CHAPTER 4

TRAFFIC SIGNAL DESIGN

4.0 General – “Highway traffic signal” is a generic term that applies to intersection
stop-and-go signals, flashing beacons, lane use control signals, ramp entrance
signals and other types of devices. A traffic control signal (traffic signal) shall be
defined as any highway traffic signal by which traffic is alternately directed to stop
and permitted to proceed. Traffic is defined as pedestrians, bicyclists, vehicles,
and other conveyances using any highway for purposes of travel. This Chapter
the design of traffic control signals.
In this Manual, the term “traffic signal” applies to a traffic control signal
unless otherwise noted.
Standards for traffic control signals are important The selection and use
because they need to attract the attention of a of traffic signals
variety of road users, including those who are should be based on an
older, those with impaired vision, as well as those engineering study of
who are fatigued or distracted, or who are not roadway, pedestrian,
expecting to encounter a signal at a particular bicyclist and other
location.1 conditions.
The designer responsible for any type of traffic signal design project, including
traffic control signals, should be aware that the design must comply with various
standards. In addition to Department Standard Specifications, the following
standards shall be consulted:
ƒ Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices (MUTCD) – The MUTCD is the
basic guide for signing and marking. The requirements of the MUTCD
must be met, as a minimum, on all roads in Tennessee.
ƒ Standard Specifications for Structural Supports for Highway Signs,
Luminaires and Traffic Signals, AASHTO – This document provides
structural design criteria.
ƒ The National Electrical Code, National Fire Protection Association (NFPA)
– This code contains provisions that are considered necessary for the
practical safeguarding of persons and property from hazards arising from
the use of electricity.
ƒ National Electrical Manufacturer’s Association (NEMA) Standards for
Traffic-actuated Controllers – This publication describes the physical and
functional requirements of signal controllers. Two standards, TS-1 and
TS-2, are defined. TS-1 dates back to the 1970s but still applies to most of
the equipment in current use. TS-2 is an emerging standard that
incorporates contemporary computer and communications technology.
ƒ TDOT Design Standards – These standards are composed of a number of
standard drawings that address specific situations that occur on a large
majority of construction projects.
4.1 Traffic Signal Design – A traffic signal shall be designed for both safe and
efficient traffic operations. To accomplish this, the design should incorporate the
fewest number of signal phases and the shortest cycle lengths that can efficiently

1
MUTCD, FHWA, 2003, p. 4B-1.
TRAFFIC DESIGN MANUAL 4-1 DECEMBER 2003
CHAPTER 4 – TRAFFIC SIGNAL DESIGN
 move traffic without compromising safety. The design and operation of traffic
signals shall take into consideration the needs of pedestrians as well as vehicular
traffic.2 The following design criteria set forth TDOT’s application of the traffic
signal design standards given in the MUTCD.
The key decisions affecting a traffic signal system design include:
ƒ Intersection geometrics (lanes, sight distance, grade, etc.)
ƒ Determination of traffic signal operational mode
ƒ Selection of left turn treatments
ƒ Selection of the traffic signal phasing plan
ƒ Determination of detection needs
ƒ Development of traffic signal timing parameters
ƒ Development of the timing plan(s) for arterial coordination
ƒ Determination of preemption needs
ƒ Location and configuration of all traffic signal displays
ƒ Location and configuration of the controller and cabinet
ƒ Selection of type and location of traffic signal support poles
ƒ Determination of necessary traffic signing
ƒ Location of stop lines and crosswalks
ƒ Determination of wiring, conduit and pull box needs
Future Intersection Expansion – Any planned or anticipated intersection
improvements or future phasing needs should be considered. The traffic signal
controller type, cabinet type, pole design and traffic signal cable are examples of
design features that may be affected by future improvements.
4.1.1 Intersection Geometrics – Intersection geometrics play a pivotal role in
designing a traffic signal. In particular, geometrics play just as important a
role as traffic volumes in evaluating turn phasing. For example, left turns
may be made from shared lanes yielding to the opposing thru traffic;
however, the capacity of a shared lane is somewhat limited. The Highway
Capacity Manual provides a procedure for assessing the capacity of both
shared and exclusive lanes under traffic signal control. The operational
advantage of an exclusive lane should be clear from a capacity
perspective. Exclusive left turn lanes are normally required when
protected left turn movements are provided in the traffic signal phasing.
When left turning volumes are high, multiple exclusive left turn lanes may
be required to provide adequate capacity. Dual left turn lanes should be
considered when a capacity analysis suggests that overall intersection
performance could be improved. Proper attention must be paid to
accommodating traffic in multiple left turn lanes as it leaves the
intersection. The exit roadway must have enough lanes to accommodate
the left turns and pedestrian crosswalks should be clearly marked.
Pedestrian signals should always be used for any crosswalk in which
pedestrians will encounter protected left turns.
4.1.2 Traffic Signal Movements – A typical four-leg intersection can have up to
eight separate movements requiring traffic signal phases (four thru and
four left turns). If right turn movements are signalized separately, they are
usually operated in conjunction with a protected side street left turn
2
MUTCD, FHWA, 2003, p. 4D-2.
TRAFFIC DESIGN MANUAL 4-2 DECEMBER 2003
CHAPTER 4 – TRAFFIC SIGNAL DESIGN
 movement and operated as an overlap Four phase cabinets
(concurrently with another phase). Four-leg should be used for
intersections can be operated with between intersections with 2
two and eight phases. Two phase operation to 4 phases and
would only provide phases for the two crossing eight phase cabinets
movements, while the eight phase operation should be used for
would provide separate phases for each those with 5 to 8.
movement. An intersection with two to four
vehicle phases should use a four phase cabinet facility. An intersection
with five to eight vehicle phases should use an eight phase cabinet facility.
Newer controllers allow up to 16 phases, but more than eight phases are
only used in unusual situations, such as running two intersections from
one controller or complex interchanges.
4.1.3 Traffic Signal Mode of Operation – A Traffic signals can operate
traffic signal may operate under two as an independent
basic modes of operation. It may intersection or as part of a
operate as a fixed time signal, in which coordinated system. The
basic timing intervals are constant, or traffic signals can be set up
as an actuated signal, where many of to operate in the fully or
the timing intervals are variable based semi-actuated mode, in
on demand. fixed time mode, or in a
Traffic signals may be operated as flashing mode of operation.
independent (or isolated intersections) How a signal is operated
or as part of a coordinated signal determines its effectiveness
system. Coordinated traffic signal in reducing delay and
systems are designed to minimize increasing safety. Signal
delay. An individual intersection operation also influences
operates most efficiently when it is public acceptance.
allowed to respond to traffic demand in
an actuated mode. Actuated operation allows the traffic signal to adjust
the cycle length and phase split times on a cycle-by-cycle basis. At all
intersections, vehicles tend to group into "platoons." Once a platoon is
established, delay can be reduced by keeping the platoon moving through
adjacent signals. The coordination of traffic signals (operating more than
one signal in a system) can provide smooth progression along an arterial.
Operating traffic signals in a coordinated mode does have some
drawbacks. The coordination of the system may further delay some minor
traffic movements.
4.1.4 Pre-Timed (Fixed Time) Operation – Pre- Pre-timed two-phase
timed operation is an infrequently used mode operation is often
of operation (except in downtown areas) in used in a central
which a traffic signal operates in a non- business district, but
actuated mode (no vehicle detectors) and in is infrequently used
which both the timing and phasing do not vary on major streets.
from cycle to cycle (see Figure 4.1).
Advantages to pre-timed operation include:
1. Simplicity of equipment
2. Easy to coordinate along a route or in a grid (like a CBD)
TRAFFIC DESIGN MANUAL 4-3 DECEMBER 2003
CHAPTER 4 – TRAFFIC SIGNAL DESIGN
 / 4 O/ 3
O

