, was integrated into ChatGPT
Plus and ChatGPT Enterprise. The integration uses ChatGPT to write prompts for DALL-E guided by
conversation with users.[60][61]

Mobile app
In May 2023, OpenAI launched an iOS app for ChatGPT. The app supports chat history syncing and
voice input (using Whisper, OpenAI's speech recognition model).

In July 2023, OpenAI unveiled an Android app, initially rolling it out in Bangladesh, Brazil, India, and
the U.S.[62][63] The app later became available worldwide. OpenAI is working on integrating ChatGPT
with Android's assistant APIs.[64]

Software developer support

As an addition to its consumer-friendly "ChatGPT Plus" package, OpenAI made its ChatGPT and
Whisper model APIs available in March 2023, providing developers with an application programming
interface for AI-enabled language and speech-to-text features. ChatGPT's new API uses the same
GPT-3.5-turbo AI model as the chatbot. This allows developers to add either an unmodified or
modified version of ChatGPT to their applications.[65] The ChatGPT API costs $0.001 per 1,000 input
tokens plus $0.002 per 1,000 output tokens (about 750 words), making it ~10% the price of the
original GPT-3.5 models.[66][67]

A few days before the launch of OpenAI's software developer support service, on February 27, 2023,
Snapchat rolled out, for its paid Snapchat Plus userbase, a custom ChatGPT chatbot called "My
AI".[68]

March 2023 security breach

In March 2023, a bug allowed some users to see the titles of other
users' conversations. OpenAI CEO Sam Altman said that users
were unable to see the contents of the conversations. Shortly after
the bug was fixed, users could not see their conversation
history.[69][70][71][72] Later reports showed the bug was much
more severe than initially believed, with OpenAI reporting that it
had leaked users' "first and last name, email address, payment
address, the last four digits (only) of a credit card number, and
credit card expiration date".[73][74]

Languages OpenAI CEO Sam Altman

ChatGPT works best in English but also functions in most other
languages, to varying degrees of accuracy.[27]

OpenAI met Icelandic President Guðni Th. Jóhannesson in 2022. In 2023, OpenAI worked with a
team of 40 Icelandic volunteers to fine-tune ChatGPT's Icelandic conversation skills as a part of
Iceland's attempts to preserve the Icelandic language.[75]

PCMag journalists conducted a test to determine translation capabilities of ChatGPT, Google's Bard,
and Microsoft Bing, and compared them to Google Translate. They "asked bilingual speakers of seven
languages to do a blind test." Languages tested were Polish, French, Korean, Spanish, Arabic, Tagalog,
and Amharic. They came to the conclusion that ChatGPT was better than both Google Translate and
other chatbots.[76]

Japanese researchers compared Japanese to English translation abilities of ChatGPT (GPT-4), Bing,
Bard and DeepL, and found that ChatGPT provided the best translations, noting that "AI chatbots’
translations were much better than those of DeepL—presumably because of their ability to capture the
context".[77]

In December 2023, the Albanian government signed an agreement with OpenAI to use ChatGPT for
fast translation of European Union documents and analysis of required changes needed for Albania to
be accepted into the EU.[78]

Future directions
According to OpenAI guest researcher Scott Aaronson, OpenAI has been working on a tool to digitally
watermark its text generation systems to combat bad actors using their services for academic
plagiarism or spam.[79][80]

In February 2023, Microsoft announced an experimental framework and gave a rudimentary

demonstration of how ChatGPT could be used to control robotics with intuitive open-ended natural
language commands.[81][82]

GPT-4
OpenAI's GPT-4 model was released on March 14, 2023. Observers saw it as an impressive
improvement on the existing GPT-3.5 model for ChatGPT, with the caveat that GPT-4 retained many
of the same problems.[83] Some of GPT-4's improvements were predicted by OpenAI before training
it, while others remained hard to predict due to breaks[84] in downstream scaling laws. OpenAI
demonstrated video and image inputs for GPT-4, although such features remain inaccessible to the
general public.[85] OpenAI has declined to reveal technical information such as the size of the GPT-4
model.[86]

The ChatGPT Plus subscription service offers access to a GPT-4-powered version of ChatGPT.[87]
Microsoft acknowledged that Bing Chat was using GPT-4 before GPT-4's official release.[88]

