Derivative

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Derivative
(Redirected from Instantaneous rate of change)
The derivative is a fundamental tool of calculus that quantifies the sensitivity of change of a
function's output with respect to its input. The derivative of a function of a single variable at a chosen
input value, when it exists, is the slope of the tangent line to the graph of the function at that point.
The tangent line is the best linear approximation of the function near that input value. For this reason,
the derivative is often described as the instantaneous rate of change, the ratio of the
instantaneous change in the dependent variable to that of the independent variable.[1] The process of
finding a derivative is called differentiation.
There are multiple different notations for differentiation, two of the most commonly used being
Leibniz notation and prime notation. Leibniz notation, named after Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, is
represented as the ratio of two differentials, whereas prime notation is written by adding a prime
mark. Higher order notations represent repeated differentiation, and they are usually denoted in
Leibniz notation by adding superscripts to the differentials, and in prime notation by adding
additional prime marks. The higher order derivatives can be applied in physics; for example, while the
first derivative of the position of a moving object with respect to time is the object's velocity, how the
position changes as time advances, the second derivative is the object's acceleration, how the velocity
changes as time advances.
Derivatives can be generalized to functions of several real variables. In this generalization, the
derivative is reinterpreted as a linear transformation whose graph is (after an appropriate translation)
the best linear approximation to the graph of the original function. The Jacobian matrix is the matrix
that represents this linear transformation with respect to the basis given by the choice of independent
and dependent variables. It can be calculated in terms of the partial derivatives with respect to the
independent variables. For a real-valued function of several variables, the Jacobian matrix reduces to
the gradient vector.
Definition
As a limit
A function of a real variable is differentiable at a point of its domain, if its domain contains an
open interval containing , and the limit
exists.[2] This means that, for every positive real number (even very small), there exists a positive
real number such that, for every such that and then is defined, and
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Derivative#Instantaneous_rate_of_change 1/15
where the vertical bars denote the absolute value. This is an example of the (ε, δ)-definition of limit.[3]
If the function is differentiable at , that is if the limit exists, then this limit is called the
derivative of at . Multiple notations for the derivative exist.[4] The derivative of at can be
denoted , read as " prime of "; or it can be denoted , read as "the derivative of with
respect to at " or " by (or over) at ". See § Notation below. If is a function that has a
derivative at every point in its domain, then a function can be defined by mapping every point to the
value of the derivative of at . This function is written and is called the derivative function or the
derivative of . The function sometimes has a derivative at most, but not all, points of its domain.
The function whose value at equals whenever is defined and elsewhere is undefined is
also called the derivative of . It is still a function, but its domain may be smaller than the domain of
.[5]
For example, let be the squaring function: . Then the quotient in the definition of the
derivative is[6]
The division in the last step is valid as long as . The closer is to , the closer this expression
becomes to the value . The limit exists, and for every input the limit is . So, the derivative of the
squaring function is the doubling function: .
The ratio in the definition of

the derivative is the slope of
the line through two points on
the graph of the function ,
specifically the points
and
. As is
made smaller, these points
grow closer together, and the
slope of this line approaches The graph of a function, drawn in black, and The derivative at different points
the limiting value, the slope of a tangent line to that graph, drawn in red. of a differentiable function. In
the tangent to the graph of The slope of the tangent line is equal to the this case, the derivative is equal
at . In other words, the derivative of the function at the marked to
derivative is the slope of the point.
tangent.[7]
Using infinitesimals
One way to think of the derivative is as the ratio of an infinitesimal change in the output of the
function to an infinitesimal change in its input.[8] In order to make this intuition rigorous, a system
of rules for manipulating infinitesimal quantities is required.[9] The system of hyperreal numbers is a
way of treating infinite and infinitesimal quantities. The hyperreals are an extension of the real
numbers that contain numbers greater than anything of the form for any finite
number of terms. Such numbers are infinite, and their reciprocals are infinitesimals. The application
of hyperreal numbers to the foundations of calculus is called nonstandard analysis. This provides a
way to define the basic concepts of calculus such as the derivative and integral in terms of
infinitesimals, thereby giving a precise meaning to the in the Leibniz notation. Thus, the derivative
of becomes
for an arbitrary infinitesimal , where denotes the standard part function, which "rounds off" each
finite hyperreal to the nearest real.[10] Taking the squaring function as an example again,
Continuity and differentiability

