energies

Article
Linearization and Control of Series-Series
Compensated Inductive Power Transfer System
Based on Extended Describing Function Concept
Kunwar Aditya and Sheldon Williamson *
Department of Electrical, Computer and Software Engineering, University of Ontario Institute of Technology,
Oshawa, ON L1H 7K4, Canada; [email protected]
* Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +1-905-721-8668 (ext. 5744)

Academic Editor: Jin Ye

Received: 9 August 2016; Accepted: 11 November 2016; Published: 17 November 2016

Abstract: The extended describing function (EDF) is a well-known method for modelling resonant
converters due to its high accuracy. However, it requires complex mathematical formulation effort.
This paper presents a simplified non-linear mathematical model of series-series (SS) compensated
inductive power transfer (IPT) system, considering zero-voltage switching in the inverter. This
simplified mathematical model permits the user to derive the small-signal model using the EDF
method, with less computational effort, while maintaining the accuracy of an actual physical model.
The derived model has been verified using a frequency sweep method in PLECS. The small-signal
model has been used to design the voltage loop controller for a SS compensated IPT system.
The designed controller was implemented on a 3.6 kW experimental setup, to test its robustness.

Keywords: chargers; energy storage; inductive energy storage; power electronics; resonant power
conversion; and transportation

1. Introduction
Inductive Power Transfer (IPT) is receiving wide interest in wireless charging of electric vehicles
(EVs), due to advantages such as: opportunity charging; battery volume reduction; safety; visual
appeal due to removal of cord; and relieving the user from handling a bulky and heavy charging
chord [1]. An IPT system consists of two coils: a primary coil placed on the surface, connected to
a power supply; and a secondary coil, placed underneath the vehicle, connected to the load. Since
power transfer takes place due to the mutual coupling of coils, an optimum coupling between both
coils is required for an efficient power transfer. This requires the vehicle to be parked in a specific
position [2,3]. However, while parking the vehicle over the primary coil, certain misalignments could
always occur. Due to misalignments, coils could deviate from the optimal coupling scenario. Moreover,
the parameters of the system could vary due to reasons such as: fluctuation in supply voltage; and
variation of load due to varying state of the charge of the battery pack. These issues can lead to the
deviation of output voltage and current from the desired operating points.
A suitably designed closed-loop controller is consistently needed, in order to improve tolerance
to misalignments and parameter variations. Recent papers mainly present steady-state models and
experiments [4,5]. Steady-state models cannot accurately predict the dynamic behavior of a system;
therefore, they cannot be used as a tool for controller and physical system design.
For the design of control loops, dynamic analysis of the IPT system is essential [6]. An IPT
system is a typical higher-order resonant circuit, and consists of one slow moving pole, due to the
output filter (rectifier + capacitor) and fast moving poles, and due to the resonant tank elements.
This causes a difference in frequency between the resonant network and the filter network. This

Energies 2016, 9, 962; doi:10.3390/en9110962 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2016, 9, 962 2 of 16
Energies 2016, 9, 962 2 of 16

usage ofthe
relegates modelling
usage of techniques typically used
modelling techniques for PWM
typically used for DC/DC
PWM converters [7]. Therefore,
DC/DC converters in due
[7]. Therefore,
course
in of time,
due course of various specialized
time, various techniques
specialized have been
techniques have developed
been developed for dynamic
for dynamicanalysis of such
analysis of
resonant
such systems.
resonant systems.SomeSomeof theof popular techniques
the popular include:
techniques Generalized
include: state-space
Generalized averaging
state-space (GSSA)
averaging
methodmethod
(GSSA) [7], sampled data data
[7], sampled modelling
modelling(SDM) (SDM)technique
technique [8],[8],
extended
extendeddescribing
describingfunction (EDF)
function (EDF)
method [9],
method [9], and
and general
general unified
unifiedphasor
phasortransformation
transformation(GUPT) (GUPT)[10]. [10]. While
While each
each method
method has has its
its own
own
advantagesand
advantages andlimitations,
limitations,ititisisnot notthe
theintention
intentionof ofthis
thispaper
paperto tocompare
comparethem. them.The Theaim
aim of of the
the paper
paper
merelyisistotoderive
merely deriveananaccurate
accurate simplified
simplified small-signal
small-signal model
model of compensated
of SS SS compensated IPT IPT
systemsystemusingusing
the
the EDF
EDF method.
method. The The derived
derived model model
will will be used
be used to design
to design a voltage
a voltage control
control loop.loop.
TheEDF
The EDFmethod
methodhas hasbeenbeen preferred
preferred overoverotherother methods
methods due to dueits to its reputation
reputation of generating
of generating highly
highly accurate
accurate mathematical
mathematical model model of resonant
of resonant converters.
converters. The EDFThe EDF technique
technique was wasfirstfirst introduced
introduced by
by Yang
Yang et al.etinal.
1991in [11].
1991The [11].most
Therecent
most work
recentand work and advancement
advancement on the EDF on method
the EDFhas method has been
been presented
presented
in [12,13]. Thisin [12,13].
modeling Thistechnique
modelingworks technique
on theworks on the basic
basic principle of firstprinciple
harmonic of approximation
first harmonic
approximation
of state variables. of This
state invariables. This ina turn
turn provides set ofprovides
modulation a setfunctions
of modulation functions
that relate that variables
the state relate the
state the
with variables
input with the input
and control and control
variables, which variables,
are both which are both in time-domain
in time-domain and frequency-
and frequency-domain [13].
domain
The EDF [13].methodThe isEDF highlymethod is highly
accurate accurate
but requires but requires
higher higher orderand
order representation representation
therefore more and
thereforeformulation
complex more complex formulation
effort. For instance, effort. For instance,
a small signal model a small
of SSsignal model of IPT
compensated SS compensated
system has been IPT
system has
derived been derived
in [14–17] which is inthe
[14–17]
ninthwhich
order is the ninth order system.
system.
In [18], authors
In authors derived
derivedaasimplified
simplifiedmathematical
mathematical model
model of SS
of compensated
SS compensated IPT IPTsystem. The
system.
derived
The derivedmodel model is aisfifth
a fifthorder
ordersystem
system asas compared
comparedtotothe theninth
ninthorder
order model
model derived
derived by others.
However,only
However, onlysimulation
simulationresults resultswerewerepresented
presentedand andthethepaper
paper lacks
lacks experimental
experimental verification.
verification. AsAsa
a follow-up to that paper, the authors present the detailed analysis
follow-up to that paper, the authors present the detailed analysis of the derived model in of the derived model in this paper.
Detailedanalysis
Detailed analysisincludes
includesverification
verificationof ofsmall
smallsignal
signalmodel
modelusingusingAC AC sweep
sweep method
method and and verification
verification
of designed
of designed controller
controller for for its
its robustness
robustness usingusingexperimental
experimental results.
results. Targeted
Targeted application
application is is static
static
chargingofofEVs.
charging EVs.For For
thisthis
typetype of application,
of application, the IPTthesystem
IPT system
usuallyusually
has single hassecondary
single secondary
coil drawing coil
drawing
power from power from the
the single singlecoil.
primary primary
Due tocoil.
the Due to the
coupled coupled
nature of thenature of primary
circuit, the circuit,
sideprimary
control side
has
control
been has been
preferred preferred
to avoid to avoid
secondary sidesecondary side DC-DC
DC-DC converter converterlosses
and associated and associated
with it. Anlosses with it.
experimental
An experimental
setup setup ofcharger
of a 3.6 kW wireless a 3.6 kW haswireless
been builtcharger
in thehaslabbeen built in
to operate at the lab to operate
a nominal switching at frequency
a nominal
switching
of frequency was
40 kHz. Frequency of 40 kHz. based
selected Frequency
on DSP was selected
module andbased
switching on DSP module
elements and switching
available in the lab
elements available in the lab at the time. However, the idea presented
at the time. However, the idea presented in the paper is applicable to the entire power and frequency in the paper is applicable to
theinterest
of entire related
power and frequency
to IPT system for of interest
EV batteryrelated to IPT system for EV battery charging.
charging.

