THEORIES OF PERSONALITY

WHAT IS PERSONALITY
Personality can be defined as a distinction and unique
ways in which each individual thinks, feels and acts which
characterizes the person’s response throughout life.
Gordon Alport(1937)- personality is the dynamic
organization within the individual of those psychosocial
systems that determines the characteristics behavior and
thought and his unique as adjustments to the
environment.

Physical or biological determinants

are very important factors in affecting personality development. Some of the
factors are body build, physical attractiveness, Homeostasis, physical defects and
health conditions.

Body build refers to whether an individual is taller than his age group or lean and
thin or average built or fat and obese. Body builds are classified into ectomorphs
(Thin and lean), endomorphs (Round and soft) and mesomorphs (strong and
muscular). It mostly happens that those who have a body build too tall or too
short or too thin or too fat will suffer from an inferiority complex as their peer
group may make fun of them.

People who have tall and lanky bodies will be more agile and quick in their
actions, so they will have good confidence levels. Obese people will lack
confidence as they will be unable to do normal tasks in normal time. Mesomorphs
are found to be superior to the other two.

When it comes to physical attractiveness, it is common knowledge that physically

attractive people have better confidence levels and they get wider acceptance of
people. People are more tolerant towards the mischief of good looking children
than of children with plain looks. Attractive people always enjoy an advantage
everywhere, at the workplace, or at social gatherings.

Homeostasis refers to maintenance of normal body temperature, sugar level,

blood pressure, water balance, etc. It is seen that persona with normal
homeostatis will have more balanced personalities. Those who suffer from any
imbalance like diabetes or high blood pressure will be easily irritable, may
become depressed, etc.
Suppose, disturbance in homeostasis leads to excessive release of hormones
causing a person to become too tall, this will be beneficial for his personality in
case people see the height as something favorable and vice versa.

Overall, a balance homeostasis will lead to a balanced, cheerful and relaxed

personality with socially acceptable behavior patterns.
If a person suffers from any physical defect, he may face rejection in life. Other
people do not have a very favorable attitude towards persons with defect. Such
persons again become less confident, develop inferiority complex, lack the feeling
of self-satisfaction and are unable to keep pace with their contemporaries.

Lastly, health conditions have major impact on personality. Healthy people are
cheerful, confident, happy, active in society and well adjusted.

On the contrary, if a person is unhealthy, suffers from some illness, he will be

irritable, unable to keep pace with social demands and may become depressed.

If a person has experienced some illness in childhood for a considerable time it

will adversely affect his personality development even after the person is cured of
the illness or when the child grows up.

A very common example regarding health is menstrual and menopausal women

who suffer from depression and mood swings because of their health conditions.

TRIGUNAS (SATVA, RAJAS AND TAMAS) – THE THREE

FUNDAMENTAL FEATURES OF NATURE
According to Ayurveda , man is made up of the five basic elements of
nature, Panch Mahabhutas, that is, Akasa (Ether or Space), Vayu (air),
Tejas (fire), Ap (water) and Prithvi (Earth). These five elements have evolved in
man to form the different body organs and organ systems, out of which the five
sense organs (the ears, skin, eyes, tongue and the nose) form the senses through
which man perceives the external world in five different ways. Through these
sense organs, the external object is not only felt, but also absorbed into the
human body in the form of energy. This energy composes the human body in the
form of three basic humors, known as the tridosha (three doshas).
The Tridoshas are also formed from Panch Mahabhutas, in Vata dosha, the
mahabhuta involved are air (Vayu) & space (Akasa); in Pitta dosha, fire (agni) and
water (Jala) are involved, and in Kapha dosha, water (Jala) & earth (Prithvi)
mahabhuta are involved.[i] These humors (tridoshas) psychologically correspond
to Trigunas (Satva, Rajas and Tamas), which play an important role in the
manifestation of personality in humans.
The concept of Guna dates back to Atharva Veda, it was discussed in Bhagawad
Gita and later included in Sankhya Darsana. The concept of Triguna has been
utilized to explain the concept of personality in modern era as well.
The development of consciousness is apparently rooted in this concept of
Triguna. These are known as (sattva) called as stability; rajas called as activation
and tamas called as inertia. Manas has been ascribed the functions which are
mental functions and mental processes (manovritti, manopravritti). They are
considered to be manifestations of Triguna. These psychological features are not
restricted to humans alone, but are also attributed to almost all living beings,
including the food we eat, animals around us and all other elements in the
environment we live in. Each living being is said to have a predominance of one or
the other feature, Guna/Prakriti, which gives that matter its unique quality.[ii]
All human beings are combinations of the three gunas and therefore these three
features together promote different kinds of personalities based on the
dominance of one or the other Gunas. Each personality can be deduced based on
his/her mode of worship, the type of food consumed and other activities of
everyday life.[iii]
The Sattva Guna
Sattva guna is mainly the “spiritual quality”. When sattva guna is dominant, a
person has natural desire to be good and caring. In such individuals, the mind and
senses are at a constant, and an understanding to differentiate between desirable
and undesirable, and undutiful and dutiful action prevails.
The sattva dominant people consider work as their duty. They perform work with
calm understanding and free of doubts. When sattva is dominant a person pays
homage to divine and spiritual values. Strength and respect for Gurus (teachers),
nonviolence, meditation, kindliness, silence, self-control, and purity of character
are common traits of sattvic action. One of the limitations of sattvic guna is that it
binds people through attachment to happiness and knowledge. The sattva
guna also brings with it the problem of goodness.
Qualities in a Sattvic personality:

 Mental strength
 Respect for Gurus (teachers)
 Non-violence
 Kindness
 Silent demeanour
 Self-control
 Meditative

The Rajas Guna

Rajas guna is nothing but the “active quality”. Rajas guna in people drives more
passion and desire in them, which may subsequently lead to greed, activity, taking
up work, and restlessness. People with rajas-dominant personality are full of
attachment and a desire to get rewarded for their actions. Due to the dominance
of self-interest in these individuals, they have a distorted picture of what’s right
and what’s wrong. These individuals refrain from detachment and abandonment.
Enthusiasm, interest, and activity are some of the attributes of this guna.
Qualities in a Rajas personality:

 Enthusiasm
 Interest
 Activity & work driven
 Restlessness
 Desire
 Greed

The Tamas Guna

Tamas guna is essentially the “material quality”. Tamas arises from hopes and
illusions, and it makes people prone to qualities such as ambiguity, idleness,
fantasy, and persistence. Some common characteristics of Tamas-dominant
people include cautiousness, apprehensiveness, and tendency to seek
revenge. Tamasic guna also suggests disillusionment and cynicism.
In people with tamasic guna, happiness is short-lived and usually originates and
ends in self-delusion. One positive quality of tamas personality is their willingness
to work very hard. On the other hand, one limitation of tamas personality is easy
attachment to possessions and self-centred tendencies.
Each Guna gives certain typical qualities to the person, based on which an
individual can be classified as belonging to that particular Guna type. Ayurveda
describes seven classifications of human personalities based on combinations of
these Gunas and their dominance with respect to each other.
The Trigunas are thus the foundation for all existence. They are contained in
balance by Prakruti (nature). When this balance is disturbed, there is an
interaction of the gunas, which eventually endangers the evolution of the
universe.
Qualities in a Tamas personality:

 Cautiousness
 Apprehension
 Revengeful
 Hard working
 Materialistic

PARENTING STYLES

1. The Permissive Parent

Common traits:

 High responsiveness, low demandingness

 Communicates openly and usually lets their kids decide for themselves, rather
than giving direction
  Rules and expectations are either not set or rarely enforced

 Typically goes through great lengths to keep their kids happy, sometimes at
their own expense

Permissive parents are more likely to take on a friendship role, rather than a
parenting role, with their kids. They prefer to avoid conflict and will often acquiesce
to their children’s pleas at the first sign of distress. These parents mostly allow their
kids to do what they want and offer limited guidance or direction.

2. The Authoritative Parent

Common traits:

 High responsiveness, high demandingness

 Sets clear rules and expectations for their kids while practicing flexibility and
understanding

 Communicates frequently; they listen to and take into consideration their

children’s thoughts, feelings and opinions

 Allows natural consequences to occur (e.g., kid fails quiz when they didn’t
study), but uses those opportunities to help their kids reflect and learn

Authoritative parents are nurturing, supportive and often in tune with their
children’s needs. They guide their children through open and honest discussions to
teach values and reasoning. Kids who have authoritative parents tend to be self-
disciplined and can think for themselves.

3. The Neglectful Parent

Common traits:

 Low responsiveness, low demandingness

 Lets their kids mostly fend for themselves, perhaps because they are
indifferent to their needs or are uninvolved/overwhelmed with other things
  Offers little nurturance, guidance and attention

 Often struggles with their own self-esteem issues and has a hard time forming
close relationships

Sometimes referred to as uninvolved parenting, this style is exemplified by an overall

sense of indifference. Neglectful parents have limited engagement with their
children and rarely implement rules. They can also be seen as cold and uncaring —
but not always intentionally, as they are often struggling with their own issues.

4. The Authoritarian Parent

Common traits:

 High demandingness, low responsiveness

 Enforces strict rules with little consideration of their kid’s feelings or social-
emotional and behavioral needs

 Often says “because I said so” when their kid questions the reasons behind a
rule or consequence

 Communication is mostly one-way — from parent to child

This rigid parenting style uses stern discipline, often justified as “tough love.” In
attempt to be in full control, authoritarian parents often talk to their children
without wanting input or feedback.

WESTERN AND EASTERN PERSPECTIVE

Individualist cultures and collectivist cultures place emphasis on different basic values. People who live
in individualist cultures tend to believe that independence, competition, and personal achievement are
important. Individuals in Western nations such as the United States, England, and Australia score high
on individualism (Oyserman, Coon, & Kemmelmier, 2002). People who live in collectivist cultures value
social harmony, respectfulness, and group needs over individual needs. Individuals who live in countries
in Asia, Africa, and South America score high on collectivism (Hofstede, 2001; Triandis, 1995). These
values influence personality. For example, Yang (2006) found that people in individualist cultures
displayed more personally oriented personality traits, whereas people in collectivist cultures displayed
more socially oriented personality traits.

TRAIT AND TYPER THEORIES

TYPE
According to Morgan and King, “ A type is simply a class of individuals said to share a common collection
of characteristics.” It means that people are classified into categories according to the characteristics
they share in common. For example, some people prominently show tendencies of being outgoing,
happy-go-lucky nature, mixing with people, less task orientation etc.It attempts to comprehend human
personality by examining certain broad patterns in the observed behavioral characteristics of individuals.

The first and foremost assumption underlying the type theories is that all persons can be categorised in
one or other type
Another assumption of type theory is that a person having one characteristic will have all the other
related characteristics.

