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Frequency
Frequency (symbol f), most often measured in hertz (symbol:
Frequency
Hz), is the number of occurrences of a repeating event per unit of
time.[1] It is also occasionally referred to as temporal frequency
for clarity and to distinguish it from spatial frequency. Ordinary
frequency is related to angular frequency (symbol ω, with SI unit
radian per second) by a factor of 2π. The period (symbol T) is the
interval of time between events, so the period is the reciprocal of
the frequency: f = 1/T.[2]

Frequency is an important parameter used in science and

A pendulum making 25 complete
engineering to specify the rate of oscillatory and vibratory
oscillations in 60 s, a frequency of
phenomena, such as mechanical vibrations, audio signals
0.416 Hz
(sound), radio waves, and light.
Common f, ν
For example, if a heart beats at a frequency of 120 times per symbols
minute (2 hertz), the period—the interval between beats—is half a SI unit hertz (Hz)
second (60 seconds divided by 120 beats). Other units cycle per second
(cps)
Definitions and units revolution per
For cyclical phenomena such as oscillations, waves, or for minute (rpm or
examples of simple harmonic motion, the term frequency is r/min)
defined as the number of cycles or repetitions per unit of time. In SI base s−1
The conventional symbol for frequency is f or ν (the Greek letter units
nu) is also used.[3] The period T is the time taken to complete one Derivations f=1/T
cycle of an oscillation or rotation. The frequency and the period from
are related by the equation[4] other
quantities
Dimension

The term temporal frequency is used to emphasise that the frequency is characterised by the number
of occurrences of a repeating event per unit time.

The SI unit of frequency is the hertz (Hz),[4] named after the German physicist Heinrich Hertz by the
International Electrotechnical Commission in 1930. It was adopted by the CGPM (Conférence
générale des poids et mesures) in 1960, officially replacing the previous name, cycle per second (cps).

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The SI unit for the period, as for all measurements of time, is the
second.[5] A traditional unit of frequency used with rotating
mechanical devices, where it is termed rotational frequency, is
revolution per minute, abbreviated r/min or rpm.[6] 60 rpm is
equivalent to one hertz.[7]

Period versus frequency

As a matter of convenience, longer and slower waves, such as
ocean surface waves, are more typically described by wave period
rather than frequency.[8] Short and fast waves, like audio and
radio, are usually described by their frequency. Some commonly A pendulum with a period of 2.8 s
used conversions are listed below: and a frequency of 0.36 Hz

Frequency Period

1 mHz (10−3 Hz) 1 ks (103 s)

1 Hz (100 Hz) 1 s (100 s)

1 kHz (103 Hz) 1 ms (10−3 s)

1 MHz (106 Hz) 1 μs (10−6 s)

1 GHz (109 Hz) 1 ns (10−9 s)

1 THz (1012 Hz) 1 ps (10−12 s)

Related quantities
Rotational frequency, usually denoted by the Greek letter ν
(nu), is defined as the instantaneous rate of change of the
number of rotations, N, with respect to time: ν = dN/dt; it is a
type of frequency applied to rotational motion.
Angular frequency, usually denoted by the Greek letter ω
(omega), is defined as the rate of change of angular
displacement (during rotation), θ (theta), or the rate of change
of the phase of a sinusoidal waveform (notably in oscillations
and waves), or as the rate of change of the argument to the
sine function:

Diagram of the relationship between

The unit of angular frequency is the radian per second the different types of frequency and
(rad/s) but, for discrete-time signals, can also be expressed other wave properties. In this
as radians per sampling interval, which is a dimensionless diagram, x is the input to the
quantity. Angular frequency is frequency multiplied by 2π. function represented by the arrow.

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Spatial frequency, denoted here by ξ (xi), is analogous to temporal frequency, but with a spatial
measurement replacing time measurement,[note 1] e.g.:

Spatial period or wavelength is the spatial analog to temporal period.

In wave propagation
For periodic waves in nondispersive media (that is, media in which the wave speed is independent of
frequency), frequency has an inverse relationship to the wavelength, λ (lambda). Even in dispersive
media, the frequency f of a sinusoidal wave is equal to the phase velocity v of the wave divided by the
wavelength λ of the wave:

In the special case of electromagnetic waves in vacuum, then v = c, where c is the speed of light in
vacuum, and this expression becomes

When monochromatic waves travel from one medium to another, their frequency remains the same—
only their wavelength and speed change.

Measurement
Measurement of frequency can be done in the following ways:

Counting
Calculating the frequency of a repeating event is accomplished by counting the number of times that
event occurs within a specific time period, then dividing the count by the period. For example, if 71
events occur within 15 seconds the frequency is:

If the number of counts is not very large, it is more accurate to measure the time interval for a
predetermined number of occurrences, rather than the number of occurrences within a specified time.
The latter method introduces a random error into the count of between zero and one count, so on
average half a count. This is called gating error and causes an average error in the calculated

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frequency of , or a fractional error of where is the timing interval and is

the measured frequency. This error decreases with frequency, so it is generally a problem at low
frequencies where the number of counts N is small.