/1
O /2
O /3
O /4
O

/2
O
/1
O
/1
O
/2
O LEGEND: VEHICLE MOVEMENT
PEDESTRIAN MOVEMENT

/ 3 O/ 4
O

FOUR-PHASE

PHASE 1 SPLIT

ALL
GREEN YEL. RED RED

PHASE 2 SPLIT

ALL
RED GREEN YEL. RED RED

PHASE 3 SPLIT

ALL
RED GREEN YEL. RED RED

PHASE 4 SPLIT

ALL
RED GREEN YEL. RED

CYCLE LENGTH = SPLIT 1 + SPLIT 2 + SPLIT 3 + SPLIT 4

(SPLITS AND CYCLE LENGTH ARE FIXED)

Tennessee Department of Transportation

Traffic Design Manual
Basic Four Phase
Pre-Timed Operation Figure 4.1
 Disadvantages to pre-timed operation include:
1. Can’t recognize or adjust to short term fluctuations in traffic
2. Can cause excessive delays to vehicles and pedestrians during off-
peak periods
Pre-timed operation is best suited for the following conditions:
ƒ Uniform Traffic Demand – where traffic variations and timing
requirements are predictable or do not vary significantly.
ƒ Signal Coordination – at intersections in which the major street
continuously operates in coordinated mode and fluctuations in
volumes along the minor street are negligible.
ƒ Closely Spaced Signalized Intersections – at intersections where
coordination between adjacent intersections is needed to provide
consistent interval timing and offsets.
ƒ CBD Signals and One-Way Streets – where two-phase operation
is utilized to provide a measure of coordination and speed control.
ƒ Maintenance – where ease of maintenance is a concern (no
vehicle detectors to maintain).
4.1.5 Traffic Actuated Operation – Traffic-actuated operation of isolated
intersections attempts to adjust green time on one or more approaches
continuously. These adjustments occur based on real-time traffic
measures of traffic demand from vehicle detectors placed on one or more
approaches to the intersection.
Advantages to actuated operation include:
1. Reduced Delay (if properly timed)
2. Adaptable to short-term fluctuations in traffic flow
3. Increased capacity
4. More effective at multiple phase intersections
Disadvantages to actuated operation include:
1. Higher cost than pre-timed
2. Long term maintenance of detectors
Traffic actuated signal control can be broken into two types of operation
(fully-actuated and semi-actuated, or partially activated).

4.1.6 Fully-Actuated Operation – Fully- Fully-actuated operation

actuated operation describes the actuated should normally be
mode of operation in which a traffic signal used at isolated, high
operates with vehicle detection for all speed and heavy
signal phases. Since the traffic signal volume intersections.
operation is based on traffic demand, both
the timing and phasing can vary from cycle to cycle (see Figure 4.2).

TRAFFIC DESIGN MANUAL 4-5 DECEMBER 2003

CHAPTER 4 – TRAFFIC SIGNAL DESIGN
 / 4 O/ 3
O

/1
O /2
O /3
O /4
O

/2
O
/1
O
/1
O
/2
O LEGEND: VEHICLE MOVEMENT
PEDESTRIAN MOVEMENT

/ 3 O/ 4
O
* EACH GREEN INTERVAL VARIABLE FROM:

FOUR-PHASE A. MIN GREEN TIME SETTING IF ON RECALL

OR
B. ZERO IF NOT ON RECALL

VARIABLE * TO MAX GREEN TIME SETTING

ALL
GREEN YEL. RED
RED

VARIABLE *

ALL
RED GREEN YEL. RED RED

VARIABLE *

ALL
RED GREEN YEL. RED RED

VARIABLE *

ALL
RED GREEN YEL. RED

NO TRUE CYCLE LENGTH

(PHASE GREENS VARIABLE - YELLOW AND ALL RED ARE FIXED)

Tennessee Department of Transportation

Traffic Design Manual
Basic Four Phase
Fully-Actuated Operation Figure 4.2
 Fully-actuated operation should be considered under any of the following
conditions:

ƒ Isolated Intersections – where traffic fluctuations cannot be

anticipated, fully-actuated operation provides maximum flexibility by
allowing the traffic signal controller to skip those phases without traffic
present.
ƒ High Speed Intersections – to reduce problems caused by arbitrary
stopping of the major street thru movement, regardless of demand.
ƒ Part Time Coordination – when a traffic signal operates in a system
part of the day, but operates in a “free” mode at other times.
ƒ Efficiency – where traffic operations require maximum efficiency to
adequately accommodate existing traffic volumes at the best possible
level of service. Fully-actuated operation allows the traffic signal
controller to tailor its timing to each individual signal phase according
to its actual traffic demand on a cycle-by-cycle basis.

Volume-density operation is a more sophisticated form of fully-actuated

control. It has the ability to calculate the duration of Minimum Green
based on actual demand (calls on red) and the ability to reduce the
maximum allowable time between calls from the initial Passage Time to a
Minimum Gap. This reduction in allowable time between calls (or
actuations) generally improves efficiency.

4.1.7 Semi-Actuated Operation – Semi-actuated operation is similar to a fully-

actuated traffic signal with but not all signal phases are actuated. Some
movements do not have detection and are operated as pre-timed phases.
When this type of operation is chosen, it is usually the major street signal
phase that is non-actuated. The timing on the phases that are actuated
can variable or be entirely skipped from cycle to cycle as traffic demands.