Hippocrate’s Typology

In 400 B.C. Hippocrates attempted to explain personality in terms of body fluid or humors. He
postulated that our body has four types of fluid; yellow bile, black bile, blood and phlegm. Every person
is characterised by the prominence of one type of fluid which determines the temperament of the
person concerned. Thus he classified people into four types which are given below:

a) Choleric – people with predominance of yellow bile are irritable, restless and hot blooded.

b) Melancholic – people with high black bile are sad, depressed and devoid of hope in life

c) Sanguinary – When blood content is high the person remains cheerful, active and he is optimistic in
life.

d) Phlegmatic – predominance of phlegm makes a person calm and quite and usually there behaviour is
marked by inactiveness.

Sheldon’s Typology

Sheldon on the basis of physical constitution categorised personality into somatotypes. For this he
analysed nude photographs of 4000 students and classified their personality into three basic types.
These three types are: (i) Endomorphic (ii) Ectomorphic (iii) Mesomorphic.

i) Endomorphy – Such persons are short and fatty with a round shape of body. Endomorhphic
people are similar to “pyknic” type mentioned by Kretschmer. They like to eat and drink and
make merry. They are gregarious by nature and have leisurely attitude toward life.
Temperament wise Sheldon termed them “viscerotonia.”
ii) ii) Mesomorphy – These people are muscular types. Their muscles and bones are quite well
developed and they are physically well shaped. These people generally are considered to be
toughminded, risk taking, assertive and aggressive. They like to boss over others. Sheldon
called these personalities as “somatotonia”
iii) Ectomorphy – Such people are tall but thin. Sheldon called them “cerebrotonia”. These
people like to remain away from people.

Kretschmer’s Typology

Kretschmer was a German psychiatrist who on the basis of his observation of patients classified people
into four types. He used the physical constitution and temperament for this purpose The four types he
talked about included: (i) Pyknik type (ii)Asthenic type (iii)Athletic type (iv) Dysplastic type. Let us briefly
study each of these types.

1. Pyknic Type – Such people are short in height with heavily built body type. They have short,
thick neck. Temperament wise they exhibit characteristics of being social and cheerful. They are
happy-go-lucky, they like to eat and sleep.
2. Kretschmer called them “cycloid” as they have high probability of falling prey to manic-
depressive type of psychopathology.
 3. Asthenic Type – Such persons are tall and thin with underdeveloped muscles. They are also
underweight. They are irritable and shirk away from responsibility. They have the habit of day
dreaming and are lost in the world of fantasy. Temperament wise they are categorized as
“schizoid” and may develop disorder of schizophrenia.
4. Athletic Type – These are muscular types and have well built muscles and are neither tall nor
short. They have stable and calm nature and are able to adjust themselves to changes in the
environment.
5. Dyspalstic Type – This category includes people who do not exhibit any of the characteristics
mentioned above but are mix of all three types.

Jung’s Typology

Jung postulated personality theory based on psychological characteristics. He divided people into two
broad types i.e. extroverts and introverts.

Extroverts – Such people are socially oriented. They like to mix up with people, are fun loving, optimistic.
They are realistic in their approach towards life. Often such people exhibit leadership qualities.

Introverts – They are the opposite of extroverts. They do not like to mingle with people. They have very
few friends. They are self-centered and conservative. Such people are dogmatic in the sense that they
follow traditions and customs of the society without ever giving thought to their justifiability.

Jung’s classification has been criticised on the ground that it is not possible to divide people into two
watertight compartments because a significant number of people do not fall in either of the categories.
They exhibit characteristics of both the extrovert and introvert type. To compensate for this
psychologists placed such persons into another category called ambiverts.

Friedman and Rosenman

have classified individuals into Type-A and Type-B personalities. The two researchers were trying to
identify psychosocial risk factors when they discovered these types.

1. People characterised by Type-A personality seem to possess high motivation, lack patience, feel
short of time, be in a great hurry, and feel like being always burdened with work. Such people find it
difficult to slow down and relax. People with Type-A personality are more susceptible to problems
like hypertension and coronary heart disease (CHD). The risk of developing CHD with Type-A
personality is sometimes even greater than the risks caused by high blood pressure, high
cholesterol levels, or smoking.
2. Opposite to this is the Type-B personality, which can be understood as the absence of Type-A traits.
This typology has been further extended.
3. Morris has suggested a Type-C personality, which is prone to cancer. Individuals characterised by
this personality are cooperative, unassertive and patient. They suppress their negative emotions
(e.g., anger), and show compliance to authority.
4. More recently, a Type-D personality has been suggested, which is characterised by proneness to
depression.
Type theories explain the structure of personality but fail to explain the development of personality.
Type theory do not mention factors that influence and shape development of personality. Type theories,
particularly those based on physical constitution like that of Sheldon, do not at all take into account the
social and cultural factors which are extremely important in the development of personality

TRAIT
According to trait theory personality is made up of different traits. Traits are the building blocks and
human behaviour can be described in terms of these traits. A trait generally is a description of
behaviour, for example, friendliness, social, assertive are words that describe human behaviour

According to Atkinson, Atkinson and Hilgard “A trait refers to any characteristic that differs from person
to person in a relatively permanent and consistent way.”

Allport

mentioned two types of traits ; common traits and personal traits.

1. Common Traits – are the traits found in the majority of persons living in a society or culture.
Thus people of a society or culture can be compared on that trait. For example. If X shows a
trait of cooperativeness in his behaviours in various situations, and if similar behaviours are
obtained in a large number of persons from that community or culture, this trait will be
considered common Trait. Common traits thus are those which are reflected in the
behaviour of most of the persons in a society or a community or culture.
2. Personal Traits – This refers to the unique characteristics of a person and not shared by
other members of the society or community or culture. Such a personal trait is not
comparable with those of others in that culture. These traits are inculcated by a person
more in the process of socialisation and thus many of do’s and don’ts of the parents or
caregivers become part of the personality and these traits are unique to this individual.
Another important aspect is that, these traits are highly consistent and can be seen in
almost all behaviours of this individual irrespective of the situation concerned.