Stroboscope
An old method of measuring the frequency of rotating
or vibrating objects is to use a stroboscope. This is an
intense repetitively flashing light (strobe light) whose
frequency can be adjusted with a calibrated timing
circuit. The strobe light is pointed at the rotating
object and the frequency adjusted up and down. When
the frequency of the strobe equals the frequency of the
rotating or vibrating object, the object completes one
cycle of oscillation and returns to its original position
between the flashes of light, so when illuminated by
the strobe the object appears stationary. Then the
frequency can be read from the calibrated readout on
the stroboscope. A downside of this method is that an
object rotating at an integer multiple of the strobing A resonant-reed frequency meter, an obsolete
frequency will also appear stationary. device used from about 1900 to the 1940s for
measuring the frequency of alternating current. It
consists of a strip of metal with reeds of graduated
Frequency counter lengths, vibrated by an electromagnet. When the
unknown frequency is applied to the
electromagnet, the reed which is resonant at that
frequency will vibrate with large amplitude, visible
next to the scale.

Modern frequency counter Higher frequencies are usually measured with a frequency
counter. This is an electronic instrument which measures the
frequency of an applied repetitive electronic signal and displays
the result in hertz on a digital display. It uses digital logic to count the number of cycles during a time
interval established by a precision quartz time base. Cyclic processes that are not electrical, such as
the rotation rate of a shaft, mechanical vibrations, or sound waves, can be converted to a repetitive
electronic signal by transducers and the signal applied to a frequency counter. As of 2018, frequency
counters can cover the range up to about 100 GHz. This represents the limit of direct counting
methods; frequencies above this must be measured by indirect methods.

Heterodyne methods
Above the range of frequency counters, frequencies of electromagnetic signals are often measured
indirectly utilizing heterodyning (frequency conversion). A reference signal of a known frequency near
the unknown frequency is mixed with the unknown frequency in a nonlinear mixing device such as a
diode. This creates a heterodyne or "beat" signal at the difference between the two frequencies. If the

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two signals are close together in frequency the heterodyne is low enough to be measured by a
frequency counter. This process only measures the difference between the unknown frequency and
the reference frequency. To convert higher frequencies, several stages of heterodyning can be used.
Current research is extending this method to infrared and light frequencies (optical heterodyne
detection).

Examples

Light
Visible light is an electromagnetic
wave, consisting of oscillating
electric and magnetic fields
traveling through space. The
frequency of the wave determines
its color: 400 THz (4 × 1014 Hz) is
red light, 800 THz (8 × 1014 Hz) is
violet light, and between these (in
the range 400–800 THz) are all
the other colors of the visible
spectrum. An electromagnetic Complete spectrum of electromagnetic radiation with the visible portion
wave with a frequency less than highlighted
14
4 × 10 Hz will be invisible to the
human eye; such waves are called
infrared (IR) radiation. At even lower frequency, the wave is called a microwave, and at still lower
frequencies it is called a radio wave. Likewise, an electromagnetic wave with a frequency higher than
8 × 1014 Hz will also be invisible to the human eye; such waves are called ultraviolet (UV) radiation.
Even higher-frequency waves are called X-rays, and higher still are gamma rays.

All of these waves, from the lowest-frequency radio waves to the highest-frequency gamma rays, are
fundamentally the same, and they are all called electromagnetic radiation. They all travel through
vacuum at the same speed (the speed of light), giving them wavelengths inversely proportional to their
frequencies.

where c is the speed of light (c in vacuum or less in other media), f is the frequency and λ is the
wavelength.

In dispersive media, such as glass, the speed depends somewhat on frequency, so the wavelength is
not quite inversely proportional to frequency.

Sound

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Sound propagates as mechanical vibration

waves of pressure and displacement, in air or
other substances.[10] In general, frequency
components of a sound determine its "color",
its timbre. When speaking about the
frequency (in singular) of a sound, it means The sound wave spectrum, with rough guide of some
applications
the property that most determines its
pitch.[11]

The frequencies an ear can hear are limited to a specific range of frequencies. The audible frequency
range for humans is typically given as being between about 20 Hz and 20,000 Hz (20 kHz), though
the high frequency limit usually reduces with age. Other species have different hearing ranges. For
example, some dog breeds can perceive vibrations up to 60,000 Hz.[12]

In many media, such as air, the speed of sound is approximately independent of frequency, so the
wavelength of the sound waves (distance between repetitions) is approximately inversely proportional
to frequency.

Line current
In Europe, Africa, Australia, southern South America, most of Asia, and Russia, the frequency of the
alternating current in household electrical outlets is 50 Hz (close to the tone G), whereas in North
America and northern South America, the frequency of the alternating current in household electrical
outlets is 60 Hz (between the tones B♭ and B; that is, a minor third above the European frequency).
The frequency of the 'hum' in an audio recording can show in which of these general regions the
recording was made.