2. Equivalent Circuit
2. Equivalent Circuit Derivation
Derivation for
for an
an SS
SS Compensated
Compensated IPT System
A
A typical compensated IPT
typical SS compensated IPTsystem
systemunder
underthetheprimary
primary side
side control
control is shown
is shown in Figure
in Figure 1.
1. An
An H-Bridge
H-Bridge inverter
inverter in the
in the primary
primary side
side converts
converts thethe
DCDC input
input into
into high
high frequency
frequency voltage/current
voltage/current for
for
thethe resonant
resonant tank.
tank. AA diodebridge
diode bridgerectifier
rectifierononthe
the secondary
secondary side
side converts
converts the high
high frequency
frequency
voltage/current back to
voltage/current back to the
the DC
DC value
value required by the load resistance R Roo..

Figure 1.
Figure 1. Series-series
Series-series compensated
compensated inductive
inductive power
powertransfer
transfersystem.
system.
Energies 2016,
Energies 2016, 9,
9, 962
962 33 of
of 16
16

Figure 1 will be referred to as the ‘full model’ of SS compensated IPT system in this paper from
now on. To1 simplify
Figure will be referred to as theof
the derivation ‘full
themodel’ of SS compensated
small-signal model, first IPT system dynamic
a reduced in this paper from
model is
now on. To simplify the derivation of the small-signal model, first a reduced
obtained from the full model. From the reduced dynamic model a small signal model has been dynamic model is
obtained
derived. from
This the full model.
two-step From the
derivation reduced
reduces dynamic
the modeland
complexity a small signal model
computation has required,
effort been derived.
for
This two-step derivation reduces the complexity and computation effort required,
applying EDF for the derivation of the small-signal model. The following discussion entails the for applying EDF
for the derivation
derivation of the small-signal
of the reduced dynamic model model. The following discussion entails the derivation of the
as follows:
reduced
It isdynamic
assumedmodel as follows:
that the secondary coil is resonating at the switching frequency = and
It is assumed that the secondary coil is resonating at the switching frequency ωs = √ L1 C and the
the primary coil resonating at the resonant frequency = . should be less thans s
to
primary coil resonating at the resonant frequency ωo = √ L1 C . ωo should be less than ωs to maintain
P P
maintain
ZVS ZVS ininverter.
in H-bridge H-bridge inverter.
Under Under this assumption,
this assumption, equivalent
equivalent circuit of Figurecircuit
1 canof be
Figure 1 can
redrawn as be
in
redrawn
Figure 2. as in Figure 2.

Figure 2.
Figure 2. Equivalent circuit of
Equivalent circuit of series-series
series-series topology.
topology.

Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage Law (KVL) to circuit shown in Figure 2:

Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage Law (KVL) to circuit shown in Figure 2:
= di + + +  + ( ) (1)
VAB = L P P + Vm + R p + n2 RS i P + sgn(i P )nV0 (1)
dt
= (2)
dVm
CP = iP (2)
Applying Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL) todtthe rectifier network of Figure 1:
Applying Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL) to the rectifier network of Figure 1:
+ = | | (3)
dVo Vo
cf + = |iS | (3)
Output equation is given by: dt RL

Output equation is given by: = (4)