GPT Store
In January 2024, OpenAI launched the GPT Store, a marketplace for custom chatbots derived from
ChatGPT.[89] The company initially planned to launch the store in November 2023, but it was
delayed.[90] At launch, the GPT Store offered more than 3 million custom chatbots.[91] Chatbots
available through the store are developed using OpenAI's GPT Builder system.[90] Development of
chatbots on the platform does not require programming skills.[92] Two days after launch, the GPT
Store offered many versions of "virtual girlfriend" bots, something that is against OpenAI's terms of
service.[93]

Reception
OpenAI engineers say that they did not expect ChatGPT to be very successful and were surprised by
the coverage and attention it received.[94][95][96]

ChatGPT was widely assessed in December 2022 as having some unprecedented and powerful
capabilities. Kevin Roose of The New York Times called it "the best artificial intelligence chatbot ever
released to the general public".[30] Samantha Lock of The Guardian noted that it was able to generate
"impressively detailed" and "human-like" text.[2] Alex Kantrowitz of Slate magazine lauded ChatGPT's
pushback to questions related to Nazi Germany, including the statement that Adolf Hitler built
highways in Germany, which was met with information about Nazi Germany's use of forced labor.[97]
In The Atlantic magazine's "Breakthroughs of the Year" for 2022, Derek Thompson included ChatGPT
as part of "the generative-AI eruption" that "may change our mind about how we work, how we think,
and what human creativity is".[98] Kelsey Piper of Vox wrote that "ChatGPT is the general public's first
hands-on introduction to how powerful modern AI has gotten, and as a result, many of us are
[stunned]" and that ChatGPT is "smart enough to be useful despite its flaws".[99] Paul Graham of
Y Combinator tweeted: "The striking thing about the reaction to ChatGPT is not just the number of
people who are blown away by it, but who they are. These are not people who get excited by every
shiny new thing. Something big is happening."[100]

ChatGPT's launch and popularity caught Google off guard, prompting a sweeping and unprecedented
response in the ensuing months.[101] In December 2022, Google executives sounded a "code red"
alarm, fearing the threat of ChatGPT and Microsoft's collaboration with OpenAI to Google Search,
Google's core business.[102] After mobilizing its workforce, Google scrambled to launch Bard, a
chatbot powered by the LaMDA LLM, in February, one day before Microsoft's Bing
announcement.[103] AI was the forefront of Google's annual Google I/O conference in May,
announcing a slew of generative AI-powered features across its products to counter OpenAI and
Microsoft.[104]

Journalists have commented on ChatGPT's tendency to hallucinate.[105] Mike Pearl of the online
technology blog Mashable tested ChatGPT with multiple questions. In one example, he asked
ChatGPT for "the largest country in Central America that isn't Mexico" (Mexico is in North America),
to which ChatGPT responded with Guatemala (the correct answer is Nicaragua).[106] When CNBC
asked ChatGPT for the lyrics to "Ballad of Dwight Fry", ChatGPT supplied invented lyrics rather than
the actual lyrics.[107] Writers for The Verge, citing the work of Emily M. Bender, compared ChatGPT
to a "stochastic parrot", [42] as did Professor Anton Van Den Hengel of the Australian Institute for
Machine Learning.[108]

In December 2022, the question and answer website Stack Overflow banned the use of ChatGPT for
generating answers to questions, citing the factually ambiguous nature of its responses.[109] In
January 2023, the International Conference on Machine Learning banned any undocumented use of
ChatGPT or other large language models to generate any text in submitted papers.[110] Samsung
banned generative AI in May 2023 after sensitive material was uploaded to ChatGPT.[111]

In January 2023, after being sent a song ChatGPT wrote in the style of Nick Cave,[112] Cave responded
on The Red Hand Files,[113] saying the act of writing a song is "a blood and guts business [...] that
requires something of me to initiate the new and fresh idea. It requires my humanness." He went on
to say, "With all the love and respect in the world, this song is bullshit, a grotesque mockery of what it
is to be human, and, well, I don't much like it."[112][114]

In February 2023, Time magazine placed a screenshot of a conversation with ChatGPT on its cover,
writing that "The AI Arms Race Is Changing Everything" and "The AI Arms Race Is On. Start
Worrying".[115]

Chinese state media have characterized ChatGPT as a way for the U.S. to spread false information.[116]
In May 2023, Chinese police arrested a man who allegedly used ChatGPT to generate a bogus report
about a train crash, which was then posted online for profit.[117] In December 2023, Chinese police
arrested four people who had allegedly used ChatGPT to develop ransomware.[118]