In semi-actuated coordinated systems, the major movement is the

coordinated phase. Because the major movement is the coordinated
phase, it is in effect on constant recall, and no detection is needed while
the system is operating. Minor movements are served only when called
(or detected) and only at certain points
within the system background cycle. In a Semi-actuated operation
system, these points ensure that the should be used when
major movement will be coordinated with side street volumes are
adjacent intersections. low and sporadic or
when an intersection is
In semi-actuated controlled intersections operated in coordination
that are not in a system, the major 24 hours a day.
movement is placed on Minimum Recall.
The major movement rests in green until a conflicting call (detection) is
received. The Minimum Green must be long enough to ensure it is
adequate for the major street movement, but not so long as to
unnecessarily delay side street traffic.

TRAFFIC DESIGN MANUAL 4-7 DECEMBER 2003

CHAPTER 4 – TRAFFIC SIGNAL DESIGN
 Semi-actuated operations can work under one of the following
conditions:
ƒ Unpredictable Side Street Volumes – where side street volumes
are sporadic.
ƒ Limited Traffic Signal Need – where a traffic signal is needed for
only brief periods of the day.
ƒ Full Time Signal Coordination – in signal systems that operate in
a coordinated mode at all times, where the main street thru traffic
phase operates without vehicle detection.

4.1.8 Mode During System Control – Many fully-actuated traffic signals that
are in signal systems operate as both fully-actuated and semi-actuated
traffic signals. They can be fully-actuated during off peak hours when the
system may not running and all intersections to run free, but operate as
semi-actuated traffic signals when the system is running.
4.1.9 Dual Ring Controller Operation – A traffic actuated controller typically
employs a “dual ring concurrent” timing process. This concept is
illustrated in Figure 4.3. A dual-ring controller uses eight phases, each of
which controls a single traffic movement. The eight phases are required to
accommodate the eight movements (four thru and four left turns) at an
intersection. Any movements that do not have a separate protected
movement are not assigned phases and not used. Phases 1 through 4
are included in ring 1, and phases 5 through 8 are included in ring 2. The
two rings operate independently, except that their control must cross the
“barrier” at the same time.
The dual-ring concurrent
To avoid conflicts, all of the movements
operation of an isolated
from one street must be assigned to one
actuated traffic signal
side of the barrier. Similarly, all
can be the most efficient
movements from the other street must be
method of operation.
assigned to the other side. On both sides
of the barrier there are four phases (two thru and two left). One phase
from ring 1 and one phase from ring 2 may operate concurrently, however
the concurrent phases must be on the same side of the barrier (see Figure
4.3). Simultaneous phase operation in each ring is not permitted.
As an example, if phase 2 (in ring 1) is the EB thru movement, it may be
displayed concurrently with either phase 5 (EB left turn) or phase 6 (WB
thru), both of which are in ring 2. However, phase 2 can never be
displayed concurrently with any of the phases across the barrier (phases
3, 4, 7 or 8 – all side street phases). Any allowed combination of phases
may be skipped if there is no demand for that movement.
Four phase operation can be achieved using a dual ring controller by only
using phases 1-4. This type of controller can be used for pre-timed, semi-
actuated or fully-actuated operation. The majority of signalized
intersections now employ dual-ring traffic actuated controllers conforming
to NEMA standards. Eight phase dual-ring controllers are typically used in
all new installations.

TRAFFIC DESIGN MANUAL 4-8 DECEMBER 2003

CHAPTER 4 – TRAFFIC SIGNAL DESIGN
 BARRIER

/1
O /2
O /3
O /4
O
RING 1
(PHASES 1-4)

/5
O /6
O /7
O /8
O
RING 2
(PHASES 5-8)

LEGEND: VEHICLE MOVEMENT

PEDESTRIAN MOVEMENT

NEMA DUAL RING (8-PHASE CONTROLLER)

(ONE PHASE FROM RING 1 AND ONE PHASE FROM RING TWO MUST
BE DISPLAYED - EXCEPT THAT SIMULTANEOUS PHASES
CAN NOT CROSS THE BARRIER)

/2
O
ANY STEP MAY BE SKIPPED
/4
O
IF NOT ON RECALL AND NO DEMAND

/5
O /7
O

/1
O /2
O /3
O /4
O

OR OR
/5
O /6
O /7
O /8
O

/1
O /3
O

/6
O /8
O

TIME

NEMA 8-PHASE ACTUATED CONTROLLER PHASING SEQUENCING

Tennessee Department of Transportation

Traffic Design Manual
Dual-Ring
Actuated Phasing Sequence Figure 4.3
4.2 Traffic Signal Intervals (Phases) – A traffic
The number of signal
signal vehicle interval, or phase, can be defined
phases used in a traffic
as the part of a cycle allocated to any
signal design is basically
combination of traffic movements receiving the
a left turn protection
right-of-way simultaneously (left turn phases,
issue.
etc.). Generally, the number of traffic signal
phases should be held to a minimum. When more than three phases are used to
operate a traffic signal, the delay and cycle length usually increase as a result of
the increase in start up delays and the increase in signal clearance intervals per
signal cycle. When this occurs, the overall intersection efficiency decreases, but
the use of fully-actuated traffic signal controllers can sometimes minimize these
negative effects .

If the need for left turn phasing on an intersection approach has been
established, the guidelines in Section 4.2.3 should be used to select the type of
left turn phasing to provide. Care should be taken to avoid a “yellow trap” which
can occur in some combinations of the type and sequence of left turn movements
(see Section 4.2.5).

4.2.1 Need for Left Turn Protection – The primary factors to consider in the
need for protection are the left turn volume and the degree of difficulty in
executing the left turn through the opposing
traffic. The designer should be aware that The designer’s goal
left turn phases can sometimes significantly should be to
reduce the efficiency of an intersection. Left accommodate left turn
turn phasing should be considered on an movements adequately
approach with a peak hour left turn volume and safely while
of at least 100 vehicles and a capacity delaying the heavier
analysis showing that the overall operations thru traffic movements
are improved by the addition of the left turn as little as possible.
phase.

In addition, the following guidelines may be used when considering the

addition of separate left turn phasing at either a new or existing signalized
intersection:

4.2.2 Left Turn Phase Warrants – The following warrants may be used in the
analysis of the need for the installation of separate left turn phases.