Vo = Vc f (4)
Equations (1)–(4) gives the ‘reduced dynamic model’ of the SS compensated IPT system. Here,
= Equations
. Meaning of gives
(1)–(4) symbols
theused are given
‘reduced in Nomenclature
dynamic model’ of thesection.
SS compensated IPT system. Here,
ωs M
n = R + R L . Meaning of symbols used are given in Nomenclature section.
S
3. Small-Signal Modeling
3. Small-Signal Modeling
The equivalent circuit shown in Figure 2 is a greater simplification over the equivalent circuit
The in
derived equivalent
[14–17]. circuit
This isshown
similarinto
Figure 2 is a greater
the equivalent simplification
circuit over the equivalent
of a series-loaded circuit
resonant DC/DC
derived inSince,
converter. [14–17]. and
This is are
similar
almostto sinusoidal
the equivalent circuit
(due to of aprovided
filtering series-loaded resonant
by resonant DC/DC
circuit) they
converter. Since, i and V are almost sinusoidal (due to filtering provided by
can be approximated to their fundamental component using harmonic approximation. Hence,
P m resonant circuit) they
can be approximated to their fundamental component using harmonic approximation. Hence,
= cos( ) + sin( ) (5)
Vm ==Vx cos(
cos(ωs t)) + sin(ωs t))
+ Vysin( (5)
(6)
VAB can be modelled using the ifundamental
P = Ix cos( ωs tcomponent
) + Iy sin(ωsof
t) the inverter output waveform since(6)
in EDF only the first harmonic component is of prime importance [12]. There are mainly three narrow
VAB can be modelled
frequency-range using the fundamental
control techniques component
used for the control of the inverter
of resonant output
converters, waveform
namely since in
asymmetrical
EDF
duty cycle (ADC), asymmetrical clamped mode (ACM), and symmetrical clamped modenarrow
only the first harmonic component is of prime importance [12]. There are mainly three (SCM)
frequency-range control techniques used for the control of resonant converters, namely asymmetrical
control. It has been shown in [19–21] that only ACM control has the best performance in terms of the
least losses in the inverter switches as compared to other two control strategies and has the lowest
Energies 2016, 9, 962 4 of 16

duty cycle (ADC), asymmetrical clamped mode (ACM), and symmetrical clamped mode (SCM) control.
It has been
Energies 2016, 9,shown
962 in [19–21] that only ACM control has the best performance in terms of the4least
of 16
losses in the inverter switches as compared to other two control strategies and has the lowest switching
frequency frequency
switching for obtaining forZVS under ZVS
obtaining all load conditions.
under all load Therefore,
conditions.ACM controlACM
Therefore, has been considered
control has beenin
this paper for the inverter control.
considered in this paper for the inverter control.
Figure 3 shows a typical switching logic and the inverter output voltage for ACM control.
control.

Figure
Figure 3.
3. Switching
Switching scheme
scheme and
and voltage
voltage waveform
waveform of
of the
the ACM
ACM control.
control.

VAB in term of duty cycle d (= ton) is given by Equation (7).

VAB in term of duty cycle d (= T ) is given by Equation (7).

= − V sin 2 cos + V (3 + cos 2 ) sin (7)

VAB = − dc sin2πdcosωs t + dc (3 + cos2πd) sinωs t (7)
π π
Using EDF non-linear terms = ( ) is written as function of and . Hence,
Using EDF non-linear terms VCD = sgn(i P )nV0 is written as function of i P and Vc f . Hence,
4 4
= sin + cos (8)
4n Iy 4n Ix
VCD = V sinωs t + V cosωs t (8)
Here, π c f IP π c f IP

Here, =q + = (9)
2 2
IP = Ix + Iy = i p (9)
Put Equations (5)–(8) in Equations (1) and (2), and by equating the coefficients of DC, sine, and
cosine terms
Put respectively,
Equations (5)–(8)one can get: (1) and (2), and by equating the coefficients of DC, sine, and
in Equations
cosine terms respectively, one can get: 4
= − −( + ) − + (3 + cos 2 ) (10)
dIy   4n Iy V
LP = L P Ix ωs − Vy − R P + n2 RS Iy − 4Vc f + dc (3 + cos2πd) (10)
dt =− − −( + ) − π IP −π sin 2 (11)
dIx   4n Ix V
LP = − L P Iy ωs − Vx − R P + n2 RS Ix − Vc f − DC sin2πd (11)
dt = − π IP π (12)
dVx
CP = Ix − Vy CP ωs (12)
dt = + (13)
dVy
CP = Iy2+ Vx CP ωs (13)
dt = − (14)
dVc f 2nI Vo
Equations (10)–(14) give the large-signal C f model = of Pthe− SS compensated IPT system in terms of (14) the
dt π Ro
state variables. It contains both the steady-state model and the small-signal model. One can observe from
Equations
the large (10)–(14)
signal model thatgive the large-signal
it is constructed of fivemodel of the SSascompensated
state variables opposed to theIPT system
nine in terms
variables of
used in
the state variables. It contains both the
[14–17]. The operating point is determined by { steady-state model and the small-signal model. One
} and have been mentioned in Appendix A. can
The state variable vector and control/input variables vector of
observe from the large signal model that it is constructed canfive state variables
be expressed as: as opposed to the nine

= (15)

= (16)
Energies 2016, 9, 962 5 of 16

variables used in [14–17]. The operating point is determined by {Ix Iy Vx Vy } and have been mentioned
in Appendix A. The state variable vector and control/input variables vector can be expressed as:

→ h iT
X= Ix Iy Vx Vy Vc f (15)

→ h iT
U= Vdc d ωs (16)

The small-signal model can be derived by introducing ac perturbation, represented by ‘~’ in input
variables vector and state variables resulting in:
→
x = X + xe, vdc = Vdc + V
edc , d = d + d,
e ωs = ωs + ω
es

Separating perturbations from the DC and very small signals gives the small-signal model of
SS topology:
de
x
= Ae
x + Bue (17)
dt
ye = Ce
x + D ue (18)

Here,
 
−1 −1 −4nIx
 
4n
LP π IP Vc f + R P + n2 R s − ωs LP 0 π IP L P
−4nIy
   
−1 4n
+ R P + n2 R s −1
ωs π IP Vc f 0
 
 LP LP π IP L P 
A=
 1 
 CP 0 0 − ωs 0 

1

 0 CP ωs 0 0 

nIP nIP −1
π Ix C f πIy C f 0 0 Ro C f

 
− sin2πd
πL P − 2V dc
L P cos2πd − Iy
 1 2V 
 πLP (3 + cos2πd) − LP sin2πd
dc
 Ix 

