1.

1 Introduction
From time immemorial man has sought to build some simplified
means of controlling or regulating huge amounts of energy. Space
exploration, computerized weapons, robotics, and other modern fields
of endeavour require precise control or regulation techniques. The
development of the methods used to control modern systems has
brought about the theory of control systems.
For proper usage the term system should first be defined. A
dictionary definition is “A system is an assemblage of objects united by
some form of regular interaction or interdependence to form an
organized whole”.
A control system can be defined as an arrangement of physical
components connected or related in such a manner as to command,
direct, Or regulate itself or another system.

The control system is an interdisciplinary subject and cuts across

all specialized fields; e.g., electrical mechanical, aeronautical, chemical,
nuclear, economics, management, and other engineering and
nonengineering areas.
1.2 Open-loop and Closed-loop Control systems
Before categorizing control systems, the terms input and output
need to be defined. The input is the stimulus or excitation applied to a
control system from an external energy source, usually in order to
produce a specified response from the control system. The output is the
actual response obtained from the control system. It may or may not be
equal to the specified response implied by the input.
Now the control systems are classified as
i) Open-loop systems.
 ii) Closed-loop (or feedback) systems.

Open-loop systems
A control system is said to be an open-loop system if the output
has no effect on the input.
Example: Tank level control
Figure 1.1 shows a schematic diagram of an open-loop tank level
control system. It is required to maintain the tank level h within

V2
Inlet flow

V1
Outlet flow h

Fig. 1.1 Open- loop tank level control system

specified limits even though the outlet flow through valve V 1 is varied.
If the outlet flow rate, for instance, increases and results in reducing the
level h below the lower limit, the system by itself will not be able to
open valve V2 until the desired level is restored. This has to be
accomplished by irregular manual adjustment of the rate of inlet flow
through valve V2 .

Closed-loop (or feedback) systems

A control system is said to be a closed-loop system if the input is
somehow affected by the output. This is achieved by means of feedback
from the output to the input. The loop closure by feedback permits
comparison of the output with some reference input so that an
appropriate control action can be created as a function of the output and
input.
Figure 1.3 illustrates a closed-loop tank level control version of
the open-loop system of Fig. 1.1.
 It can automatically maintain the desired tank level h within quite
accurate tolerances even though the outlet flow rate through valve V 1 is
varied. If the tank level is not correct, the float moves up or down
causing the slider of the potentiometer to move accordingly. An error
voltage e is thus generated and this is amplified and applied to the
motor drive. The torque produced by the motor adjusts valve V 2 in
order to restore the desired tank level by adjusting the inlet flow rate.
1.3 Block diagrams
A block diagram is a shorthand pictorial representation of control
systems. To introduce the concept, consider an electronic amplifier of
amplification factor A. The output voltage of the amplifier E o is A
times the input voltage Ei. The equation E o  E i A can conveniently be
represented by the block diagram:

Input Amplifier Output

Ei A

Similarly, a two-stage amplification system is represented as

Input Amplifier EiA1 Output

Amplifier
Ei A1 A2 Eo=A1A2 Ei
Since Eo= Ei A1A2, it follows that two cascaded blocks can be replaced
by an equivalent block as

i
Input Output
A1A2
Ei Eo= EiA1A2

In general, a component (or element) of a control system is represented

by a block diagram of the form:

R C
G

where
R = Input , C = Output , G = Output / Input = C / R
The quantity G is defined as the transfer funtion of the
element represented by the block. The arrows indicate the
direction of signal flow.
Together with the blocks, a block diagram may Contain
i) Summing points. ii) Takeoff points.
Summing points
The operations of addition and subtraction of signals (variables)
are represented by small circles, called summing points, with the
appropriate plus or minus sign associated with the arrows entering the
circle. The output is the algebraic sum of the inputs. Any number of
inputs may enter a summing point.
Takeoff points
 In order to employ the same signal for more than one path,
takeoff points (node points) are used. A takeoff point has no effect other
than to connect the signal to the various blocks or summing points.
Block diagram reduction
Large control systems are represented by complicated block
diagrams and these need to be reduced (simplified) in order to facilitate
the study of the control system. The following transformations are quite
helpful in block diagram reduction. The student should be able to verify
the validity of these transformations.

Transformation Block diagram and

equivalent block diagram


X
G1  G2 
Y
1 Blocks in cascade

X
G1 G2 
Y


X 
 + G
1

Y

G2
2 Blocks in parallel

X
G1 + G2 
Y


X 
 G
1

Y

Eliminating a feedback
loop G2

3
 
X G 

Y

Moving a takeoff point

Y
4 ahead of a block


X
G 
Y

G
Y

X Y
G
Moving a takeoff
point behind of a block X
5



X
G 
Y

1/G
X

X G + Y

6 -
Moving a summing
Z
point behind of a block

X + Y
G

-
1/G
Z
7 X + Y
Moving a summing G
_
point behind a block
Z

X + Y
G
-
Z G
X + Y
+

z +
Rearranging
+
summing W
8
points X + + Y
+ +
Z W
 As an illustration, reduce the following black diagram to an
equivalent single block and hence determine the closed-loop transfer
function C/R.

H2

R + + _ C
G1 G2 G3

+
_ + H1

The following steps are followed :

H2
_
R + + + C
G1 G2 G3
_ 11
+
H1

H2
_
R + + + C
G1 G2 G3
_ 11
+
H1 1/G3
 H2
_
R + + + G2G3
C
G1
_ 11
+
H1/G3

R + + C
G1
_ 11
+
H1/G3

R + + C
_
+
H1/G3

R + C
_

R C

The closed-loop transfer function is therefore

C G1G 2 G 3

R 1  G1G 2 G 3  G 2 G 3 H 2  G1G 2 H1
 PROBLEMS
(1) Determine the transfer function C/R for the system shown.

+
R + + C
10 20 5
_

0.6

(2) Find the value of H required to adjust the closed-loop

transfer function to exactly 50 for the system shown.

_
Input + + Output
10 10
111 +

(3) Transform the following (non-unity) feedback system into

a unity-feedback system.
R + G
C

Hint: This system can be transformed into either one of the

unity- feedback systems shown. Determine the unknown transfer
function.
R + + ?
C R + C
? ?
_ _ _
?
(4) Reduce the block diagram shown to a single block and
hence determine the overall transfer function C/R.

H3

R + + - + C
G1 G2 G3
+ _ +
H1 H2

G4

(5) Reduce the block diagram shown to a single block and

hence determine the overall transfer function C/R.

G4

R + + + + Y
G11 G2 G3
_ _ 2 _

H2
H1

Fig.(p.5)