1. Volume Warrant – Left turn phasing may be considered based on a

cross-product threshold as defined by the product of the left turning
volume and the volume of opposing traffic (opposing traffic includes
both opposing thru and opposing right turning traffic). Left turn phasing
should be considered on any approach that meets the following
thresholds:
ƒ One Opposing Lane – 50,000
ƒ Two Opposing Lanes – 90,000
ƒ Three Opposing Lanes – 110,000

TRAFFIC DESIGN MANUAL 4-10 DECEMBER 2003

CHAPTER 4 – TRAFFIC SIGNAL DESIGN
 2. Delay Warrant – Left turn phasing may be considered if the left turn
delay is greater than or equal to 2 vehicle hours on the critical
approach during the peak hour. Also, a minimum left turn volume of
two vehicles per cycle must exist with the average delay per vehicle
being no less than 35 seconds.3
3. Accident Warrants – Left turn phasing may be considered on an
approach if the following left turn accident experience is documented:4
ƒ One approach – 4 left turn accidents in one year or 6 left turn
accidents in two years.
ƒ Two opposing approaches – 6 left turn accidents in one year or
10 left turn accidents in two years.
4. Sight Distance – Left turn phasing allowing only protected turns
should be considered at locations where vertical or horizontal curves
restrict visibility and prohibit safe left turn maneuvers.
5. High Speed, Wide Intersections – Left turn phasing may be
considered at a location in which two or more opposing lanes of traffic
having a posted speed limit of 45 miles per hour or greater must be
crossed in making the left turn movement.

4.2.3 Types of Left Turn Phasing – Three general types of left turn phasing
are possible. Figure 4.4 displays the signal heads for various types of left
turn phasing.
A. Permissive Only Left Turn Mode – Left turns are allowed only
concurrently with the adjacent thru movement and must yield to
opposing traffic.
B. Protected/Permissive Left Turn Mode – This is the most common
and generally most efficient type of left turn operation. It allows left
turns to be made both on the left turn GREEN ARROW (when they
are protected) and on the CIRCULAR GREEN signal indication
(when they are permitted, but must yield to opposing traffic). It
should be considered when any of the following conditions exist:
ƒ Capacity – where intersection The preferred phasing
capacity is limited and method is protected/
maximum efficiency of the permissive unless one of
traffic operations is needed. the conditions exists
ƒ Left Turn Storage – where requiring protected only
left turn lanes are not present left turn phasing. It is
or left turn lanes are of generally more efficient
inadequate length to store the than protected only left
actual left turn traffic volumes. turn phasing.
ƒ Left Turn Accidents – where the left turn signal phase is not
justified by the left turn accident warrant described in Section
4.2.2.

3
Manual of Traffic Signal Design, ITE, 1998, p.32
4
Ibid. p. 32-33
TRAFFIC DESIGN MANUAL 4-11 DECEMBER 2003
CHAPTER 4 – TRAFFIC SIGNAL DESIGN
 LEFT TURN SIGNAL DISPLAYS

PERMISSIVE ONLY MODE NO SEPARATE SIGNAL REQUIRED

LEFT LEFT ON
GREEN
TURN ARROW
PROTECTED ONLY MODE SIGNAL
(ONE PER LEFT TURN LANE) OR ONLY

(SIGN REQUIRED) (SIGN OPTIONAL)

LEFT TURN
YIELD
ON GREEN
PROTECTED/
PERMISSIVE MODE

(SIGN OPTIONAL)

RIGHT TURN SIGNAL DISPLAYS

PERMISSIVE ONLY MODE NO SEPARATE SIGNAL REQUIRED

RIGHT RIGHT ON
GREEN
TURN ARROW
PROTECTED ONLY MODE SIGNAL
(ONE PER LEFT TURN LANE) OR ONLY

(SIGN REQUIRED) (SIGN OPTIONAL)

PROTECTED/ NO SIGN
PERMISSIVE MODE

Tennessee Department of Transportation

Traffic Design Manual

Turn Signal Displays Figure 4.4

 C. Protected Only Left Turn Mode – This type of left turn operation
allows left turns to be made only on a left turn GREEN ARROW
display. It should be considered when any of the following
conditions exist:

ƒ Limited Left Turn Sight Protected only left turn

Distance – the view of phasing should always be
opposing thru and used for intersections with
opposing right turn traffic is insufficient sight distance
restricted (see Figure 4.5). and high approach speeds.

ƒ Excessive Street Width – left turning traffic must cross three or

more lanes and the speed of the opposing traffic is 45 mph or
greater.5

ƒ Inadequate Geometry – at intersections where there is

inadequate room for opposing left turn movements on the same
street to move simultaneously without conflicting or crossing.
Either Lead-Lag or split phasing must be used.

ƒ Left Turn Accidents – where the left turn signal phase is

justified by the left turn accident warrant described in Section
4.2.2 of this manual.

ƒ Multiple Left Turn Lanes – on approaches where two or more

side by side left turn lanes exist.6 Protected left turn phasing
shall be provided for an approach to an intersection with two or
more adjacent left turn only lanes on one approach.

ƒ Lead-Lag – Protected only phasing shall be used on the

approach with the leading left movement of a Lead-Lag
intersection phasing sequence to avoid a “yellow trap” (see
Sections 4.2.4-D and 4.2.5).

5
Traffic Engineering Handbook, ITE, 1999, p. 477
6
Ibid.
TRAFFIC DESIGN MANUAL 4-13 DECEMBER 2003
CHAPTER 4 – TRAFFIC SIGNAL DESIGN
 SIGHT DISTANCE

OPERATING SAFE SIGHT DISTANCE (FT.)

SPEED (MPH) 2-LANE 4-LANE 6-LANE
20 240 260 280
30 360 390 420
40 470 520 560
50 590 650 700
60 710 780 840

Source: A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets, AASHTO, 2001.

Tennessee Department of Transportation

Traffic Design Manual
Left Turning Sight Distances
(Urban and Suburban) Figure 4.5
 4.2.4 Sequence of Left Turn Protection – Once the need for and type of left
turn protection is determined, it must then be decided where to sequence
the left turn phase in the signal cycle. Additionally, if there is more than
one left turn phase to be added, it must also be decided how they will
sequence in relation to one another.
Leading left turn phasing
A. Leading Left Turn – This
should be used unless
defines a left turn signal phase
other sequencing is
that precedes the thru green
needed for more efficient
signal phase on a particular
operation or safety.
street (see Figure 4.6 and 4.7).
However, caution should
Left turning motorists tend to
be exercised to avoid a
react quicker to a leading left turn
“yellow trap” when using
than to a lagging left turn.
simultaneous leading
A leading left turn should be protected/permissive left
used in the following turns (see Section 4.2.5).
circumstances7:
ƒ Lack of Left Turn Lanes – a leading left turn signal phase
increases the approach capacity on approaches without
separate left turn lanes. This assures that all traffic moves on
the approach at the beginning of the green signal phase.
ƒ Signal Coordination – where a time-space diagram indicates
that a leading left turn signal phase will increase the arterial
green bandwidth and improve the signal progression.
ƒ Minimizing Conflicts – to minimize conflicts between left turn
and opposing thru vehicles by clearing the left turns through the
intersection first.