If is differentiable at , then
must also be continuous at
. [11] As an example, choose a
point and let be the step
function that returns the value
1 for all less than , and
returns a different value 10 for
all greater than or equal to
. The function cannot have a
This function does not have a The absolute value function is continuous
derivative at . If is negative,
derivative at the marked point, as but fails to be differentiable at x = 0 since
then is on the low part the function is not continuous the tangent slopes do not approach the
of the step, so the secant line there (specifically, it has a jump same value from the left as they do from
from to is very steep; discontinuity). the right.
as tends to zero, the slope
tends to infinity. If is
positive, then is on the high part of the step, so the secant line from to has slope zero.
Consequently, the secant lines do not approach any single slope, so the limit of the difference quotient
does not exist. However, even if a function is continuous at a point, it may not be differentiable there.
For example, the absolute value function given by is continuous at , but it is not
differentiable there. If is positive, then the slope of the secant line from 0 to is one; if is negative,
then the slope of the secant line from to is .[12] This can be seen graphically as a "kink" or a
"cusp" in the graph at . Even a function with a smooth graph is not differentiable at a point
where its tangent is vertical: For instance, the function given by is not differentiable at
. In summary, a function that has a derivative is continuous, but there are continuous functions
that do not have a derivative.[11]
Most functions that occur in practice have derivatives at all points or almost every point. Early in the
history of calculus, many mathematicians assumed that a continuous function was differentiable at
most points.[13] Under mild conditions (for example, if the function is a monotone or a Lipschitz
function), this is true. However, in 1872, Weierstrass found the first example of a function that is
continuous everywhere but differentiable nowhere. This example is now known as the Weierstrass
function.[14] In 1931, Stefan Banach proved that the set of functions that have a derivative at some
point is a meager set in the space of all continuous functions. Informally, this means that hardly any
random continuous functions have a derivative at even one point.[15]
Notation
One common symbol for the derivative of a function is Leibniz notation. They are written as the
quotient of two differentials and ,[16] which were introduced by Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz in
1675.[17] It is still commonly used when the equation is viewed as a functional relationship
between dependent and independent variables. The first derivative is denoted by , read as "the
derivative of with respect to ".[18] This derivative can alternately be treated as the application of a
differential operator to a function, Higher derivatives are expressed using the notation
for the -th derivative of . These are abbreviations for multiple applications of the
[19]
derivative operator; for example, Unlike some alternatives, Leibniz notation
involves explicit specification of the variable for differentiation, in the denominator, which removes
ambiguity when working with multiple interrelated quantities. The derivative of a composed function
can be expressed using the chain rule: if and then [20]
Another common notation for differentiation is by using the prime mark in the symbol of a function
. This is known as prime notation, due to the Joseph-Louis Lagrange.[21] The first derivative is
written as , read as " prime of ", or , read as " prime".[22] Similarly, the second and the
third derivatives can be written as and , respectively.[23] For denoting the number of higher
derivatives beyond this point, some authors use Roman numerals in superscript, whereas others place
the number in parentheses, such as or [24] The latter notation generalizes to yield the notation
for the -th derivative of .[19]
In Newton's notation or the dot notation, a dot is placed over a symbol to represent a time derivative.
If is a function of , then the first and second derivatives can be written as and , respectively. This
notation is used exclusively for derivatives with respect to time or arc length. It is typically used in
differential equations in physics and differential geometry.[25] However, the dot notation becomes
unmanageable for high-order derivatives (of order 4 or more) and cannot deal with multiple
independent variables.
Another notation is D-notation, which represents the differential operator by the symbol [19] The
first derivative is written and higher derivatives are written with a superscript, so the -th
derivative is This notation is sometimes called Euler notation, although it seems that
Leonhard Euler did not use it, and the notation was introduced by Louis François Antoine
Arbogast.[26] To indicate a partial derivative, the variable differentiated by is indicated with a
subscript, for example given the function its partial derivative with respect to can be
written or Higher partial derivatives can be indicated by superscripts or multiple
subscripts, e.g. and .[27]
Rules of computation
In principle, the derivative of a function can be computed from the definition by considering the
difference quotient and computing its limit. Once the derivatives of a few simple functions are known,
the derivatives of other functions are more easily computed using rules for obtaining derivatives of
more complicated functions from simpler ones. This process of finding a derivative is known as
differentiation.[28]
Rules for basic functions