B=  0 0 −Vy 

0 0 Vx
 
 
0 0 0
 
ei x
 
V
edc  ei 
 y 
ue =  d  xe =  vex 
 e   
 
ω
es  vey 
vec f
h i
ye = V
ec f , C = 0 0 0 0 1 & D =0 (19)

4. Verification of Small-Signal Model and Design of Control Loops

A prototype of the SS compensated IPT system was built in the lab. Table 1 gives the parameters
of the experimental setup. Using theories presented in [19–21], and depending on availability of
capacitors in the market, fS was calculated to be 41.426 kHz for ensuring ZVS for any variation of α,
and the primary coil was tuned to a resonant frequency of 39.031 kHz.
The controller was designed based on fixed frequency and variable duty ratio control. Some of
the latest work, presented in the literature, related to the controller design for an IPT system can
be read in [22–25]. Following subsection discusses a step by step procedure for derivation of a
voltage controller.
Energies 2016, 9, 962 6 of 16

Table 1. Parameters of Series-Series Compensated IPT System.

Parameters Values
Vdc (V) 340
Lp (µH) 400.65
LS (µH) 101.10
M (µH) 40.23
Rp (Ω) 0.13
Rs (Ω) 0.06
Energies 2016, 9, 962 Cp (nF) 41.5 6 of 16
CS (nF) 146
fo (kHz) 39.031
The controller was designed based on fixed frequency and
fs (kHz) variable duty ratio control. Some of
41.426
the latest work, presented in the literature,
Cf (uF) related to the controller
220 design for an IPT system can be
read in [22–25]. Following subsection discusses
Rated load, Ro (Ω) a step by step7.84
procedure for derivation of a voltage
controller. Air-gap (cm) 16
Rated output (kW) 3.6
4.1. Bode Plot of Open-Loop System
4.1. Bode Plot of Open-Loop System
Transfer function of output variable to the control variable (i.e., plant) can be obtained using
Transfer
Equation (20).function of output variable to the control variable (i.e., plant) can be obtained using
Equation (20).
(s)
GGP (s) ==CC(sI −AA))−1BB +
+ DD
(20)
(sI − (20)
Here, GP(s) represents plant transfer function, Ve0. Figure 4 compares the open loop Bode plot
Here, GP (s) represents plant transfer function, e . Figure 4 compares the open loop Bode plot
d
obtained
obtained from small-signal model,
from small-signal model, reduced
reduced dynamic
dynamic model
model and
and full model of
full model of the
the SS
SS compensated
compensated
IPT system. The Bode plot of the full model and the reduced dynamic model in open
IPT system. The Bode plot of the full model and the reduced dynamic model in open loop loop have have
been
obtained by simulating these models in PLECS 3.7.5 and applying an AC sweep for
been obtained by simulating these models in PLECS 3.7.5 and applying an AC sweep for a fewa few discrete
points.
discrete points.

V
for dd =
e0
Figure
Figure 4. Open loop
4. Open loop Bode
Bode plot
plot of
of for 0.8.
= 0.8.
de

In Figure 4, one can observe that the AC sweep result for the reduced dynamic model closely
follows the Bode plot of the small-signal
small-signal model. BothBoth models
models havehave the phase margin of 12 12°◦ at the
crossover frequency of 10.2 kHz. The gain cross-over frequency lies to the left of the phase crossover
frequency which indicates
frequency which indicatesaastable
stableopen-loop
open-loopsystem.
system.The
Thegain
gaincrossover
crossoverfrequency
frequency ofof the
the full
full model
model is
is also
also near
near to kHz
to 10 10 kHz
but but the phase
the phase crossover
crossover frequency
frequency is lessisthan
less the
than thecrossover
gain gain crossover frequency
frequency which
which
makes makes the system
the actual actual system
unstableunstable fordisturbances
for small small disturbances in the
in the duty dutyload,
cycle, cycle,
andload, and
input DCinput DC
voltage.
voltage. The Bode plot of full model closely follows the small-signal model up to 4 kHz frequency.
Here the aim is to design the control loop for output voltage control which is DC. As a rule of thumb,
the bandwidth of the closed-loop system is selected 5 to 10 times the highest frequency being
controlled. Therefore, the derived small-signal model is useful for the design of voltage control loop.
Energies 2016, 9, 962 7 of 16

The Bode plot of full model closely follows the small-signal model up to 4 kHz frequency. Here the aim
is to design the control loop for output voltage control which is DC. As a rule of thumb, the bandwidth
of the closed-loop system is selected 5 to 10 times the highest frequency being controlled. Therefore,
the derived
Energies 2016, 9,small-signal
962 model is useful for the design of voltage control loop. 7 of 16

4.2. Derivation
4.2. Derivation of
of Closed-Loop
Closed-Loop Voltage
Voltage Controller
Controller
The design
The design of of voltage
voltage loop,
loop, shown
shown in
in Figure
Figure 5,
5, involves
involves defining
defining the
the voltage
voltage loop
loop quantitatively
quantitatively
and should meet the design criteria of phase margin (PM) and bandwidth
and should meet the design criteria of phase margin (PM) and bandwidth (BW) or (BW) or crossover
crossover
frequency, ffcc..
frequency,

Figure 5.
Figure Voltage control
5. Voltage control loop.