B. Split Phase – This defines the Split phasing typically

situation when each approach on creates additional overall
the same street is serviced intersection delays and
separately with GREEN signal should only be used in
indications (see Figure 4.7). unusual circumstances.
Typically, it is the side street
which is split phased. The major street should almost never be split
phased. Split phasing could be used in the following circumstances:
ƒ Lack of Turn Lanes – on an approach that lacks left turn lanes
and whose left turn and thru volumes are approximately equal.
This assures that all traffic moves on an approach at the
beginning of the green signal phase.8
ƒ Inadequate Intersection Geometry – at intersections where
intersection turning movements dictate exclusive left turn lanes
and shared thru/left turn lanes.
ƒ Offset Intersections – where alignment prohibits concurrent
left turn and thru movements from opposite approaches.

7
Traffic Control Devices Handbook, ITE, 2001, p. 274
8
Traffic Engineering Handbook, ITE, 1999, p. 480.
TRAFFIC DESIGN MANUAL 4-15 DECEMBER 2003
CHAPTER 4 – TRAFFIC SIGNAL DESIGN
 Y
G
LEAD

SINGLE APPROACH LEADING LEFT-TURN

WITH PROTECTED-PERMISSIVE
OPERATION

Y
G
LEAD

SIMULTANEOUS LEADING LEFT-TURNS

WITH PROTECTED-PERMISSIVE
OPERATION

NOTE: TO AVOID A “YELLOW TRAP”:

1. REQUIRE THE SIDE STREET TO BE SERVICED PRIOR
TO RETURNING TO THE LEFT TURN PHASE
OR 2. PHASE OMIT THE LEADING LEFT TURN PHASE
WHEN THE OPPOSING THRU GREEN IS DISPLAYED

Tennessee Department of Transportation

Traffic Design Manual
Typical Permitted
Left Turn Sequencing Figure 4.6
 LEFT
TURN
R
LEAD
SIGNAL
Y
G
OR
R
Y
SINGLE APPROACH LEADING LEFT-TURN
G
WITH PROTECTED ONLY OPERATION

LEFT
TURN
R
LEAD
SIGNAL
Y
G
OR
R
Y
SIMULTANEOUS LEADING LEFT-TURNS
G
WITH PROTECTED ONLY OPERATION
LEFT
TURN
R
SIGNAL
Y
LAG
G
OR
R
Y
SIMULTANEOUS LAGGING LEFT-TURNS
G
WITH PROTECTED ONLY OPERATION

R R
Y Y
G G
G G
LEAD LAG
SPLIT-PHASE LEFT-TURNS
Tennessee Department of Transportation
Traffic Design Manual
Typical Protected
Left Turn Sequencing Figure 4.7
 C. Lagging Left Turn – This is a left Lagging left turn
turn signal phase that comes at the movements should be
end of the thru green phase. This used cautiously. They
type of sequence is not normally are not normally
expected by drivers. expected by drivers
and can lead to a
A “yellow trap” can occur when a “yellow trap” in certain
traffic signal controller with a situations.
protected/ permissive or protected
only lagging left turn initiates its lagging left turn phase (see Figure
4.8). The opposing left turn movement can experience a “yellow
trap” (see Section 4.2.5). For these reasons, this phasing sequence
is not recommended. Single lagging left turns should only be used
if the leading left turn movement is prohibited or is at a T-
intersection. Simultaneous lagging left turns should only be used if
they are protected only phases (see Figure 4.7)

D. Lead-Lag Left Turns – This is the combination where both a

leading and lagging left turn signal phase is provided on the same
street. Figure 4.8 shows this combination operating in a
protected/permissive mode as previously described. It may be
used in the following circumstances:
ƒ Lack of Left Turn Lanes – on one
and two lane approaches that lack Leading left turn
left turn lanes. movements in lead-
lag signal phasing
ƒ Signal Coordination – where a shall be protected
time-space diagram indicates that only phases to avoid a
a lead-lag left turn combination in “yellow trap”.
the proper direction will increase
the arterial green band width and improve signal progression.
ƒ Unequal Left Turn Volumes – To allow for the separate timing
of each left turn phase.
ƒ Inadequate Intersection Geometry – At intersections where
there is inadequate room for opposing left turn movements on
the same street to move simultaneously without conflicting or
crossing. Protected only left turns must be used.

TRAFFIC DESIGN MANUAL 4-18 DECEMBER 2003

CHAPTER 4 – TRAFFIC SIGNAL DESIGN
 DO NOT USE - YELLOW TRAP

OR

SINGLE LAGGING LEFT-TURN

(Phase A left turn experiences yellow-trap -
Do not use unless Phase A left-turns are prohibited)

LEAD-LAG LEFT-TURNS WITH

PROTECTED-PERMITTED OPERATION
(Phase A left turn experiences yellow trap)

STANDARD LEAD-LAG SEQUENCE

LEFT
TURN
R
LEAD
SIGNAL
Y
G
OR R
R Y
Y G
G LEAD-LAG LEFT-TURNS WITH PROTECTED/ G
PERMITTED-PROTECTED OPERATION LAG
(Use protected only phasing for leading
left-turn to avoid yellow trap)