The following are the rules for the derivatives of the most common basic functions. Here, is a real
number, and is the mathematical constant approximately 2.71828.[29]
Derivatives of powers:
Functions of exponential, natural logarithm, and logarithm with general base:
, for
, for
, for
Trigonometric functions:
Inverse trigonometric functions:
, for
, for
Rules for combined functions

Given that the and are the functions. The following are some of the most basic rules for deducing
the derivative of functions from derivatives of basic functions.[30]
Constant rule: if is constant, then for all ,
Sum rule:
for all functions and and all real numbers and .
Product rule:
for all functions and . As a special case, this rule includes the fact
whenever is a constant because by the constant rule.
Quotient rule:
for all functions and at all inputs where g ≠ 0.
Chain rule for composite functions: If , then
Computation example
The derivative of the function given by is
Here the second term was computed using the chain rule and the third term using the product rule.
The known derivatives of the elementary functions , , , , and , as well as
the constant , were also used.
Higher-order derivatives
Higher order derivatives means that a function is differentiated repeatedly. Given that is a
differentiable function, the derivative of is the first derivative, denoted as . The derivative of is
the second derivative, denoted as , and the derivative of is the third derivative, denoted as .
By continuing this process, if it exists, the -th derivative as the derivative of the -th derivative
or the derivative of order . As has been discussed above, the generalization of derivative of a
function may be denoted as .[31] A function that has successive derivatives is called times
differentiable. If the -th derivative is continuous, then the function is said to be of differentiability
class .[32] A function that has infinitely many derivatives is called infinitely differentiable or
smooth.[33] One example of the infinitely differentiable function is polynomial; differentiate this
function repeatedly results the constant function, and the infinitely subsequent derivative of that
function are all zero.[34]
In one of its applications, the higher-order derivatives may have specific interpretations in physics.
Suppose that a function represents the position of an object at the time. The first derivative of that
function is the velocity of an object with respect to time, the second derivative of the function is the
acceleration of an object with respect to time,[28] and the third derivative is the jerk.[35]
In other dimensions
Vector-valued functions
A vector-valued function of a real variable sends real numbers to vectors in some vector space .A
vector-valued function can be split up into its coordinate functions , meaning
that . This includes, for example, parametric curves in or . The
coordinate functions are real-valued functions, so the above definition of derivative applies to them.
The derivative of is defined to be the vector, called the tangent vector, whose coordinates are the
derivatives of the coordinate functions. That is,[36]
if the limit exists. The subtraction in the numerator is the subtraction of vectors, not scalars. If the
derivative of exists for every value of , then is another vector-valued function.[36]
Partial derivatives
Functions can depend upon more than one variable. A partial derivative of a function of several
variables is its derivative with respect to one of those variables, with the others held constant. Partial
derivatives are used in vector calculus and differential geometry. As with ordinary derivatives,
multiple notations exist: the partial derivative of a function with respect to the variable
is variously denoted by
, , , , or ,
among other possibilities.[37] It can be thought of as the rate of change of the function in the -
direction.[38] Here ∂ is a rounded d called the partial derivative symbol. To distinguish it from the
letter d, ∂ is sometimes pronounced "der", "del", or "partial" instead of "dee".[39] For example, let
, then the partial derivative of function with respect to both variables and
are, respectively:
In general, the partial derivative of a function in the direction at the point