Allport further divided personal traits into three subcategories: a) cardinal dispositions, b) central
dispositions, and c) secondary dispositions.

1. Cardinal dispositions: such traits have overriding and overwhelming influence on the
behaviour of a person in that they manifest themselves in all that a person does and guides
the behaviour of that person.
2. Central dispositions: This is found in all persons and one can have 5 to 10 central
dispositions. These are not equivalent to cardinal traits but one can assess the personality of
an individual in terms of these traits. These traits actually define the personality of a person.
 3. Secondary dispositions: These traits of a person are less consistent, less explicit and less
meaningful for the person and hence are called secondary traits. These traits are of not
much help in explaining the personality

Cattell’s Trait Theory

1. Surface Traits – As the name suggests these are found on the periphery of personality i.e.
these are reflected in the day to day interactions of the person. Their expression is so
explicit that it leaves no doubt about their existence in the personality.
2. Source Traits – These represent the structure of personality. They are present in less
number than surface traits. These traits are not observable in day to day interactions of the
person. Source traits come to notice when some of the surface traits are joined together.
Cattell mentioned two types of source traits i.e. environmental mould traits and
constitutional traits. In the development of some source traits environmental factors play
more important role than genetic factors, therefore, such traits are called environmental
mould traits. Source traits determined by genetic factors are called constitutional traits.

Cattell also divided traits according to the behaviour they are related to and these include the
dynamic traits and ability traits.

1. Dynamic Traits are those which direct the behaviour of the person in a particular direction.
Attitude and sentiments are examples of dynamic traits.
2. Ability Traits – traits that are instrumental in reaching to a goal are called ability traits. For
example, musical ability is a must for becoming a musician.
3. Temperamental Traits – These develop out of a person’s efforts to reach a goal and relate to
emotional state and energy of the person.

Eysenck’s Trait Theory

H.J. Eysenck proposed that personality could be reduced into two broad dimensions. These dimensions
are Neuroticism, and Extraversion-Introversion dimensions. According to Eysenck, these are biologically
and genetically based and each dimension subsumes under it a number of specific traits.

Neuroticism

Neuroticism is the name Eysenck gave to a dimension that had persons who tend to be quite “nervous.”
These people tend to suffer more frequently from a variety of “nervous disorders”, hence the name of
the dimension. Eysenck was convinced that this dimension of normality, neuroticism, etc were true
temperaments and they were genetically determined and physiologically supported dimension of
personality. Neuroticism/stability
A person’s level of neuroticism is determined by the reactivity of their sympathetic nervous system. A
stable person’s nervous system will generally be less reactive to stressful situations, remaining calm and
level headed.
Someone high in neuroticism on the other hand will be much more unstable, and prone to overreacting
to stimuli and may be quick to worry, anger or fear. They are overly emotional and find it difficult to
calm down once upset. Neurotic individuals have an ANS that responds quickly to stress.’
Extraversion/introversion
Extraverts are sociable and crave excitement and change, and thus can become bored easily. They tend
to be carefree, optimistic and impulsive. They are more likely to take risks and be thrill seekers. Eysenck
argues that this is because they inherit an under aroused nervous system and so seek stimulation to
restore the level of optimum stimulation.
Introverts on the other hand lie at the other end of this scale, being quiet and reserved. They are
already over-aroused and shun sensation and stimulation. Introverts are reserved, plan their actions and
control their emotions. They tend to be serious, reliable and pessimistic.

Psychoticism

Eysenck recognised a third factor which he labeled as psychotic. Like neuroticism, high psychotic trait
does not mean that a person is psychotic but only that one exhibits some qualities commonly found
among psychotics, and that one is more susceptible to becoming psychotic. Psychotic people include a
certain recklessness, a disregard for common sense or conventions, and a degree of inappropriate
emotional expression. It is the dimension that separates those people who end up in institutions from
the rest.

TRAITS VS. TYPES

Traits are durable characteristics of a person. Types are collections of traits that are said to occur
together in some individuals. For example, we might define the macho type as a person who tries to be
tough, independent, courageous, or whatever the person perceives as masculine behaviour.

Trait on the other hand makes a person behave in a certain way in almost all situations in a consistent
manner. Honesty as a trait is an example. While we can use traits to describe persons, it is not easy to
categorise a person in terms of a type.

The type is not as consistent as the traits not is it as enduring as a trait. The type is something a person
can visualize from his mind. It is a construct and it may not be possible to relate it to any stable thing in
the real world. Also, types tend to be a product of a particular place, time, and culture.

Types do not represent durable personality patterns; they reflect changing cultural patterns. Finally,
when a type is identified, there is always the risk of stereotyping or creating a caricature of a group of
people. This may not represent the real picture.

PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORIES OF PERSONALITY

Sigmund Freud
Sigmund Freud ‘s psychoanalytic theory of personality argues that human
behavior is the result of the interactions among three component parts of the
mind: the id, ego, and superego.
This theory, known as Freud’s structural theory of personality, places great
emphasis on the role of unconscious psychological conflicts in shaping
behavior and personality. Dynamic interactions among these fundamental
parts of the mind are thought to progress through five distinct psychosexual
stages of development.
According to Freud, our personality develops from the interactions among
what he proposed as the three fundamental structures of the human mind:
the id, ego, and superego. Conflicts among these three structures, and our
efforts to find balance among what each of them “desires,” determines how
we behave and approach the world.
The id, the most primitive of the three structures, is concerned with instant
gratification of basic physical needs and urges. It operates entirely
unconsciously (outside of conscious thought). It is the source of a person’s
instinctual energy. It deals with immediate gratification of primitive needs,
sexual desires and aggressive impulses. It works on the pleasure principle,
which assumes that people seek pleasure and try to avoid pain. Freud
considered much of a person’s instinctual energy to be sexual, and the rest as
aggressive. Id does not care for moral values, society, or other individuals.
Ego : It grows out of id, and seeks to satisfy an individual’s instinctual needs in
accordance with reality. It works by the reality principle, and often directs the
id towards more appropriate ways of behaving. while the id is demanding,
unrealistic and works according to pleasure principle, the ego is patient,
reasonable, and works by the reality principle. It’s what Freud considered to
be the “self,” and its job is to balance the demands of the id and superego in
the practical context of reality.
Superego : The best way to characterise the superego is to think of it as the
moral branch of mental functioning. The superego tells the id and the ego
whether gratification in a particular instance is ethical. It helps control the id
by internalising the parental authority through the process of socialisation.
The superego is concerned with social rules and morals—similar to what many
people call their ” conscience ” or their “moral compass.” It develops as a child
learns what their culture considers right and wrong.
Stages of Personality Development
Freud claims that the core aspects of personality are established early, remain
stable throughout life, and can be changed only with great difficulty. He
proposed a five-stage theory of personality (also called psychosexual)
development. Problems encountered at any stage may arrest development,
and have long-term effect on a person’s life.
Oral Stage : A newborn’s instincts are focused on the mouth. This is the
infant’s primary pleasure seeking center. It is through the mouth that the baby
obtains food that reduces hunger. The infant achieves oral gratification
through feeding, thumb sucking, biting and babbling. It is during these early
months that people’s basic feelings about the world are established. Thus, for
Freud, an adult who considers the world a bitter place probably had difficulty
during the oral stage of development.
Anal Stage : It is found that around ages two and three the child learns to
respond to some of the demands of the society. One of the principal demands
made by parents is that the child learns to control the bodily functions of
urination and defecation. Most children at this age experience pleasure in
moving their bowels. The anal area of the body becomes the focus of certain
pleasurable feelings. This stage establishes the basis for conflict between the
id and the ego, and between the desire for babyish pleasure and demand for
adult, controlled behaviour.
Phallic Stage : This stage focuses on the genitals. At around ages four and five
children begin to realize the differences between males and females. They
become aware of sexuality and the sexual relationship between their parents.
During this stage, the male child experiences the Oedipus Complex, which
involves love for the mother, hostility towards the father, For girls, the
Oedipus complex (called the Electra Complex
Latency Stage : This stage lasts from about seven years until puberty. During
this period, the child continues to grow physically, but sexual urges are
relatively inactive. Much of a child’s energy is channeled into social or
achievement related activities.
Genital Stage : During this stage, the person attains maturity in psychosexual
development. The sexuality, fears and repressed feelings of earlier stages are
once again exhibited. People learn to deal with members of the opposite sex in
a socially and sexually mature way. However, if the journey towards this stage
is marked by excessive stress or over-indulgence, it may cause fixation to an
earlier stage of development.
Across these five stages, the child is presented with different conflicts between
their biological drives (id) and their social and moral conscience (supereg0)
because their biological pleasure-seeking urges focus on different areas of the
body (what Freud called “erogenous zones”). The child’s ability to resolve
these internal conflicts determines their future ability to cope and function as
an adult. Failure to resolve a stage can lead one to become fixated in that
stage, leading to unhealthy personality traits; successful resolution of the
stages leads to a healthy adult.

Freud wrote that instincts were the basic elements of the personality, the
motivating forces that drive behavior and determine its direction. Freud
grouped the instincts into two categories: life instincts and death instincts. The
Life Instincts The life instincts serve the purpose of survival of the individual
and the species by seeking to satisfy the needs for food, water, air, and sex.
The life instincts are oriented toward growth and development. The psychic
energy manifested by the life instincts is the libido. The libido can be attached
to or invested in objects, a concept Freud called cathexis.
The Death Instincts In opposition to the life instincts, Freud postulated the
destructive or death instincts. Drawing from biology, he stated the obvious
fact that all living things decay and die, returning to their original inanimate
state, and he believed that people have an unconscious wish to die. One
component of the death instincts is the aggressive drive, which he saw as the
wish to die turned against objects other than the self. The aggressive drive
compels us to destroy, conquer, and kill. Freud came to consider aggression as
compelling a part of human nature as sex