Aperiodic frequency
Aperiodic frequency is the rate of incidence or occurrence of non-cyclic phenomena, including
random processes such as radioactive decay. It is expressed with the unit of reciprocal second (s−1)[13]
or, in the case of radioactivity, becquerels.[14]

It is defined as a rate, f = N/Δt, involving the number of entities counted or the number of events
happened (N) during a given time duration (Δt); it is a physical quantity of type temporal rate.

See also
Audio frequency Frequency converter
Bandwidth (signal processing) Frequency domain
Chirp Frequency distribution
Cutoff frequency Frequency extender
Downsampling Frequency grid
Electronic filter Frequency level
Fourier analysis Frequency modulation
Frequency band Frequency spectrum

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Interaction frequency Radar signal characteristics

Least-squares spectral analysis Signaling (telecommunications)
Natural frequency Spread spectrum
Negative frequency Spectral component
Periodicity (disambiguation) Transverter
Pink noise Upsampling
Preselector Orders of magnitude (frequency)

Notes
1. The term spatial period, sometimes used in place of wavelength, analogously corresponds to the
(temporal) period.[9]

References
1. "Definition of FREQUENCY" (http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/frequency). Retrieved
3 October 2016.
2. "Definition of PERIOD" (http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/period). Retrieved 3 October
2016.
3. Serway & Faughn 1989, p. 346.
4. Serway & Faughn 1989, p. 354.
5. "Resolution 12 of the 11th CGPM (1960)" (https://web.archive.org/web/20200408155740/https://w
ww.bipm.org/en/CGPM/db/11/12/). BIPM (International Bureau of Weights and Measures).
Archived from the original (https://www.bipm.org/en/CGPM/db/11/12/) on 8 April 2020. Retrieved
21 January 2021.
6. "Special Publication 811: NIST Guide to the SI, Chapter 8" (https://www.nist.gov/pml/special-public
ation-811/nist-guide-si-chapter-8). NIST. 28 January 2016. Retrieved 2022-11-08.
7. Davies 1997, p. 275.
8. Young 1999, p. 7.
9. Boreman, Glenn D. "Spatial Frequency" (https://spie.org/publications/tt52_12_spatial_frequency?
SSO=1). SPIE. Retrieved 22 January 2021.
10. "Definition of SOUND" (http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/sound). Retrieved 3 October
2016.
11. Pilhofer, Michael (2007). Music Theory for Dummies (https://books.google.com/books?id=CxcviU
w4KX8C). For Dummies. p. 97. ISBN 978-0-470-16794-6.
12. Condon, Tim (2003). Elert, Glenn (ed.). "Frequency range of dog hearing" (https://hypertextbook.c
om/facts/2003/TimCondon.shtml). The Physics Factbook. Retrieved 2008-10-22.
13. Lombardi, Michael A. (2007). "Fundamentals of Time and Frequency". In Bishop, Robert H. (ed.).
Mechatronic Systems, Sensors, and Actuators: Fundamentals and Modeling. Austin: CRC Press.
ISBN 9781420009002.
14. Newell, David B; Tiesinga, Eite (2019). The international system of units (SI) (https://nvlpubs.nist.g
ov/nistpubs/SpecialPublications/NIST.SP.330-2019.pdf) (PDF) (Report). Gaithersburg, MD:

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National Institute of Standards and Technology. doi:10.6028/nist.sp.330-2019 (https://doi.org/10.6

028%2Fnist.sp.330-2019). sub§2.3.4, Table 4.

Sources
Davies, A. (1997). Handbook of Condition Monitoring: Techniques and Methodology (https://book
s.google.com/books?id=j2mN2aIs2YIC&pg=RA1-PA275). New York: Springer. ISBN 978-0-412-
61320-3.
Serway, Raymond A.; Faughn, Jerry S. (1989). College Physics (https://archive.org/details/college
physics00serw/mode/2up?q=frequency). London: Thomson/Brooks-Cole. ISBN 978-05344-0-814-
5.
Young, Ian R. (1999). Wind Generated Ocean Waves (https://books.google.com/books?id=ph7GK
ZZGjyYC&q=ocean+waves). Elsevere Ocean Engineering. Vol. 2. Oxford: Elsevier. ISBN 978-0-
08-043317-2.

Further reading
Giancoli, D.C. (1988). Physics for Scientists and Engineers (2nd ed.). Prentice Hall. ISBN 978-0-
13-669201-0.

External links
Keyboard frequencies = naming of notes – The English and American system versus the German
system (http://www.sengpielaudio.com/calculator-notenames.htm)
A frequency generator with sound, useful for hearing tests (http://onlinetonegenerator.com)

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Frequency&oldid=1218502388"

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