Here,
Here, GGcc(s)
(s) isis the
the transfer
transfer function
functionof
of PI
PI regulator.
regulator. Voltage
Voltage loop
loop transfer
transfer function
function (LTF)
(LTF) is
is then
then
given by, LTF(s) = G c(s) GP(s). The following steps were followed in deriving the transfer function of
given by, LTF(s) = Gc (s) GP (s). The following steps were followed in deriving the transfer function of
the
the controller:
controller:
1.
1. Select
Select phase
phase margin,
margin, cross-over
cross-over frequency, and type
frequency, and type of
of controller:
controller:
A
A bandwidth
bandwidth (f (fcc))of
of40
40Hz
Hzisisselected.
selected.The Thephase
phasemargin
margin(PM)(PM) of
of85°
85◦isischosen
chosento toprovide
provideadequate
adequate
damping
damping to to the
the closed-loop
closed-loopsystem
systemfor fora asudden
sudden change
change in in duty
duty cycle.
cycle. SinceSince
the the
slopeslope of open
of the the open
loop
loop plant is 0 dB/dec at the selected crossover frequency, therefore, a simple PI regulator
plant is 0 dB/dec at the selected crossover frequency, therefore, a simple PI regulator is sufficient to is sufficient
to regulate
regulate thethe output
output voltage.
voltage. The
The transfer
transfer function
function of of
thethe
PI PI controller
controller is given
is given byby Equation
Equation (21):
(21):
1+s
G (s) = K 1 + sτ (21)
Gc (s) = KPI s (21)
sτ
2. Calculate the needed Phase boost:
2. Calculate the needed Phase boost:
From the Bode plot of the open loop plant GP(s): | ( )| = 45 dB and ∠ ( ) = −11° .
From PI
Therefore, thecontroller
Bode plothasoftothe openaloop
present lead G
plant
phase | GPa(gain
ofP (s):and f c )| = 45 dB.
of 45 and ∠Gs ( f c ) = −11◦ .
dB Here,
Therefore, PI controller has to present a phase lead of φ and a gain of 45 dB. Here,
= PM − (180 + ∠G (f )) = −84° (22)
◦
The required phase boost at φ = PM −frequency
crossover (180 + ∠Giss (given −84Equation
fc ) = by (23): (22)

boost
The required phase boost at crossover = + 90
frequency is = 6° by Equation (23):
given (23)

3. Calculate the time constant, : boost = φ + 90 = 6◦ (23)

3. Calculate the time constant, τ: tan 2 f = boost (24)

∴ = 4.182 × 10−4.
tan−1 2πfc τ = boost (24)
4. Calculate the controller gain at the crossover frequency:
∴ τ =At4.182 × 10−4 . crossover frequency the LTF should cross 0 dB line, i.e.,
the desired
20log (LTF)fc = 0 dB (25)
∴ KPI = 0.00054.
Therefore PI controller becomes:
1 + 0.0004182
G (s) = 0.00054 (26)
0.0004182
Figure 6 shows the Bode diagram of the designed PI controller.
 Energies 2016, 9, 962 8 of 16

4. Calculate the controller gain at the crossover frequency:

At the desired crossover frequency the LTF should cross 0 dB line, i.e.,

20log (LTF)fc = 0 dB (25)

∴ KPI = 0.00054.
Therefore PI controller becomes:
1 + 0.0004182s
Gc (s) = 0.00054 (26)
0.0004182s

EnergiesFigure
Energies 2016,9,9,6
2016,
shows
962
962
the Bode diagram of the designed PI controller.
88of
of16
16

Figure 6.
Figure6.
Figure Bode plot
Bodeplot
6.Bode of
plotof designedPI
ofdesigned
designed PIcontroller,
PI controller,G
controller, Gcc(s).
G (s).
c

FromFigure
From Figure 6, onecan
can observethat thatat
at40
40Hz,
Hz,the
thephase
phaseboost
boostprovided
providedby bythe
thePIPIcontroller
controllerisis6°.
6°.
From Figure6,6,one
one canobserve
observe that at 40 Hz, the phase boost provided by the PI controller is
Moreover,
Moreover, a gain
a gain of –45
of –45 dB provided by the PI controller will make the gain of LTF zero at 40 Hz, i.e.,
6◦ . Moreover, a gain ofdB
–45provided
dB provided by the
byPI
thecontroller will will
PI controller make the gain
make of LTF
the gain zerozero
of LTF at 40atHz, i.e.,
40 Hz,
crossover
crossover frequency
frequency of 40 Hz
of 40ofHz is achieved.
is achieved. Figure
Figure 7 shows
7 shows the
the Bode plot of the loop gain obtained
i.e., crossover frequency 40 Hz is achieved. Figure 7 shows theBode
Bodeplot
plotof
ofthe
the loop gain obtained
loop gain obtained
usingthe
using thesmall-signal
small-signalmodel
model(i.e.,
(i.e.,LTF(s))
LTF(s))asaswell
wellasasthe
theloop
loopgain
gainobtained
obtainedusing
usingthetheac
acsweep
sweepof offull
full
using the small-signal model (i.e., LTF(s)) as well as the loop gain obtained using the ac sweep of full
modelsimulated
model simulated in PLECS3.7.5.3.7.5.
model simulatedininPLECSPLECS 3.7.5.

Figure
Figure 7.
Figure7. Bode
7.Bode plots
Bodeplots forloop
plotsfor
for looptransfer
loop transferfunction.
transfer function.

From Figure
From Figure 7,7, one
one can
can observe
observe that
that the
the gain
gain crossover
crossover frequency
frequency ofof 40
40 Hz
Hz and
and PM
PM of of 85°
85° has
has
been achieved for the derived small-signal model as well as for the full model (precisely
been achieved for the derived small-signal model as well as for the full model (precisely 87° in ac 87° in ac
sweep). Moreover,
sweep). Moreover,for for the
theclosed-loop
closed-loopsystem,
system, the
thelocation
location of
of gain
gaincross-over
cross-overfrequency
frequency isis to
to the
the left
left
of the phase crossover frequency for both the derived model as well as the full model. Therefore,
of the phase crossover frequency for both the derived model as well as the full model. Therefore, the the
closedloop
closed loopsystem
systemisisstable.
stable.
Energies 2016, 9, 962 9 of 16

From Figure 7, one can observe that the gain crossover frequency of 40 Hz and PM of 85◦ has
been achieved for the derived small-signal model as well as for the full model (precisely 87◦ in ac
sweep). Moreover, for the closed-loop system, the location of gain cross-over frequency is to the left of
the phase crossover frequency for both the derived model as well as the full model. Therefore, the
closed loop system is stable.