is defined to be:[40]
This is fundamental for the study of the functions of several real variables. Let be such
a real-valued function. If all partial derivatives with respect to are defined at the point
, these partial derivatives define the vector
which is called the gradient of at . If is differentiable at every point in some domain, then the
gradient is a vector-valued function that maps the point to the vector
. Consequently, the gradient determines a vector field.[41]
Directional derivatives
If is a real-valued function on , then the partial derivatives of measure its variation in the
direction of the coordinate axes. For example, if is a function of and , then its partial derivatives
measure the variation in in the and direction. However, they do not directly measure the
variation of in any other direction, such as along the diagonal line . These are measured using
directional derivatives. Choose a vector , then the directional derivative of in the
direction of at the point is:[42]
If all the partial derivatives of exist and are continuous at , then they determine the directional
derivative of in the direction by the formula:[43]
Total derivative, total differential and Jacobian matrix

When is a function from an open subset of to , then the directional derivative of in a chosen
direction is the best linear approximation to at that point and in that direction. However, when
, no single directional derivative can give a complete picture of the behavior of . The total
derivative gives a complete picture by considering all directions at once. That is, for any vector
starting at , the linear approximation formula holds:[44]
Similarly with the single-variable derivative, is chosen so that the error in this approximation is
as small as possible. The total derivative of at is the unique linear transformation
such that[44]
Here is a vector in , so the norm in the denominator is the standard length on . However,
is a vector in , and the norm in the numerator is the standard length on .[44] If is a
vector starting at , then is called the pushforward of by .[45]
If the total derivative exists at , then all the partial derivatives and directional derivatives of exist at
, and for all , is the directional derivative of in the direction . If is written using
coordinate functions, so that , then the total derivative can be expressed using
the partial derivatives as a matrix. This matrix is called the Jacobian matrix of at :[46]
Generalizations
The concept of a derivative can be extended to many other settings. The common thread is that the
derivative of a function at a point serves as a linear approximation of the function at that point.
An important generalization of the derivative concerns complex functions of complex variables,

such as functions from (a domain in) the complex numbers to . The notion of the derivative of
such a function is obtained by replacing real variables with complex variables in the definition.[47]
If is identified with by writing a complex number as , then a differentiable function
from to is certainly differentiable as a function from to (in the sense that its partial
derivatives all exist), but the converse is not true in general: the complex derivative only exists if
the real derivative is complex linear and this imposes relations between the partial derivatives
called the Cauchy–Riemann equations – see holomorphic functions.[48]
Another generalization concerns functions between differentiable or smooth manifolds. Intuitively
speaking such a manifold is a space that can be approximated near each point by a vector
space called its tangent space: the prototypical example is a smooth surface in . The derivative
(or differential) of a (differentiable) map between manifolds, at a point in , is then
a linear map from the tangent space of at to the tangent space of at . The derivative
function becomes a map between the tangent bundles of and . This definition is used in
differential geometry.[49]
Differentiation can also be defined for maps between vector space, such as Banach space, in
which those generalizations are the Gateaux derivative and the Fréchet derivative.[50]
One deficiency of the classical derivative is that very many functions are not differentiable.
Nevertheless, there is a way of extending the notion of the derivative so that all continuous
functions and many other functions can be differentiated using a concept known as the weak
derivative. The idea is to embed the continuous functions in a larger space called the space of
distributions and only require that a function is differentiable "on average".[51]
Properties of the derivative have inspired the introduction and study of many similar objects in
algebra and topology; an example is differential algebra. Here, it consists of the derivation of some
topics in abstract algebra, such as rings, ideals, field, and so on.[52]
The discrete equivalent of differentiation is finite differences. The study of differential calculus is
unified with the calculus of finite differences in time scale calculus.[53]
The arithmetic derivative involves the function that is defined for the integers by the prime
factorization. This is an analogy with the product rule.[54]
See also
Integral
Notes
1. Stewart 2002, p. 129–130.
2. Stewart 2002, p. 127; Strang et al. 2023, p. 220 (https://openstax.org/books/calculus-volume-1/pa
ges/3-1-defining-the-derivative).
3. Gonick 2012, p. 83.
4. Gonick 2012, p. 88; Strang et al. 2023, p. 234 (https://openstax.org/books/calculus-volume-1/page
s/3-2-the-derivative-as-a-function).
5. Gonick 2012, p. 83; Strang et al. 2023, p. 232 (https://openstax.org/books/calculus-volume-1/page