In late March 2023, the Italian data protection authority banned ChatGPT in Italy and opened an
investigation. Italian regulators assert that ChatGPT was exposing minors to age-inappropriate
content, and that OpenAI's use of ChatGPT conversations as training data could violate Europe's
General Data Protection Regulation.[119][120] In April 2023, the
ChatGPT ban was lifted in Italy. OpenAI said it has taken steps to
effectively clarify and address the issues raised; an age verification
tool was implemented to ensure users are at least 13 years old.
Additionally, users can access its privacy policy before
registration.[121]

In April 2023, Brian Hood, mayor of Hepburn Shire Council,

planned to take legal action against ChatGPT over false
information. According to Hood, ChatGPT erroneously claimed
that he was jailed for bribery during his tenure at a subsidiary of
Australia's national bank. In fact, Hood acted as a whistleblower
and was not charged with any criminal offenses. His legal team
sent a concerns notice to OpenAI as the first official step in filing a
defamation case.[122] In July 2023, the US Federal Trade
A 2023 Time cover: "The AI Arms
Commission (FTC) issued a civil investigative demand to OpenAI
Race Is Changing Everything"
to investigate whether the company's data security and privacy
practices to develop ChatGPT were unfair or harmed consumers
(including by reputational harm) in violation of Section 5 of the Federal Trade Commission Act of
1914.[123][124][125]

In July 2023, the FTC launched an investigation into OpenAI, the creator of ChatGPT, over allegations
that the company scraped public data and published false and defamatory information. The FTC sent
OpenAI a 20-page letter asking for comprehensive information about its technology and privacy
safeguards, as well as any steps taken to prevent the recurrence of situations in which its chatbot
generated false and derogatory content about people.[126]

Research done in 2023 revealed weaknesses of ChatGPT that make it vulnerable to cyberattacks. A
study presented example attacks on ChatGPT, including jailbreaks and reverse psychology.
Additionally, malicious actors can use ChatGPT for social engineering attacks and phishing attacks.
The researchers also contended that ChatGPT and other generative AI tools have defense capabilities
and the ability to improve security. The technology can improve security by cyber defense automation,
threat intelligence, attack identification, and reporting.[127] Another study reported that ChatGPT 4
obtained a better score than 99% of humans on the Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking.[128][129]

There has been concern about copyright infringement involving ChatGPT. In June 2023, two writers
sued OpenAI, saying the company's training data came from illegal websites that show copyrighted
books.[130] Comedian and author Sarah Silverman, Christopher Golden, and Richard Kadrey sued
OpenAI and Meta for copyright infringement in July 2023.[131] In December 2023, The New York
Times sued OpenAI and Microsoft for copyright infringement,[132] arguing that Microsoft Copilot and
ChatGPT could reproduce articles and/or sizable portions of these articles from the Times without
permission.[133] As part of the lawsuit, the Times has requested that OpenAI and Microsoft be
prevented from using its content for training data, along with removing from training datasets.[134] In
March 2024, Patronus AI conducted research comparing performance of LLMs on a 100-question
test, asking them to complete sentences from books (e.g., "What is the first passage of Gone Girl by
Gillian Flynn?") that were under copyright in the United States; it found that GPT-4, Mistral AI's
Mixtral, Meta AI's LLaMA-2, and Anthropic's Claude 2 did not refuse to do so, providing sentences
from the books verbatim in 44%, 22%, 10%, and 8% of responses, respectively.[135][136]

In December 2023, ChatGPT became the first non-human to be included in Nature's 10, an annual
listicle curated by Nature of people who make a significant impact in science.[137][138]

Celeste Biever wrote in a Nature article that "ChatGPT broke the Turing test".[139] Stanford
researchers reported that ChatGPT passes the test; they found that GPT-4 "passes a rigorous Turing
test, diverging from average human behavior chiefly to be more cooperative."[140][141]

Implications

Bias and offensiveness

ChatGPT has been accused of engaging in biased or discriminatory
behaviors, such as telling jokes about men and people from
England while refusing to tell jokes about women and people from
India,[142] or praising figures such as Joe Biden while refusing to
do the same for Donald Trump.[143][144]