ALFRED ADLER
Alfred Adler. He eventually came to call this motivating force the “striving for
perfection”, a term which encapsulates the desire we all have to fulfill our
potential, to realize our ideals—a process strikingly similar to the more
popular idea of self-actualization. Adler’s theory is known as individual
psychology. His basic assumption is that human behaviour is purposeful and
goaldirected. Each one of us has the capacity to choose and create. Our
personal goals are the sources of our motivation. The goals that provide us
with security and help us in overcoming the feelings of inadequacy are
important in our personality development. In Adler’s view, every individual
suffers from the feelings of inadequacy and guilt, i.e. inferiority complex,
which arise from childhood. Overcoming this complex is essential for optimal
personality development.
he did identify a small handful of personality “types” that he distinguished
based on the different levels of energy he felt they manifested.
1. The first type is the ruling type. These people are characterized early on by
a tendency to be generally aggressive and dominant over others,
possessing an intense energy that overwhelms anything or anybody who
gets in their way. These people are not always bullies or sadists, however;
some turn the energy inward and harm themselves, such as is the case with
alcoholics, drug addicts, and those who commit suicide.
2. The second type is the leaning type. Individuals of this type are sensitive,
and while they may put a shell up around themselves to protect
themselves, they end up relying on others to carry them through life’s
challenges. They lack energy, in essence, and depend on the energy of
others. They are also prone to phobias, anxieties, obsessions and
compulsions, general anxiety, dissociation, etc.
3. The third type is the avoiding type. People of this type have such low
energy they recoil within themselves to conserve it, avoiding life as a
whole, and other people in particular. In extreme cases, these people
develop psychosis—the end result of entirely retreating into one’s self.
4. Adler also believed in a fourth type: the socially useful type. People of this
type are basically healthy individuals, possessed of adequate, but not
overbearing, social interest and energy. They are able to give to others
effectively as they are not so consumed by a sense of inferiority that they
cannot look properly

Karen Horney
She adopted a more optimistic view of human life with emphasis on human
growth and self-actualization. Horney’s major contribution lies in her challenge to
Freud’s treatment of women as inferior. According to her, each sex has attributes
to be admired by the other, and neither sex can be viewed as superior or inferior.
She countered that women were more likely to be affected by social and cultural
factors than by biological factors. She argued that psychological disorders were
caused by disturbed interpersonal relationship during childhood. When parents’
behaviour toward a child is indifferent, discouraging, and erratic, the child feels
insecure and a feeling called basic anxiety results. Deep resentment toward
parents or basic hostility occurs due to this anxiety. By showing excessive
dominance or indifference, or by providing too much or too little approval,
parents can generate among children feelings of isolation and helplessness which
interfere with their healthy development.
Horney’s theories focused on “unconscious anxiety,” which she believed
stemmed from early childhood experiences of unmet needs, loneliness, and/or
isolation. She theorized three styles of coping that children adopt in relation to
anxiety: moving toward people, moving away from people, and moving against
people.
Well-adjusted individuals utilize all three of the strategies (toward, away, and
against others), shifting focus depending on internal and external factors. So what
is it that makes these coping strategies neurotic? According to Horney, it is
the overuse of one or more of these interpersonal styles.
1. The Neurotic Need for Affection and Approval

This need includes the desires to be liked, to please other people, and meet the
expectations of others. People with this type of need are extremely sensitive to
rejection and criticism and fear the anger or hostility of others.

2. The Neurotic Need for a Partner Who Will Take Over One’s Life

This involves the need to be centered on a partner. People with this need suffer
extreme fear of being abandoned by their partner. Oftentimes, these individuals
place an exaggerated importance on love and believe that having a partner will
resolve all of life’s troubles.

3. The Neurotic Need to Restrict One’s Life Within Narrow Borders

Individuals with this need prefer to remain inconspicuous and unnoticed. They are
undemanding and content with little. They avoid wishing for material things,
often making their own needs secondary and undervaluing their own talents and
abilities.

4. The Neurotic Need for Power

Individuals with this need seek power for its own sake. They usually praise
strength, despise weakness, and will exploit or dominate other people. These
people fear personal limitations, helplessness, and uncontrollable situations.

5. The Neurotic Need to Exploit Others

These individuals view others in terms of what can be gained through association
with them. People with this need generally pride themselves on their ability to
exploit other people and are often focused on manipulating others to obtain
desired objectives, including such things as ideas, power, money, or sex.

6. The Neurotic Need for Prestige

Individuals with a need for prestige value themselves in terms of public
recognition and acclaim. Material possessions, personality characteristics,
professional accomplishments, and loved ones are evaluated based on prestige
value. These individuals often fear public embarrassment and loss of social status.
7. The Neurotic Need for Personal Admiration
Individuals with a neurotic need for personal admiration are narcissistic and have
an exaggerated self-perception. They want to be admired based on this imagined
self-view, not upon how they really are.
8. The Neurotic Need for Personal Achievement

According to Horney, people push themselves to achieve greater and greater

things as a result of basic insecurity. These individuals fear failure and feel a
constant need to accomplish more than other people and to top even their own
earlier successes.

9. The Neurotic Need for Self-Sufficiency and Independence

These individuals exhibit a “loner” mentality, distancing themselves from others

in order to avoid being tied down or dependent upon other people.

10. The Neurotic Need for Perfection and Unassailability

These individuals constantly strive for complete infallibility. A common feature of
this neurotic need is searching for personal flaws in order to quickly change or
cover up these perceived imperfections.