Tennessee Department of Transportation

Traffic Design Manual

Lead-Lag Left Turn Sequencing Figure 4.8

 4.2.5 Left Turn “Yellow Trap” – A “yellow trap” can occur when all movements
for one approach conclude (permissive or protected-permissive left and
thru movement), but the opposing approach movements continue (see
Figure 4.8). A driver on the
concluding approach waiting to turn A “Yellow Trap” is a condition
left in the permissive portion of the in which a permitted left turn
ending movement sees all of the phase ends in one direction
signal indications turn YELLOW while the opposing through
and wrongly assumes that the movement continues through
opposing traffic is also receiving the succeeding phase. A
YELLOW signal indications (the hazard is introduced because
opposing direction is about to the left turning drivers tend to
receive a protected left turn in perceive the end of their phase
combination with its thru as an opportunity to clear the
movement). The driver now intersection as a “sneaker,”
believes that his left turn can be while the green indication in
completed on yellow when, in fact, the opposing direction is
the opposing thru traffic still has a displayed continuously during
CIRCULAR GREEN thru signal the transition from one phase
indication. If the left turn is made to the next.
under these conditions an accident
could occur.
A “yellow trap” can occur when:
ƒ Simultaneous Protected/Permissive Leading Left Turns – A fully-
actuated traffic signal controller with simultaneous
protected/permissive leading left turns, in the absence of side street
traffic, cycles back and forth between a thru phase and a leading left
turn phase.9 In this case, the “yellow trap” can be eliminated by using
protected only left turns, by servicing the side street prior to returning
to the left turn phase, “or by phase omitting the protected left turn
phase when the opposing thru green is displayed”.10
ƒ Single Lagging Protected Only or Protected-Permissive Left
Turns – A “yellow trap” can occur when a single lagging left turn
movement begins after completion of an opposing permissive left turn
movement. The “Yellow Trap” can be avoided only if leading left turns
are prohibited.
ƒ Lead-Lag Left Turns – Similar to a single lagging left turn movement,
a lead-lag “yellow trap” can occur when a single lagging left turn
movement begins after completion of the permissive portion of the
protected/permissive phase of the opposing movement. The “Yellow
Trap” can be avoided if leading left turns in lead-lag phasing are
protected only.

9
Traffic Engineering Handbook, ITE, 1999, p. 479
10
Ibid.
TRAFFIC DESIGN MANUAL 4-20 DECEMBER 2003
CHAPTER 4 – TRAFFIC SIGNAL DESIGN
 4.2.6 Right Turn Indication11 – Typical right turn Separate right turn
signal heads are shown in Figure 4.4.Separate signal indications
phasing is typically not defined for right turns, are typically used
but two types of indications may control right only when a
turning movements. Three parameters define separate right turn
the right turn treatment for each approach: lane exists.
ƒ Lane utilization (shared, exclusive or channelized)
ƒ Right turn on red (allowed or prohibited)
ƒ Right turn movement protection (permissive, protected or both)

It is important to ensure that the lane utilization is compatible with the

signal protection and with the accommodations for pedestrians. The three
types of right turn phasing are:
A. Permissive Only Mode – A separate signal indication is not
required and right turns may be made on red unless prohibited by a
traffic sign. Unless otherwise noted, this type of control is in effect.
B. Protected Only Mode – This indication is used when right turns
are not allowed concurrently with the adjacent thru movement. The
protected right turn cannot occur concurrently with an adjacent
Pedestrian Walk phase. A separate right turn signal head is
required.
C. Protected/Permissive Mode – This allows right turns to be made
both on a right turn GREEN ARROW and on the CIRCULAR
GREEN signal indication. Typically displayed as a phase overlap
with a protected side street left turn movement, a separate signal
face may be used, but is not required.

4.2.7 Phase Numbering Convention – Phases for Pre-timed, Semi-Actuated

or Fully-Actuated control are numbered with a convention that provides
the basis for the numbering system for signal heads and detectors.
Phasing diagrams typically use the NEMA phase numbering convention.
In the absence of a phase numbering convention by the local agency, the
following convention should be used:

4.2.7.1 Four way Intersections (8 - Phase Traffic Signal Controllers)

A. Major street runs North - South (see Figure 4.9)

Phase 1 SB left turn traffic
Phase 2 NB thru traffic
Phase 3 WB left turn traffic
Phase 4 EB thru traffic
Phase 5 NB left turn traffic
Phase 6 SB thru traffic
Phase 7 EB left turn traffic
Phase 8 WB thru traffic

11
MUTCD, FHWA, 2003. p. 4D-7.
TRAFFIC DESIGN MANUAL 4-21 DECEMBER 2003
CHAPTER 4 – TRAFFIC SIGNAL DESIGN
 N
/ 6 O/ 1
O

MINOR ST /
O 8

/
O 7 / 3
O

/
O 4

MAJOR ST
/ 5 O/ 2
O

NORTH-SOUTH AS
MAJOR STREET
FOR 8-PHASE CONTROLLER

N
/ 4 O/ 7
O

MAJOR ST /6
O

/5
O
/1
O

/2
O
MINOR ST

/ 3 O/ 8
O

EAST-WEST AS
MAJOR STREET
FOR 8-PHASE CONTROLLER

Tennessee Department of Transportation

Traffic Design Manual
Recommended Phase Assignments
for Four-Leg Intersections Figure 4.9
 B. Major street runs East - West (see Figure 4.9)
Phase 1 WB left turn traffic
Phase 2 EB thru traffic
Phase 3 NB left turn traffic
Phase 4 SB thru traffic
Phase 5 EB left turn traffic
Phase 6 WB thru traffic
Phase 7 SB left turn traffic
Phase 8 NB thru traffic

4.2.7.2 Tee-Intersections – Overlaps A through D (phases operating

concurrently with other phases) are used if a four phase cabinet is
used.
A. Major street runs North - South; minor street intersects
from the East (see Figure 4.10)
Phase 1 SB left turn traffic
Phase 2 NB thru traffic
Phase 4 WB traffic
Phase OL SB thru traffic
B. Major street runs North - South, minor street intersects
from the West (see Figure 4.10)
Phase 1 NB left turn traffic
Phase 2 SB thru traffic
Phase 4 EB traffic
Phase OL NB thru traffic
C. Major street runs East - West, minor street intersects
from the South (see Figure 4.10)
Phase 1 WB left turn traffic
Phase 2 EB thru traffic
Phase 4 NB traffic
Phase OL WB thru traffic
D. Major street runs East - West, minor street intersects
from the North (see Figure 4.10)
Phase1 EB left turn traffic
Phase 2 WB thru traffic
Phase 4 SB traffic
Phase OL EB thru traffic

TRAFFIC DESIGN MANUAL 4-23 DECEMBER 2003

CHAPTER 4 – TRAFFIC SIGNAL DESIGN
 N N
/
O
2

1
OL
O
/ MINOR ST
/4

MAJOR ST
O
MAJOR ST

/
O
4
MINOR ST

1
OL
O
/
/2
O

EAST APPROACH AS WEST APPROACH AS

MINOR STREET MINOR STREET
FOR 8-PHASE CONTROLLER FOR 8-PHASE CONTROLLER
IN A 4-PHASE CABINET IN A 4-PHASE CABINET

N
N

MINOR ST
MAJOR ST
OL
/
O 1

/2
O

/4
O

/4
O
/2
O

/1
O
MINOR ST

OL MAJOR ST

SOUTH APPROACH AS NORTH APPROACH AS

MINOR STREET MINOR STREET
FOR 8-PHASE CONTROLLER FOR 8-PHASE CONTROLLER
IN A 4-PHASE CABINET IN A 4-PHASE CABINET

Tennessee Department of Transportation

Traffic Design Manual
Recommended Phase Assignments
for T-Intersections Figure 4.10
4.3 Vehicle Detection – As described in Section 4.1.3, traffic signals are classified
as pre-timed or actuated. Vehicle actuated traffic signals can be semi-actuated
with detectors on some, but not all approaches, and in which right-of-way is
relinquished only when a call is received for the actuated phase, or fully-actuated
which requires detectors on all approaches and in which right-of-way does not
automatically go to a designated phase unless it is recalled by a function on the
traffic signal controller.
The type of vehicle detection system used for actuated traffic signal control
depends on the operational requirements of the intersection in terms of type and
use of data needed by the controller to operate efficiently and the construction
and maintenance cost.