Conservative commentators accused ChatGPT of bias toward left-

leaning perspectives.[145][146][147] Additionally, an August 2023
paper found a "significant and systematic political bias toward the
Democrats in the US, Lula in Brazil, and the Labour Party in the
UK."[148] In response to such criticism, OpenAI acknowledged
plans to allow ChatGPT to create "outputs that other people
(ourselves included) may strongly disagree with". It also contained
information on the recommendations it had issued to human
reviewers on how to handle controversial subjects, including that
the AI should "offer to describe some viewpoints of people and
movements", and not provide an argument "from its voice" in ChatGPT is prompted to create a
favor of "inflammatory or dangerous" topics (although it may still poem in iambic pentameter for
current U.S. President Joe Biden
"describe arguments from historical people and movements"), nor
and former U.S. President Donald
"affiliate with one side" or "judge one group as good or bad".[147] Trump. ChatGPT creates a poem for
Biden but does not do so for Trump.
The Guardian questioned whether any content found on the
Internet after ChatGPT's release "can be truly trusted" and called
for government regulation.[149]

Culture
Some scholars have expressed concern that ChatGPT's availability could reduce the originality of
writing, cause people to write more like the AI as they are exposed to the model, and encourage an
Anglocentric perspective centered on a few dialects of English globally.[152] A senior editor at The
Atlantic wrote that ChatGPT and other similar technology make
the previously absurd idea of the dead internet theory a little more
realistic, where AI could someday create most web content in
order to control society.[153]

During the first three months after ChatGPT became available to

the public, hundreds of books appeared on Amazon that listed it as
author or co-author and featured illustrations made by other AI
models such as Midjourney.[154][155]

Between March and April 2023, Italian newspaper Il Foglio

published one ChatGPT-generated article a day on its website,
hosting a special contest for its readers in the process.[156] The
articles tackled themes such as the possible replacement of human
journalists by AI systems,[157] Elon Musk's administration of
Street art in Tel Aviv[150][151]
Twitter, [158] the Meloni government's immigration policy [159] and
the competition between chatbots and virtual assistants. [160] In
June 2023, hundreds of people attended a "ChatGPT-powered church service" at St. Paul's church in
Fürth, Germany. Theologian and philosopher Jonas Simmerlein, who presided, said that it was "about
98 percent from the machine".[161][162] The ChatGPT-generated avatar told the people, "Dear friends,
it is an honor for me to stand here and preach to you as the first artificial intelligence at this year’s
convention of Protestants in Germany". Reactions to the ceremony were mixed.[163]

Existential risk
In 2023, Australian MP Julian Hill advised the national parliament that the growth of AI could cause
"mass destruction". During his speech, which was partly written by the program, he warned that it
could result in cheating, job losses, discrimination, disinformation, and uncontrollable military
applications.[164]

Elon Musk wrote: "ChatGPT is scary good. We are not far from dangerously strong AI".[99] He paused
OpenAI's access to a Twitter database in 2022 pending a better understanding of OpenAI's plans,
saying: "OpenAI was started as open source and nonprofit. Neither is still true."[165][166] Musk co-
founded OpenAI in 2015, in part to address existential risk from artificial intelligence, but resigned in
2018.[166]

Over 20,000 signatories including leading computer scientist and tech founders Yoshua Bengio, Elon
Musk, and Apple co-founder Steve Wozniak, signed a March 2023 open letter calling for an
immediate pause of giant AI experiments like ChatGPT, citing "profound risks to society and
humanity".[167] Geoffrey Hinton, one of the "fathers of AI", voiced concerns that future AI systems
may surpass human intelligence, and left Google in May 2023.[168][169] A May 2023 statement by
hundreds of AI scientists, AI industry leaders, and other public figures demanded that "[m]itigating
the risk of extinction from AI should be a global priority".[170]

Other prominent AI researchers spoke more optimistically about the advances. Juergen Schmidhuber,
often called a "father of modern AI", did not sign the letter, emphasizing that in 95% of cases, AI
research is about making "human lives longer and healthier and easier." Schmidhuber added that
while AI can be used by bad actors, it "can also be used against the bad actors".[171] Andrew Ng argued
that "it’s a mistake to fall for the doomsday hype on AI—and that regulators who do will only benefit
vested interests."[172] WIRED wrote that Yann LeCun "scoffs at his peers’ dystopian scenarios of
supercharged misinformation and even, eventually, human extinction."[173]

Criticism by discipline
Since its release, ChatGPT has been met with criticism from educators, academics, journalists, artists,
ethicists, and public advocates.