5. Simulation and Experimental Results

In this section, simulation results and experimental results for the closed-loop voltage control
have been compared for different cases. Designed controller was implemented on the IPT system
whose parameters have been mentioned in Table 1. Simulation results have been obtained from
PLECS3.7.5 standalone. For experimental results, the closed-loop voltage controller was implemented
in real-time using dSPACE® ControlDesk 5.3. LEM sensor LV20-P was used to sense the output voltage.
A 63800 series (63804) programmable AC/DC electronic load from Chroma system solutions was
Energies 2016, 9, 962 9 of 16
used as the DC load. XR Series power supplies from Magna-Power Electronics were used as the
programmable
programmable DC DC power
power supply.
supply. The
The inverter
inverter was
was built
built using
using full-bridge
full-bridge MOSFET
MOSFET powerpower module
module
(APTM120H29FG)
(APTM120H29FG) from Microsemi (Aliso Viejo, CA, USA). For the rectifier, low loss fast
from Microsemi (Aliso Viejo, CA, USA). For the rectifier, low loss fast recovery
recovery
diode
diode module
module fromfrom IXYS
IXYS (Milpitas,
(Milpitas, CA,
CA, USA)
USA) (DSEI2X101-06A)
(DSEI2X101-06A) was was used.
used. To
To build
build the
the coils,
coils, Litz
Litz wire
wire
Type 8 AWG 5 × 5 ×
Type II 8 AWG 5 × 5 × 42/32 has been used. Outer diameter of both the primary and secondary coil is
II 42/32 has been used. Outer diameter of both the primary and secondary coil is
47
47 cm. The inner
cm. The inner diameter
diameter of
of primary
primary coil
coil is
is 22
22 cm
cm whereas
whereas inner
inner diameter
diameter ofof secondary
secondary coil
coil is
is 36
36 cm.
cm.
The
The experimental
experimental setupsetup is
is shown
shown inin Figure
Figure 8. 8. Different
Different test
test cases
cases are
arediscussed
discussedbelow.
below.

Figure 8.
Figure 8. Experimental
Experimental setup.
setup.

Case I—Change in load at fixed reference voltage:

Case I—Change in load at fixed reference voltage:
To test the dynamic performance of the designed controller, a step change in the DC load was
To test the dynamic performance of the designed controller, a step change in the DC load was
performed at the fixed reference voltage. For this purpose, the reference voltage was set at 168V and
performed at the fixed reference voltage. For this purpose, the reference voltage was set at 168 V and
load was stepped down from 8.84 Ω (3192.76 W) to 11.56 Ω (2441.5 W). Figure 9 shows the transient
load was stepped down from 8.84 Ω (3192.76 W) to 11.56 Ω (2441.5 W). Figure 9 shows the transient
performance of simulated results, while experimental results are shown in Figure 10. From the
results, it can be observed that when the step increase in load is applied, output voltage overshoots
and the controller takes corrective action to bring it back to 168 V in about 12 ms in experimental
result and 11 ms in simulation result. Voltage overshoot in simulation and experimental results is 9%
and 13% respectively.
Energies 2016, 9, 962 10 of 16

performance of simulated results, while experimental results are shown in Figure 10. From the results,
it can be observed that when the step increase in load is applied, output voltage overshoots and
the controller takes corrective action to bring it back to 168 V in about 12 ms in experimental result
and 11 ms in simulation result. Voltage overshoot in simulation and experimental results is 9% and
13% respectively.
Energies 2016, 9, 962 10 of 16
Energies 2016, 9, 962 10 of 16

Figure
Figure 9.
Figure 9. Simulation
9. Simulation results
results for
for step
step change
change in
in load.
load.

Figure
Figure 10.
10. Experimental
Experimental results
results for
for step
step change in load.
change in load.

Case
Case II—Change
II—Change in
in reference
reference voltage
voltage at
voltage at fixed
at fixed load:
fixed load:
load:
Reference
Reference voltage
voltage was
was stepped
stepped down
down from
from 168
168 V
V (rated
(rated Voltage)
Voltage) toto 92
92 V
V at
at 7.84
7.84Ω
7.84 Ωload
Ω loadresistance.
load resistance.
resistance.
Figure
Figure 11
11 shows
shows the
the transient
transient performance
performance of
of simulated
simulated results,
results, while
while experimental
experimental results
results are
are shown
shown
in Figure 12.
in Figure 12.
Energies 2016, 9, 962 11 of 16
Energies 2016, 9, 962 11 of 16
Energies 2016, 9, 962 11 of 16

Figure
Figure 11.
Figure 11. Simulation
11. Simulationresults
Simulation resultsfor
results for step
for step change
step change in
change in reference
in reference voltage.
reference voltage.
voltage.

Figure
Figure 12. Experimental results for step change in reference voltage.
Figure 12.
12. Experimental
Experimentalresults
results for
for step
step change
change in
in reference
reference voltage.
voltage.