s/3-2-the-derivative-as-a-function).
6. Gonick 2012, pp. 77–80.
7. Thompson 1998, pp. 34, 104; Stewart 2002, p. 128.
8. Thompson 1998, pp. 84–85.
9. Keisler 2012, pp. 902–904.
10. Keisler 2012, p. 45; Henle & Kleinberg 2003, p. 66.
11. Gonick 2012, p. 156.
12. Gonick 2012, p. 149.
13. Jašek 1922; Jarník 1922; Rychlík 1923.
14. David 2018.
15. Banach 1931, cited in Hewitt & Stromberg 1965.
16. Apostol 1967, p. 172.
17. Cajori 2007, p. 204.
18. Moore & Siegel 2013, p. 110.
19. Varberg, Purcell & Rigdon 2007, p. 125–126.
20. In the formulation of calculus in terms of limits, various authors have assigned the symbol
various meanings. Some authors such as Varberg, Purcell & Rigdon 2007, p. 119 and Stewart
2002, p. 177 do not assign a meaning to by itself, but only as part of the symbol . Others
define as an independent variable, and define by
In non-standard analysis is defined as an infinitesimal. It is also interpreted as the exterior

derivative of a function . See differential (infinitesimal) for further information.
21. Schwartzman 1994, p. 171 (https://books.google.com/books?id=PsH2DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA171).
22. Moore & Siegel 2013, p. 110; Goodman 1963, p. 78–79.
23. Varberg, Purcell & Rigdon 2007, p. 125–126; Cajori 2007, p. 228.
24. Choudary & Niculescu 2014, p. 222 (https://books.google.com/books?id=I8aPBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA
222); Apostol 1967, p. 171.
25. Evans 1999, p. 63; Kreyszig 1991, p. 1.
26. Cajori 1923.
27. Apostol 1967, p. 172; Varberg, Purcell & Rigdon 2007, p. 125–126.
28. Apostol 1967, p. 160.
29. Varberg, Purcell & Rigdon 2007. See p. 133 for the power rule, p. 115–116 for the trigonometric
functions, p. 326 for the natural logarithm, p. 338–339 for exponential with base , p. 343 for the
exponential with base , p. 344 for the logarithm with base , and p. 369 for the inverse of
trigonometric functions.
30. For constant rule and sum rule, see Apostol 1967, p. 161, 164, respectively. For the product rule,
quotient rule, and chain rule, see Varberg, Purcell & Rigdon 2007, p. 111–112, 119, respectively.
For the special case of the product rule, that is, the product of a constant and a function, see
Varberg, Purcell & Rigdon 2007, p. 108–109.
31. Apostol 1967, p. 160; Varberg, Purcell & Rigdon 2007, p. 125–126.
32. Warner 1983, p. 5.
33. Debnath & Shah 2015, p. 40 (https://books.google.com/books?id=qPuWBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA40).
34. Carothers 2000, p. 176 (https://books.google.com/books?id=4VFDVy1NFiAC&pg=PA176).
35. Stewart 2002, p. 193.