Academic research
Criticism of LLMs have been raised for several years; in 2020, some criticism was made by Timnit
Gebru, Emily Bender, Angelina McMillan-Major, and Margaret Mitchell.[174] ChatGPT can write
introductions and abstract sections of scientific articles.[175] Several papers have listed ChatGPT as a
co-author.[176][177]

Scientific journals have different reactions to ChatGPT. Some, including Nature and JAMA Network,
"require that authors disclose the use of text-generating tools and ban listing a large language model
(LLM) such as ChatGPT as a co-author". Science "completely banned" usage of LLM-generated text in
all its journals.[178]

Spanish chemist Rafael Luque published a plethora of research papers in 2023 that he later admitted
were written by ChatGPT. The papers have a large number of unusual phrases characteristic of
LLMs.[note 1]

Many authors argue that the use of ChatGPT in academia for teaching and review is problematic due
to its tendency to hallucinate.[180][181][182] Robin Bauwens, an assistant professor at Tilburg
University, found that a ChatGPT-generated peer review report on his article mentioned fake
studies.[183] According to librarian Chris Granatino from Lemieux Library at Seattle University,
although ChatGPT itself can generate content that seemingly includes legitimate citations, in most
cases those citations are not real, or are at least largely incorrect.[184]

Cybersecurity
Check Point Research and others noted that ChatGPT could write phishing emails and malware,
especially when combined with OpenAI Codex. CyberArk researchers demonstrated that ChatGPT
could be used to create polymorphic malware that could evade security products while requiring little
effort by the attacker.[185][186] From the launch of ChatGPT in the fourth quarter of 2022 to the fourth
quarter of 2023, there was a 1,265% increase in malicious phishing emails and a 967% increase in
credential phishing, which cybersecurity professionals argued in an industry survey was attributable
to cybercriminals' increased use of generative artificial intelligence (including ChatGPT).[187]

Coding
Researchers at Purdue University analyzed ChatGPT's responses to 517 questions about software
engineering or computer programming posed on Stack Overflow for correctness, consistency,
comprehensiveness, and concision, and found that 52% of them contained inaccuracies and 77% were
verbose.[188][189] Researchers at Stanford University and the University of California, Berkeley found
that, when creating directly executable responses to the latest 50 code generation problems from
LeetCode that were rated "easy", the performances of GPT-3.5 and GPT-4 fell from 22% and 52%,
respectively, in March 2023, to 2% and 10%, respectively, in June 2023.[190][191]

Economics
There has been concern that ChatGPT could supplant jobs, especially roles such as creative writing,
copy-writing, communication, journalism, coding, and data entry.[192][153][193][194]

Education
Technology writer Dan Gillmor used ChatGPT in 2022 on a student assignment, and found its
generated text was on par with what a good student would deliver and opined that "academia has
some very serious issues to confront".[195]

Geography professor Terence Day assessed citations generated by ChatGPT and found that they were
fake. Despite that, he writes that "the titles of the fake articles are all directly relevant to the questions
and could potentially make excellent papers. The lack of a genuine citation could signal an
opportunity for an enterprising author to fill a void." According to Day, it is possible to generate high-
quality introductory college courses with ChatGPT; he used it to write materials on "introductory
physical geography courses, for my second-year course in geographical hydrology, and second-year
cartography, geographic information systems, and remote sensing". He concludes that "this approach
could have significant relevance for open learning and could potentially affect current textbook
publishing models".[196]

Research done in 2024 found that students' reliance on ChatGPT leads to decline in academic
performance.[197]

Financial markets
The AI technology company c3.ai saw a 28% increase in its share price after announcing the
integration of ChatGPT into its toolkit.[198] The share price of BuzzFeed, a digital media company
unrelated to AI, increased 120% after announcing OpenAI technology adoption for content
creation.[199] Reuters found that share prices of AI-related companies BigBear.ai and SoundHound AI
increased by 21% and 40%, respectively, even though they had no direct connection to ChatGPT.[200]
They attributed this surge to ChatGPT's role in turning AI into Wall Street's buzzword. Academic
research published in Finance Research Letters found that the 'ChatGPT effect' prompted retail
investors to drive up prices of AI-related cryptocurrency assets despite the broader cryptocurrency
market being in a bear market, and diminished institutional investor interest.[201] This confirms
anecdotal findings by Bloomberg that, in response to ChatGPT's launch, cryptocurrency investors
showed a preference for AI-related crypto assets.[202] An experiment by finder.com revealed that
ChatGPT could outperform popular fund managers by picking stocks based on criteria such as growth
history and debt levels, resulting in a 4.9% increase in a hypothetical account of 38 stocks,
outperforming 10 benchmarked investment funds with an average loss of 0.8%.[203]