From
From thethe results,
results, it
it can
can be
be observed
observed that
that the
the controller
controller takes
takes approximately
approximately 1414 ms
ms to
to reach
reach steady
steady
state From
for the
the results,
simulation it can
and be
18 observed
ms for thethat the controller
experimental takes
results. approximately
No transient 14 ms to reach steady
undershoot/overshoot
state for the simulation and 18 ms for the experimental results. No transient undershoot/overshoot
state for thetosimulation
occurs and 18 ms for the experimental results. No transient undershoot/overshoot
occurs due
due to damping
damping provided
provided byby the
the high
high PMPM (85°)
(85°)
◦
of
of controller.
controller.
occurs due to damping provided by the high PM (85 ) of controller.
Case
Case III—Tracking performance of controller for variation in DC input voltage:
Case III—Tracking
III—Tracking performance of controller for variation in DC input voltage:
To
To test the robustness of the designed controller for the variations in DC input voltage, the
To test the robustness of the designed controller controller for
for the
the variations
variations in
in DC
DC input
input voltage,
voltage, the
the
reference voltage was kept 160 V at 10 Ω load and ±10% variation in DC input voltage (340 V) was
reference
reference voltage
voltage was
was kept 160 V at 10 Ω load and ±
kept 160 ±10%
10%variation
variationininDC
DC input
input voltage
voltage (340
(340 V)
V) was
was
introduced
introduced manually. Results obtained are shown in Figure 13.
introduced manually.
manually. Results obtained are shown in Figure 13.
 Energies 2016, 9, 962 12 of 16
Energies 2016, 9, 962 12 of 16
Energies 2016, 9, 962 12 of 16

Figure
Figure 13.
Figure13. Experimental
13.Experimental results
Experimental results for variation
results for variationin
variation inDC
in DCinput
DC inputvoltage.
input voltage.
voltage.

From Figure
From Figure 13, it
it can be
be seen that
that the controller
controller keeps
keeps the
the output
output voltage
voltage fixed
fixed at
at a reference
reference
From Figure13,13, itcan
can be seen
seen that the
the controller keeps the output voltage fixed at aareference
voltage in
voltage in spite of
of variations in
in the DC
DC input voltage.
voltage. Since
Since the
the load
load is
is fixed,
fixed, the
the output
output current
current also
also
voltage inspite
spite ofvariations
variations in the
the DC input
input voltage. Since the load is fixed, the output current also
remains
remains constant.
remainsconstant.
constant.
Case IV—Tracking
CaseIV—Tracking
Case performance
IV—Tracking performance
performance of controllerfor
of controller
controller forvariation
for variationinin
variation inmutual
mutualcoupling:
mutual coupling:
coupling:
Totest
To testthe
thecontroller
controllerperformance
performanceduring
during variation
variation in in mutual
mutual coupling
coupling between
between thethe primary
primary and
To test the controller performance during variation in mutual coupling between the primary and
and secondary
secondary coils, coils, alignment
alignment of of secondary
secondary with with respect
respect to to primary
primary was wasmanually
varied varied manually
in the in the
sequence
secondary coils, alignment of secondary with respect to primary was varied manually in the sequence
[0sequence
[0 cm–5
[0 cm–5
cm–5 cm–10
cm–10 cm–10
cm–15
cm–15
cm–15
cm–0
cm–0 cm].cm–0
cm]. The cm].
The
The reference
reference
reference
voltage
voltage and
voltage and the and
the loadthe
load
load
was
was
was168
kept
kept
kept
168 VV 168
andV7.84
and
andΩ
7.84 Ω
7.84 Ω respectively.
respectively. Results Results
obtainedobtained are shown
are shown
shown in Figure
in Figure
Figure 14. 14.
respectively. Results obtained are in 14.

Figure 14.
Figure14.
Figure Experimental results
Experimental results
14.Experimental for change
results for
for changein
change inmutual
in mutualcoupling.
mutual coupling.
coupling.

From Figure
From Figure 14, one
one can observe
observe that
that the
the output
output voltage
voltage remains
remains fixed
fixed in
in spite
spite of
of the variation
variation
From Figure14,
14, one can observe that the output voltage remains fixed in spite of the the
variation in
in the
inthe mutual
themutual inductance
mutualinductance
inductance between
between the primary and the secondary coil.
between thethe primary
primary and
and thethe secondary
secondary coil.coil.

6. Verification
6. Verification of
of ZVS
ZVS in
in INVERTER
INVERTER Switches
Switches
To verify
To verify for
for the
the ZVS
ZVS in
in the
the inverter
inverter switches,
switches, the
the method
method described
described in in [21]
[21] has
has been
been used.
used.
According to [19], polarity of current at four switching instance (t 0, t1, t2, t3) shown in Figure 3 should
According to [19], polarity of current at four switching instance (t0, t1, t2, t3) shown in Figure 3 should
be according
be according to
to the
the Equation
Equation (27)
(27) for
for the
the switches
switches to
to operate
operate under
under ZVSZVS condition.
condition.
Energies 2016, 9, 962 13 of 16

6. Verification of ZVS in INVERTER Switches

To verify for the ZVS in the inverter switches, the method described in [21] has been used.
According to [19], polarity of current at four switching instance (t0 , t1 , t2 , t3 ) shown in Figure 3 should
be according to the Equation (27) for the switches to operate under ZVS condition.
Energies 2016, 9, 962 13 of 16

IP (t0 ) < 0 For S1

( ) < 0 For S1
> 00 For
IP ((t1)) > For S3
S3
(27)
IP ((t2)) >
> 00 For
For S2
S2 (27)
< 00 For
IP ((t3)) < For S4
S4

Figure 15a shows the primary voltage and the primary current waveform for 168 V, 7.84 Ω
Figure 15a Ω load,
(i.e., 3.6 kW)
(i.e., kW) output.
output.Figure
Figure15b
15bshows thethe
shows primary voltage
primary andand
voltage primary current
primary for 92
current forV,927.84 Ω,
Ω, (i.e.,
V, 7.84
1.08 kW).
(i.e., 1.08 kW).

(a) (b)
Figure 15.
Figure 15. (a)
(a) Waveform
Waveform for
for 168
168 V
V reference
reference voltage,
voltage, 7.84
7.84 Ω
Ω load;
load; (b)
(b) Waveform
Waveform for
for 92
92 V
V reference
reference
voltage, 7.84
voltage, 7.84 Ω
Ω load.
load.