Vehicle detectors are used to detect the presence or passage of a vehicle on a

portion of a roadway. They are an integral part of any traffic actuated traffic
signal design as their input determines the variable timing and phasing of the
traffic signal. Additionally, the proper placement of these detectors contributes
significantly to the overall efficiency of the traffic operations at the intersection.

4.3.1 Locking vs. Non-Locking Memory – Traffic signal controllers have three
modes for detection memory: lock, non-lock and recall.

A. Locking Memory – Locking memory means that a vehicle call is

held by the controller (even after the vehicle has left the detection
area) until the call has been satisfied. This is appropriate for left
turn lanes which are controlled by a protected-only left turn phase,
for some side streets and for high speed approaches that have
advance loops only and no stop line loops.

B. Non-Locking Memory – Non-locking memory means that a waiting

call is dropped (or forgotten) by the controller as soon as the
vehicle leaves the detection area. This is particularly useful in
lanes where a large number of vehicles turn right on red and also in
left turn lanes with permissive or protected-permissive left turn
phases. Most stop line loops are set as non-locking, except in
unusual circumstances.

Where stop line detectors are used to detect the presence of a

vehicle, they are typically located where the vehicle is anticipated to
stop, and operate in the non-locking memory mode of detection.
They may extend several feet beyond the stop line to ensure
vehicle detection. Where advance detectors are used to detect the
passage of a vehicle some distance back from the stop line, they
are located in the path of the vehicle and typically operate in the
locking memory mode of detection to retain the vehicle call. Table
4.1 shows the typical uses of locking and non-locking memory.

TRAFFIC DESIGN MANUAL 4-25 DECEMBER 2003

CHAPTER 4 – TRAFFIC SIGNAL DESIGN
 Table 4.1 Typical Uses of Locking and Non-Locking Memory

Location of Loop Type Memory Setting

Left Turn Lane Stop Line Protected Only Phasing Locking*

Protected/Permissive or Permissive
Left Turn Lane Stop Line Non-Locking
Only Phasing
Non-Locking (typical) or
Thru Lane Stop Line Thru Phase (On Recall)
Locking**

Thru Lane Advance Thru Phase Locking

Thru Lane Stop Line Thru Phase (Not on Recall) Locking**

Right Turn Lane Stop Line Protected Only Phasing Locking

Protected/Permissive or Permissive
Right Turn Lane Stop Line Non-Locking
Only Phasing

* Consider using delay features on loop detector units to prevent cross traffic from placing a
vehicle call to the controller.

** Consider using delay features on loop detector units on side street combination thru/right turn
lanes where vehicles may turn right on red.

TRAFFIC DESIGN MANUAL 4-26 DECEMBER 2003

CHAPTER 4 – TRAFFIC SIGNAL DESIGN
 4.3.2 Detection for Different Approach Speeds – Stop line presence
detection is typically used on low speed approaches (30 mph or less).
Approaches with only stop line detection and with speeds greater than 35
mph may cause problems for a driver in deciding whether or not to
proceed through an intersection when faced with a Yellow Change
Interval.12 This is often referred to as a “dilemma zone”.
A common method of addressing the dilemma zone issue is to install
advance detectors. A combination of advance detectors and stop line
loops can be used on moderate speed approaches (35 to 40 mph).
Advance detectors alone are typically used on high speed approaches (40
mph and higher) and often on moderate speed approaches. A
combination of advance detectors and stop line loops can be used on
moderate speed approaches (35 to 40 mph).
4.3.3 Stop Line Detection – Stop line detectors are located at the stop line on
an intersection approach. Stop line detection is used in thru lanes on
minor approaches, thru lanes on low speed approaches, and in left turn
lanes (see Figure 4.11). All left turn lanes at actuated traffic signals must
have stop line detection. Stop line detection is obviously needed to
actuate a dedicated left turn phase that is not on recall. Approaches with
left turn lanes, but without separate left turn phases, must have stop line
detection so that the traffic signal controller can hold the green phase
while the left turn vehicle waits for possible gaps in opposing traffic.
4.3.4 Advance Detection – Advance detectors are Advance detection
used on the thru lanes of moderate/high speed should be used for
approaches (35 mph or greater) in advance of approaches with
the approach stop line (see Figure 4.11). speeds 35 mph or
These detectors typically operate in a locking higher.
memory mode and detect the passage of a
vehicle. Advance detectors can provide the traffic signal controller with
information on vehicles approaching the intersection and, in the case of a
volume density operation, can count the number of vehicles on the
approach that are waiting with a RED signal indication. The location of
these detectors is based on the safe stopping distance of approaching
vehicles for the approach speed (see Figure 4.12).13
4.3.5 Methods of Detection – Many different technologies exist to enable
detection of vehicles. The three types of detection typically used in
Tennessee are:
ƒ Inductive Loop (standard saw cut loops or preformed loops)
ƒ Microwave Detection
ƒ Video Detection
All three of these methods of detection can be used for stop line detection.
However, the inductive loop is normally used for advance detection. Table
4.2 lists the advantages and disadvantages of these and other types of
detection technologies.
12
Manual of Traffic Signal Design, ITE, 1998, p. 38
13
Ibid, p. 89
TRAFFIC DESIGN MANUAL 4-27 DECEMBER 2003
CHAPTER 4 – TRAFFIC SIGNAL DESIGN
 DETECTION AREA

TO TRAFFIC SIGNAL

ADVANCE DETECTION (LOCKING MEMORY)

DETECTION AREAS

STOP LINE DETECTION (FOR PRESENCE DETECTION)

(LOCKING OR NON-LOCKING MEMORY)

Tennessee Department of Transportation

Traffic Design Manual

Typical Detection Zones Figure 4.11

STOP LINE

DETECTION AREAS
IN LOCKING MODE

ADVANCE DETECTOR SETBACK (X)