36. Stewart 2002, p. 893.
37. Stewart 2002, p. 947 (https://archive.org/details/calculus0000stew/page/947/mode/1up);
Christopher 2013, p. 682.
38. Stewart 2002, p. 949 (https://archive.org/details/calculus0000stew/page/949).
39. Silverman 1989, p. 216 (https://books.google.com/books?id=CQ-kqE9Yo9YC&pg=PA216);
Bhardwaj 2005, See p. 6.4 (https://books.google.com/books?id=qSlGMwpNueoC&pg=SA6-PA4).
40. Mathai & Haubold 2017, p. 52 (https://books.google.com/books?id=v20uDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA52).
41. Gbur 2011, pp. 36–37.
42. Varberg, Purcell & Rigdon 2007, p. 642.
43. Guzman 2003, p. 35 (https://books.google.com/books?id=aI_qBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA35).
44. Davvaz 2023, p. 266 (https://books.google.com/books?id=ofzKEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA266).
45. Lee 2013, p. 72.
46. Davvaz 2023, p. 267 (https://books.google.com/books?id=ofzKEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA267).
47. Roussos 2014, p. 303.
48. Gbur 2011, pp. 261–264.
49. Gray, Abbena & Salamon 2006, p. 826 (https://books.google.com/books?id=owEj9TMYo7IC&pg=
PA826).
50. Azegami 2020. See p. 209 (https://books.google.com/books?id=e08AEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA209) for
the Gateaux derivative, and p. 211 (https://books.google.com/books?id=e08AEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA
211) for the Fréchet derivative.
51. Funaro 1992, p. 84–85 (https://books.google.com/books?id=CX4SXf3mdeUC&pg=PA84).
52. Kolchin 1973, p. 58 (https://books.google.com/books?id=yDCfhIjka-8C&pg=PA58), 126 (https://bo
oks.google.com/books?id=yDCfhIjka-8C&pg=PA126).
53. Georgiev 2018, p. 8 (https://books.google.com/books?id=OJJVDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA8).
54. Barbeau 1961.
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External links
"Derivative" (https://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/index.php?title=Derivative), Encyclopedia of
Mathematics, EMS Press, 2001 [1994]
Khan Academy: "Newton, Leibniz, and Usain Bolt" (https://www.khanacademy.org/math/differential
-calculus/taking-derivatives/intro_differential_calc/v/newton-leibniz-and-usain-bolt)
Weisstein, Eric W. "Derivative" (https://mathworld.wolfram.com/Derivative.html). MathWorld.
Online Derivative Calculator (http://www.wolframalpha.com/calculators/derivative-calculator/) from
Wolfram Alpha.
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4/12/24, 6:43 PM Derivative - Wikipedia

The ratio in the definition of

Continuity and differentiability

Rules for basic functions

Functions of exponential, natural logarithm, and logarithm with general base:

Inverse trigonometric functions:

Rules for combined functions

Constant rule: if is constant, then for all ,

for all functions and and all real numbers and .

for all functions and at all inputs where g ≠ 0.

Chain rule for composite functions: If , then

The derivative of the function given by is

In general, the partial derivative of a function in the direction at the point

Total derivative, total differential and Jacobian matrix

An important generalization of the derivative concerns complex functions of complex variables,

5. Gonick 2012, p. 83; Strang et al. 2023, p. 232 (https://openstax.org/books/calculus-volume-1/page

In non-standard analysis is defined as an infinitesimal. It is also interpreted as the exterior

35. Stewart 2002, p. 193.

Guzman, Alberto (2003), Derivatives and Integrals of Multivariable Functions (https://books.googl

Thompson, Silvanus P. (September 8, 1998), Calculus Made Easy (Revised, Updated,

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