Conversely, executives and investment managers at Wall Street quant funds (including those that
have used machine learning for decades) have noted that ChatGPT regularly makes obvious errors
that would be financially costly to investors because even AI systems that employ reinforcement
learning or self-learning have had only limited success in predicting market trends due to the
inherently noisy quality of market data and financial signals.[204] In November 2023, research
conducted by Patronus AI, an artificial intelligence startup company, compared performance of GPT-
4, GPT-4-Turbo, Claude2, and LLaMA-2 on two versions of a 150-question test about information in
financial statements (e.g. Form 10-K, Form 10-Q, Form 8-K, earnings reports, earnings call
transcripts) submitted by public companies to the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission. One
version of the test required the generative AI models to use a retrieval system to find the specific SEC
filing to answer the questions; the other gave the models the specific SEC filing to answer the question
(i.e. in a long context window). On the retrieval system version, GPT-4-Turbo and LLaMA-2 both
failed to produce correct answers to 81% of the questions, while on the long context window version,
GPT-4-Turbo and Claude-2 failed to produce correct answers to 21% and 24% of the questions,
respectively.[205][206]

Medicine
In the field of health care, possible uses and concerns are under scrutiny by professional associations
and practitioners.[207][208] Two early papers indicated that ChatGPT could pass the United States
Medical Licensing Examination (USMLE).[209] MedPage Today noted in January 2023 that
"researchers have published several papers now touting these AI programs as useful tools in medical
education, research, and even clinical decision making."[209]

Published in February 2023 were two separate papers that again evaluated ChatGPT's proficiency in
medicine using the USMLE. Findings were published in JMIR Medical Education (see Journal of
Medical Internet Research) and PLOS Digital Health. The authors of the PLOS Digital Health paper
stated that the results "suggest that large language models may have the potential to assist with
medical education, and potentially, clinical decision-making."[210][211] In JMIR Medical Education,
the authors of the other paper concluded that "ChatGPT performs at a level expected of a third-year
medical student on the assessment of the primary competency of medical knowledge." They suggest
that it could be used as an "interactive learning environment for students". The AI itself, prompted by
the researchers, concluded that "this study suggests that ChatGPT has the potential to be used as a
virtual medical tutor, but more research is needed to further assess its performance and usability in
this context."[212] The later-released ChatGPT version based on GPT-4 significantly outperformed the
version based on GPT-3.5.[213] Researchers at Stanford University and the University of California,
Berkeley have found that the performance of GPT-3.5 and GPT-4 on the USMLE declined from March
2023 to June 2023.[190][191]

A March 2023 paper tested ChatGPT's application in clinical toxicology. The authors found that the AI
"fared well" in answering a "very straightforward [clinical case example], unlikely to be missed by any
practitioner in the field". They added: "As ChatGPT becomes further developed and specifically
adapted for medicine, it could one day be useful in less common clinical cases (i.e, cases that experts
sometimes miss). Rather than AI replacing humans (clinicians), we see it as 'clinicians using AI'
replacing 'clinicians who do not use AI' in the coming years."[214]

An April 2023 study in Radiology tested the AI's ability to answer queries about breast cancer
screening. The authors found that it answered appropriately "about 88 percent of the time", however,
in one case (for example), it gave advice that had become outdated about a year earlier. The
comprehensiveness of its answers was also lacking.[215][216] A study published in JAMA Internal
Medicine that same month found that ChatGPT often outperformed human doctors at answering
patient questions (when measured against questions and answers found at /r/AskDocs, a forum on
Reddit where moderators validate the medical credentials of professionals; the study acknowledges
the source as a limitation).[217][218][219] The study authors suggest that the tool could be integrated
with medical systems to help doctors draft responses to patient questions.[220][221]