ERICH FROMM
In contrast to Freud’s biological orientation, Fromm developed his theory from a
social orientation. He viewed human beings as basically social beings who could
be understood in terms of their relationship with others. He argued that
psychological qualities such as growth and realization of potentials resulted from
a desire for freedom, and striving for justice and truth. Fromm holds that
character traits (personality) develop from our experiences with other individuals.
While culture is shaped by the mode of existence of a given society, people’s
dominant character traits in a given society work as forces in shaping the social
processes and the culture itself. His work recognizes the value of positive
qualities, such as tenderness and love in personality development. Fromm
believed that society and culture also played a significant role in individual human
development. Fromm also believed that people could exhibit
the characteristics of more than one type and that personalities can be made up
of a combination of different orientations.
The Receptive Character Type
The receptive type is characterized by a need for constant support from others.
They tend to be passive, needy, and totally dependent upon others. These people
require constant support from family, friends, and others, but they do not
reciprocate this support. Receptive types also tend to lack confidence in their own
abilities and have a difficult time making their own decisions. Individuals who
grow up in households that are overbearing and controlling often tend to have
this personality orientation.
The Exploitative Character Type
The exploitative type is willing to lie, cheat, and manipulate others in order to get
what they need. In order to fulfill their need to belong, they might seek out
people who have low self-esteem or lie about loving someone they really don't
care about. These types take what they need either through force or deception
and exploit other people to meet their own selfish needs.1
The Hoarding Character Type
The hoarding type copes with insecurity by never parting with anything. They
often collect a massive amount of possessions and often seem to care more about
their material possessions than they do about people.1
Understanding Hoarding Disorder
The Marketing Character Type
The marketing type looks at relationships in terms of what they can gain from the
exchange. They might focus on marrying someone for money or social status and
tend to have shallow and anxious personalities. These types tend to be
opportunistic and change their beliefs and values depending on what they think
will get them ahead.1
The Productive Character Type

The productive type is a person who takes their negative feelings and channels
the energy into productive work. They focus on building loving, nurturing, and
meaningful relationships with other people. This applies not only to romantic
relationships, but also to other familial relationships, friendships, and social
relationships. They are often described as a good spouse, parent, friend, co-
worker, and employee.

Out of the five character types described by Fromm, the productive type is the
only healthy approach to dealing with the anxiety that results from the conflict
between the need for freedom and the need to belong

ERIK ERIKSON
Erikson’s theory lays stress on rational, conscious ego processes in personality
development. In his theory, development is viewed as a lifelong process, and ego
identity is granted a central place in this process. His concept of identity crisis of
adolescent age has drawn considerable attention. Erikson argues that young
people must generate for themselves a central perspective and a direction that
can give them a meaningful sense of unity and purpose. . Erikson emphasized that
the ego makes positive contributions to development by mastering attitudes,
ideas, and skills at each stage of development. This mastery helps children grow
into successful, contributing members of society.
During each of Erikson’s eight stages, there is a psychological conflict that must be
successfully overcome in order for a child to develop into a healthy, well-adjusted
adult. Successful completion of each developmental task results in a sense of
competence and a healthy personality. Failure to master these tasks leads to
feelings of inadequacy.
Trust vs. Mistrust
From birth to 12 months of age, infants must learn that adults can be trusted. This
occurs when adults meet a child’s basic needs for survival. Infants are dependent
upon their caregivers, so caregivers who are responsive and sensitive to their
infant’s needs help their baby to develop a sense of trust; their baby will see the
world as a safe, predictable place. Unresponsive caregivers who do not meet their
baby’s needs can engender feelings of anxiety, fear, and mistrust; their baby may
see the world as unpredictable. If infants are treated cruelly or their needs are not
met appropriately, they will likely grow up with a sense of mistrust for people in
the world.
Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt
As toddlers (ages 1–3 years) begin to explore their world, they learn that they can
control their actions and act on their environment to get results. They begin to
show clear preferences for certain elements of the environment, such as food,
toys, and clothing. A toddler’s main task is to resolve the issue of autonomy vs.
shame and doubt by working to establish independence. This is the ―me do it‖
stage. For example, we might observe a budding sense of autonomy in a 2-year-
old child who wants to choose her clothes and dress herself. Although her outfits
might not be appropriate for the situation, her input in such basic decisions has
an effect on her sense of independence. If denied the opportunity to act on her
environment, she may begin to doubt her abilities, which could lead to low self-
esteem and feelings of shame.
Initiative vs. Guilt
 Once children reach the preschool stage (ages 3–6 years), they are capable of
initiating activities and asserting control over their world through social
interactions and play. According to Erikson, preschool children must resolve the
task of initiative vs. guilt.By learning to plan and achieve goals while interacting
with others, preschool children can master this task. Initiative, a sense of ambition
and responsibility, occurs when parents allow a child to explore within limits and
then support the child’s choice. These children will develop self-confidence and
feel a sense of purpose. Those who are unsuccessful at this stage—with their
initiative misfiring or stifled by over-controlling parents—may develop feelings of
guilt.
Industry vs. Inferiority
During the elementary school stage (ages 6–12), children face the task of industry
vs. inferiority. Children begin to compare themselves with their peers to see how
they measure up. They either develop a sense of pride and accomplishment in
their schoolwork, sports, social activities, and family life, or they feel inferior and
inadequate because they feel that they don’t measure up. If children do not learn
to get along with others or have negative experiences at home or with peers, an
inferiority complex might develop into adolescence and adulthood.
Identity vs. Role
Confusion In adolescence (ages 12–18), children face the task of identity vs. role
confusion. According to Erikson, an adolescent’s main task is developing a sense
of self. Adolescents struggle with questions such as ―Who am I?‖ and ―What do
I want to do with my life?‖ Along the way, most adolescents try on many different
selves to see which ones fit; they explore various roles and ideas, set goals, and
attempt to discover their ―adult‖ selves. Adolescents who are successful at this
stage have a strong sense of identity and are able to remain true to their beliefs
and values in the face of problemsand other people’s perspectives. When
adolescents are apathetic, do not make a conscious search for identity, or are
pressured to conform to their parents’ ideas for the future, they may develop a
weak sense of self and experience role confusion. They will be unsure of their
identity and confused about the future. Teenagers who struggle to adopt a
positive role will likely struggle to ―find‖ themselves as adults.
Intimacy vs. Isolation
People in early adulthood (20s through early 40s) are concerned with intimacy vs.
isolation. After we have developed a sense of self in adolescence, we are ready to
share our life with others. However, if other stages have not been successfully
resolved, young adults may have trouble developing and maintaining successful
relationships with others. Erikson said that we must have a strong sense of self
before we can develop successful intimate relationships. Adults who do not
develop a positive self-concept in adolescence may experience feelings of
loneliness and emotional isolation.
Generativity vs. Stagnation
When people reach their 40s, they enter the time known as middle adulthood,
which extends to the mid-60s. The social task of middle adulthood is generativity
vs. stagnation. Generativity involves finding your life’s work and contributing to
the development of others through activities such as volunteering, mentoring,
and raising children. During this stage, middle-aged adults begin contributing to
the next generation, often through childbirth and caring for others; they also
engage in meaningful and productive work which contributes positively to society.
Those who do not master this task may experience stagnation and feel as though
they are not leaving a mark on the world in a meaningful way; they may have little
connection with others and little interest in productivity and self-improvement.
Integrity vs. Despair
From the mid-60s to the end of life, we are in the period of development known
as late adulthood. Erikson’s task at this stage is called integrity vs. despair. He said
that people in late adulthood reflect on their lives and feel either a sense of
satisfaction or a sense of failure. People who feel proud of their accomplishments
feel a sense of integrity, and they can look back on their lives with few regrets.
However, people who are not successful at this stage may feel as if their life has
been wasted. They focus on what ―would have,‖ ―should have,‖ and ―could
have‖ been. They face the end of their lives with feelings of bitterness,
depression, and despair.