From Figure 15, one can observe that current full fills the ZVS condition defined by Equation
From Figure 15, one can observe that current full fills the ZVS condition defined by Equation (27)
(27) for the rated load (3.6 kW) condition, as well as, for the partial load (1.08 kW) condition. Table 2
for the rated load (3.6 kW) condition, as well as, for the partial load (1.08 kW) condition. Table 2 gives
gives the DC to DC efficiency for all the cases discussed previously.
the DC to DC efficiency for all the cases discussed previously.
It should be noted that, although inverter output voltage is asymmetric, the inverter output is
being applied to a series resonant
Table 2. tank
DC-DCwhich acts for
Efficiency as sharply tuned
All the Test band pass filter. The primary
Cases.
capacitor will block the DC component from flowing into primary coil inductor. Therefore, primary
current and hence the secondary current
Cases Pin =will
VDC × beIDC
almost
(Watts)sinusoidal.
Pout = VoThis can be observed
× Io (Watts) η (%) in
experimental result as shown
RO = 8.84inΩFigure 15 that 340
the×primary
10.32 current is sinusoidal.
168 × 19 90.97
I. Vref = 168 V
RO = 11.56 Ω 340 × 8 168 × 14.53 89.76
Vref = Table
168 V 2. DC-DC Efficiency for All the Test Cases.
340 × 11.6 168 × 21.42 91.2
II. RO = 7.84 Ω
Vref = 92 V 340 × 3.54 92 × 11.73 89.66
Cases Pin = VDC × IDC (Watts) Pout = Vo × Io (Watts) η (%)
VDC = 306 V 306 × 9.24 160 × 16 90.54
III. R = 10 Ω RO = 8.84 Ω 340 × 10.32 168 × 19 90.97
I. VrefO = 168 V VDC = 374 V 374 × 7.54 160 × 16 90.78
Vref = 160 V R O = 11.56 Ω
VDC = 374 V 340
340 × 8.3 × 8 168
160 × 16 × 14.53 89.76
90.71
Vref = 168 V 340 × 11.6 168 × 21.42 91.2
II. RO = 7.84 Ω Misalignment = 5 cm 340 × 11.72 168 × 21.42 90.30
IV. Vref = 168 V Vref = 92 V 340 × 3.54 92 × 11.73 89.66
Misalignment = 10 cm 340 × 11.92 168 × 21.42 88.79
RO = 7.84 Ω VDC ==306 V 306 × 9.24 160 × 16 90.54
III. RO = 10 Ω Misalignment 15 cm 340 × 12.52 168 × 21.42 84.53
VDC = 374 V 374 × 7.54 160 × 16 90.78
Vref = 160 V
VDC = 374 V 340 × 8.3 160 × 16 90.71
It should be noted that, although inverter output voltage is asymmetric, the inverter output is
Misalignment = 5 cm 340 × 11.72 168 × 21.42 90.30
IV. Vref
being = 168 V
applied to a series resonant=tank
Misalignment 10 cmwhich acts340
as sharply
× 11.92 tuned band168pass filter. The primary
× 21.42 88.79
RO = 7.84will
capacitor Ω block the DC component from flowing into primary coil inductor. Therefore, primary
Misalignment = 15 cm 340 × 12.52 168 × 21.42 84.53

7. Conclusions
In this paper, a simplified small-signal model of an SS compensated IPT system has been
presented. To derive the small signal model, a reduced dynamic model was first derived considering
Energies 2016, 9, 962 14 of 16

current and hence the secondary current will be almost sinusoidal. This can be observed in
experimental result as shown in Figure 15 that the primary current is sinusoidal.

7. Conclusions
In this paper, a simplified small-signal model of an SS compensated IPT system has been presented.
To derive the small signal model, a reduced dynamic model was first derived considering the ZVS in
the inverter switches. Although the ZVS has been considered, a fairly accurate mathematical model
can also be derived for the zero current switching (ZCS) conditions. AC sweep results show that the
frequency response of the derived small-signal model follows the frequency response of the actual
full model with proximity in low-frequency region. Therefore, a derived model can be used for the
design of voltage control loop. From the derived model an output voltage controller was designed.
The voltage controller was implemented on a 3.6 kW IPT system built in the lab. The IPT system was
designed for the frequency and voltage level depending on the equipment’s (load, power supply)
ratings available in the lab. However, the idea presented in this paper applies to the standard defined
by SAE J2954.
A PI controller was designed using the derived small-signal model. Although the controller
was designed considering 0.8 duty cycle operation at 7.84 Ω load resistance, it shows good tracking
capability for different tests conditions such as: different load resistance; change in DC input voltage;
change in reference voltage; and change in coupling coefficient. Therefore, it can be said that the
derived controller is very robust against parameter variations. Results obtained show that the derived
small signal-model is useful for the design of control loops.

Author Contributions: Kunwar Aditya did the analysis, build the hardware, performed the experiments and
wrote the paper. Sheldon Williamson as research supervisor provided guidance as well as funding for the research
and key suggestions for writing this paper.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Nomenclature

Vdc DC input to inverter

VAB VP = Output of inverter/Primary Voltage
VCD Input voltage to rectifier
LP Primary Self inductance
CP Primary capacitor
LS Secondary Self inductance
CS Secondary capacitor
M Mutual Inductance
Cf Filter capacitor
Ro Load resistance
IP Primary Peak current
IS Secondary Peak current
iP Primary current
Vm Peak Voltage across capacitor
|iS | Rectified current flowing into output filter network
Io output current
Vcf Vo = Output voltage
fs switching frequency, Hz
fo resonant frequency in Hz
ωs switching frequency in rad/s
ωo Resonant frequency in rad/s
α Conduction angle
Energies 2016, 9, 962 15 of 16

Appendix A
Operating Points:
Beta
Vdc (3 + cos2πd) − al pha sin2πd
Ix = − al pha
π ( al pha2 + Beta2 )
Ix = CP Vy ωs

Iy = −CP Vx ωs
Vdc
Iy al pha = − sin2πd − Ix Beta
π
8n2 Ro
R P + n2 R s + = Beta
π2

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