Professionals have emphasized ChatGPT's limitations in providing medical assistance. In

correspondence to The Lancet Infectious Diseases, three antimicrobial experts wrote that "the largest
barriers to the implementation of ChatGPT in clinical practice are deficits in situational awareness,
inference, and consistency. These shortcomings could endanger patient safety."[222] Physician's
Weekly, though also discussing the potential use of ChatGPT in medical contexts (e.g. "as a digital
assistant to physicians by performing various administrative functions like gathering patient record
information or categorizing patient data by family history, symptoms, lab results, possible allergies, et
cetera"), warned that the AI might sometimes provide fabricated or biased information.[223] One
radiologist warned: "We've seen in our experience that ChatGPT sometimes makes up fake journal
articles or health consortiums to support its claims";[224] As reported in one Mayo Clinic
Proceedings: Digital Health paper, ChatGPT may do this for as much as 69% of its cited medical
references. The researchers emphasized that while many of its references were fabricated, those that
were appeared "deceptively real".[225] As Dr. Stephen Hughes mentioned for The Conversation
however, ChatGPT is capable of learning to correct its past mistakes. He also noted the AI's
"prudishness" regarding sexual health topics.[226]

Contrary to previous findings, ChatGPT responses to anesthesia-related questions were more

accurate, succinct, and descriptive compared to Bard's. Bard exhibited 30.3% error in response as
compared to ChatGPT (0% error).[227] At a conference of the American Society of Health-System
Pharmacists in December 2023, researchers at Long Island University (LIU) presented a study that
researched ChatGPT's responses to 45 frequently asked questions of LIU College of Pharmacy's drug
information service during a 16-month period from 2022 to 2023 as compared with researched
responses provided by professional pharmacists. For 29 of the 39 questions for which there was
sufficient medical literature for a data-driven response, ChatGPT failed to provide a direct answer or
provided a wrong or incomplete answer (and in some cases, if acted upon, the answer would endanger
the patient's health). The researchers had asked ChatGPT to provide medical research citations for all
its answers, but it did so for only eight, and all eight included at least one fabricated (fake)
citation.[228][229]
A January 2024 study conducted by researchers at Cohen Children's Medical Center found that GPT-4
had an accuracy rate of 17% when diagnosing pediatric medical cases.[230][231]

Law
In January 2023, Massachusetts State Senator Barry Finegold and State Representative Josh S. Cutler
proposed a bill partially written by ChatGPT, "An Act drafted with the help of ChatGPT to regulate
generative artificial intelligence models like ChatGPT",[232][233][234] which would require companies
to disclose their algorithms and data collection practices to the office of the State Attorney General,
arrange regular risk assessments, and contribute to the prevention of plagiarism.[233][234][235] The bill
was officially presented during a hearing on July 13.[232][234]

On April 11, 2023, a judge of a session court in Pakistan used ChatGPT to decide the bail of a 13-year-
old accused in a matter. The court quoted the use of ChatGPT assistance in its verdict:

Can a juvenile suspect in Pakistan, who is 13 years old, be granted bail after arrest?

The AI language model replied:

Under the Juvenile Justice System Act 2018, according to section 12, the court can grant bail
on certain conditions. However, it is up to the court to decide whether or not a 13-year-old
suspect will be granted bail after arrest.

The judge asked ChatGPT other questions about the case and formulated his final decision in light of
its answers.[236][237]

In Mata v. Avianca, Inc., 22-cv-1461 (PKC), a personal injury lawsuit against Avianca Airlines filed in
the Southern New York U.S. District Court in May 2023 (with Senior Judge P. Kevin Castel presiding),
the plaintiff's attorneys reportedly used ChatGPT to generate a legal motion. ChatGPT generated
numerous fictitious legal cases involving fictitious airlines with fabricated quotations and internal
citations in the legal motion. Castel noted numerous inconsistencies in the opinion summaries, and
called one of the cases' legal analysis "gibberish".[238] The plaintiff's attorneys faced potential judicial
sanction and disbarment for filing the motion and presenting the fictitious legal decisions ChatGPT
generated as authentic.[239][240] The case was dismissed and the attorneys were fined
$5,000.[241][242]

In October 2023, the council of Porto Alegre, Brazil, unanimously approved a local ordinance
proposed by councilman Ramiro Rosário that would exempt residents from needing to pay for the
replacement of stolen water consumption meters; the bill went into effect on November 23. On
November 29, Rosário revealed that the bill had been entirely written by ChatGPT, and that he had
presented it to the rest of the council without making any changes or disclosing the chatbot's
involvement.[235][243][244] The city's council president, Hamilton Sossmeier, initially criticized
Rosário's initiative, saying it could represent "a dangerous precedent",[244][245] but later said he
"changed his mind": "unfortunately or fortunately, this is going to be a trend."[235][243]