HUMANISTIV APPROACH
CARL ROGERS
The most important idea proposed by Rogers is that of a fully functioning person.
He believes that fulfilment is the motivating force for personality development.
People try to express their capabilities, potentials and talents to the fullest extent
possible. There is an inborn tendency among persons that directs them to
actualise their inherited nature.
Rogers makes two basic assumptions about human behaviour. One is that
behaviour is goal-directed and worthwhile. The second is that people (who are
innately good) will almost always choose adaptive, self-actualising behaviour.
his theory is structured around the concept of self. The theory assumes that
people are constantly engaged in the process of actualising their true self. Rogers
suggests that each person also has a concept of ideal self.
An ideal self is the self that a person would like to be. When there is a
correspondence between the real self and ideal self, a person is generally happy.
Discrepancy between the real self and ideal self often results in unhappiness and
dissatisfaction.
Rogers’ basic principle is that people have a tendency to maximise self-concept
through self-actualisation. In this process, the self grows, expands and becomes
more social.
Rogers views personality development as a continuous process. It involves
learning to evaluate oneself and mastering the process of selfactualisation.
He recognises the role of social influences in the development of self-concept.
When social conditions are positive, the self-concept and self-esteem are high.
In contrast, when the conditions are negative, the self-concept and selfesteem
are low. People with high selfconcept and self-esteem are generally flexible and
open to new experiences, so that they can continue to grow and selfactualise.
This situation warrants that an atmosphere of unconditional positive regard must
be created in order to ensure enhancement of people’s self-concept. The client-
centred therapy that Rogers developed basically attempts to create this
condition.
Rogers identified five characteristics of the fully functioning person:
1. Open to experience: both positive and negative emotions accepted. Negative
feelings are not denied, but worked through (rather than resorting to ego defense
mechanisms).
2. Existential living: in touch with different experiences as they occur in life,
avoiding prejudging and preconceptions. Being able to live and fully appreciate
the present, not always looking back to the past or forward to the future (i.e.,
living for the moment).
3. Trust feelings: feeling, instincts, and gut-reactions are paid attention to and
trusted. People’s own decisions are the right ones, and we should trust ourselves
to make the right choices.
4. Creativity: creative thinking and risk-taking are features of a person’s life. A
person does not play safe all the time. This involves the ability to adjust and
change and seek new experiences.
5. Fulfilled life: a person is happy and satisfied with life, and always looking for
new challenges and experiences.
Carl Rogers (1951) viewed the child as having two basic needs: positive regard from
other people and self-worth. Self-worth may be seen as a continuum from very high to
very low. For Carl Rogers (1959) a person who has high self-worth, that is, has
confidence and positive feelings about him or herself, faces challenges in life, accepts
failure and unhappiness at times, and is open with people.
A person with low self-worth may avoid challenges in life, not accept that life can be
painful and unhappy at times, and will be defensive and guarded with other people.

MASLOW
Abraham Maslow approached the study of personality psychology by focusing on subjective
experiences and free will. He was mainly concerned with an individual’s innate drive toward
self-actualization—a state of fulfillment in which a person is achieving at his or her highest level
of capability.
Maslow is perhaps most well-known for his hierarchy of needs theory, in which he proposes
that human beings have certain needs in common and that these needs must be met in a
certain order. These needs range from the most basic physiological needs for survival to higher-
level self-actualization and transcendence needs. Maslow’s hierarchy is most often presented
visually as a pyramid, with the largest, most fundamental physiological needs at the bottom and
the smallest, most advanced self-actualization needs at the top. Each layer of the pyramid must
be fulfilled before moving up the pyramid to higher needs, and this process is continued
throughout the lifespan.
Maslow believed that successful fulfillment of each layer of needs was vital in the development
of personality. The highest need for self-actualization represents the achievement of our fullest
potential, and those individuals who finally achieved self-actualization were said to represent
optimal psychological health and functioning.