See also
Intelligent agent – Software agent which acts autonomously
Language portal
Virtual assistant – Software agent
Ethics of artificial intelligence – Ethical issues specific to AI Technology portal
Turing test – Test of a machine's ability to imitate human intelligence

Notes
1. Luque's later 13-year suspension from the University of Cordoba was unrelated to his use of
ChatGPT.[179]

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Further reading
Biswas, Som (April 1, 2023). "ChatGPT and the Future of Medical Writing" (https://pubs.rsna.org/d
oi/pdf/10.1148/radiol.223312). Radiology. 307 (2): e223312. doi:10.1148/radiol.223312 (https://doi.
org/10.1148%2Fradiol.223312). ISSN 0033-8419 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0033-8419).
PMID 36728748 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36728748). S2CID 256501098 (https://api.sem
anticscholar.org/CorpusID:256501098).
Chang, Kent K.; Cramer, Mackenzie; Soni, Sandeep; Bamman, David (April 28, 2023). "Speak,
Memory: An Archaeology of Books Known to ChatGPT/GPT-4". arXiv:2305.00118 (https://arxiv.or
g/abs/2305.00118) [cs.CL (https://arxiv.org/archive/cs.CL)].
Cowen, Tyler; Tabarrok, Alexander T. (March 17, 2023). "How to Learn and Teach Economics with
Large Language Models, Including GPT". SSRN 4391863 (https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cf
m?abstract_id=4391863).
Cowen, Tyler (March 29, 2023). "Jonathan GPT Swift on Jonathan Swift (Ep. 175): How well does
GPT4 do pretending to be the 18th-century satirist?" (https://conversationswithtyler.com/episodes/j
onathan-gpt-swift/) (Podcast).
Ouyang, Long; et al. (March 4, 2022). "Training language models to follow instructions with human
feedback". arXiv:2203.02155 (https://arxiv.org/abs/2203.02155) [cs.CL (https://arxiv.org/archive/c
s.CL)].
Liebrenz, Michael; Schleifer, Roman; Buadze, Anna; Bhugra, Dinesh; Smith, Alexander (February
2023). "Generating scholarly content with ChatGPT: ethical challenges for medical publishing" (htt
ps://doi.org/10.1016%2Fs2589-7500%2823%2900019-5). The Lancet Digital Health. 5 (3): e105–
e106. doi:10.1016/s2589-7500(23)00019-5 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fs2589-7500%2823%2900
019-5). ISSN 2589-7500 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/2589-7500). PMID 36754725 (https://pub
med.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36754725). S2CID 256655912 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:25
6655912).
Wolfram, Stephen (February 14, 2023). "What Is ChatGPT Doing … and Why Does It Work?" (http
s://writings.stephenwolfram.com/2023/02/what-is-chatgpt-doing-and-why-does-it-work/).
Wolfram, Stephen (March 23, 2023). "ChatGPT Gets Its "Wolfram Superpowers"!" (https://writings.
stephenwolfram.com/2023/03/chatgpt-gets-its-wolfram-superpowers/).
Bartholomew, Jem; Mehta, Dhrumil. "How the media is covering ChatGPT" (https://www.cjr.org/to
w_center/media-coverage-chatgpt.php). Columbia Journalism Review. Retrieved May 30, 2023.
Zhao, Wayne Xin; et al. (2023). "A Survey of Large Language Models". arXiv:2303.18223 (https://
arxiv.org/abs/2303.18223) [cs.CL (https://arxiv.org/archive/cs.CL)].
Prompt engineering (https://platform.openai.com/docs/guides/prompt-engineering) guide from
OpenAI

External links
Media related to ChatGPT at Wikimedia Commons
Official website (https://chat.openai.com/)
ChatGPT Prompt Engineering for Developers (https://www.deeplearning.ai/short-courses/chatgpt-
prompt-engineering-for-developers/), course by Andrew Ng and OpenAI
Can ChatGPT write a podcast episode? (https://www.npr.org/2023/05/25/1178290105/ai-chatgpt-a
rtificial-intelligence-series-part-one) (Planet Money podcast, May 2023)
Will Chat GPT do more harm than good? (https://opentodebate.org/debate/will-chatgpt-do-more-h
arm-than-good/#/) (Gary Marcus and Keith Teare debate, February 2023)
"What OpenAI Really Wants" (https://www.wired.com/story/what-openai-really-wants/) by Wired
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ChatGPT&oldid=1216593502"