SAFE STOPPING SIGHT DISTANCES:

2
X = SSD = rV + 0.5V /d

WHERE: SSD = STOPPING SIGHT DISTANCE (FT)

r = REACTION TIME = 1.0 SEC
V = APPROACH SPEED (FT/SEC)
2
d = DECELERATION RATE (10 FT/SEC )

APPROACH SPEED DETECTOR

(MPH) (FT/SEC) SETBACK (X) (FEET)

35 51.3 185’ (USE VOLUME DENSITY CONTROLLER)

40 58.7 230’ (USE VOLUME DENSITY CONTROLLER)

45 66.0 285’ (USE VOLUME DENSITY CONTROLLER)

50 73.3 340’ (USE VOLUME DENSITY CONTROLLER)

55 80.7 405’ (USE VOLUME DENSITY CONTROLLER)

60 88.0 475’ (USE VOLUME DENSITY CONTROLLER)

65 95.3 550’ (USE VOLUME DENSITY CONTROLLER)

Source: Manual of Traffic Signal Design, ITE, 1998.

Tennessee Department of Transportation

Traffic Design Manual

Advance Detector Placement Figure 4.12

 Table 4.2 Comparison of Vehicle Detection Technologies

Technology Strengths Weaknesses

„ Flexible design to satisfy large variety of „ Installation requires pavement cut.
applications.
„ Mature, well understood technology. „ Decreases pavement life.
„ Provides basic traffic parameters (e.g., volume, „ Installation and maintenance require lane closure.
Inductive Loop presence, occupancy, speed, headway, and gap).
„ High frequency excitation models provide „ Wire loops subject to stresses of traffic and
classification data. temperature.
„ Multiple detectors usually required to instrument a
location.
„ Less susceptible than loops to stresses of traffic. „ Installation requires pavement cut.

„ Some models transmit data over wireless RF link. „ Decreases pavement life.
Magnetometer „ Installation and maintenance require lane closure.
„ Small detection zones.
„ Can be used where loops are not feasible (e.g., „ Installation requires pavement cut or tunneling under
bridge decks). roadway.
„ Some models installed under roadway without need „ Cannot detect stopped vehicles.
Magnetic
for pavement cuts.
„ Less susceptible than loops to stresses of traffic.

„ Generally insensitive to inclement weather. „ Antenna beamwidth and transmitted waveform must
be suitable for the application.
Microwave Radar „ Direct measurement of speed.
„ Multiple lane operation available.
„ Active sensor transmits multiple beams for accurate „ Operation of active sensor may be affected by fog or
measurement of vehicle position, speed, and class. blowing snow.

Infrared „ Multizone passive sensors measure speed. „ Passive sensor may have reduced sensitivity to
vehicles in its field of view in rain and fog.
„ Multiple lane operation available.
„ Multiple lane operation available. „ Some conditions such as temperature change and
extreme air turbulence can affect performance.
Ultrasonic „ Large pulse repetition periods may degrade
occupancy measurement
„ Passive detection. „ Cold temperatures have been reported as affecting
data accuracy.
„ Insensitive to precipitation. „ Specific models are not recommended with slow
Acoustic
moving vehicles in stop and go traffic.
„ Multiple lane operation available.
„ Monitors multiple lanes and multiple zones/lane. „ Inclement weather, shadows, vehicle projection into
adjacent lanes, occlusion, day-to-night transition,
vehicle/road contrast, and water, salt grime, icicles, and
cobwebs on camera lens can affect performance.
„ Easy to add and modify detection zones. „ Requires 50- to 60-ft camera mounting height (in a
side-mounting configura-tion) for optimum presence
Video Image
detection and speed measurement.
Processor
„ Rich array of data available. „ Some models susceptible to camera motion caused
by strong winds.
„ Provides wide-area detection when information „ Generally cost-effective only if many detection zones
gathered at one camera location can be linked to are required within the field of view of the camera.
another.

Source: A Summary of Vehicle Detection and Surveillance Technologies used in Intelligent Transportation Systems, FHWA, 2000.

TRAFFIC DESIGN MANUAL 4-30 DECEMBER 2003

CHAPTER 4 – TRAFFIC SIGNAL DESIGN
 4.3.6 Inductive Loop Detection – The inductive loop detects vehicles by
sensing a change of inductance in the loop caused by the passage or
presence of a vehicle over the loop. Inductive loops have historically been
placed in the pavement by saw cutting a slot, installing loop wire and
encapsulating the loop wire by filling the saw cut with sealant. The
induction detector is made up of three components; a loop of wire saw cut
into the roadway surface, a lead-in (shielded) cable and a detector
processing unit in the controller cabinet. It is capable of both passage and
presence detection.14
When installing inductive
The life of a regular inductive loop which loop detection, the saw
is saw cut into the pavement is cut, loop wire, lead-in
dependent on the condition of pavement cable and detector units
and it must be replaced each time a road are measured separately.
is milled and resurfaced.

A presence detector should be able to detect all licensed motor vehicles

including a small motorcycle. A conventional long rectangular inductive
loop may not detect a small motorcycle.15 A common inductive loop
configuration that provides greater detection capabilities is the
“quadrupole” loop. Quadrupole loops also provide more accuracy in
vehicle detection and avoid false detections from adjacent thru lanes.

A. Placement/Pattern – A detector’s function determines its pattern

and placement. The basic inductive loop detector used by TDOT is
either a square or rectangle that has a length of 6 to 50 feet.
Figure 4.13 displays the typical layouts of inductive loop detectors.

B. Preformed Inductive Loops – Preformed inductive loops function

similarly to a regular saw cut loop; however, the conductor is
encased in a heavy duty plastic housing. They are placed within
concrete or in the lower lifts of asphalt prior to final paving (see
Figure 4.14). Preformed loops can last longer than traditional saw
cut loops and should be strongly considered on new construction
projects where maintenance of
saw cut loops is an issue. When long term maintenance
While they can be installed in is a concern, an alternative to
existing pavement, it is not the traditional saw cut
recommended due to the size inductive loop for new
of the saw cut required. construction projects is the
preformed inductive loop.
C. Loop Detector Processing
Units – Detector processing units are devices in the signal
controller cabinet that receive and interpret the signal from
inductive loops and transmit the data to the controller. The local
maintaining agency should be consulted for the type of unit desired
(single channel vs. multi-channel and shelf mount vs. card rack).
14
Traffic Detector Handbook, ITE, 2nd Ed. p. 3
15
Manual of Traffic Signal Design, ITE, 1998, p. 87
TRAFFIC DESIGN MANUAL 4-31 DECEMBER 2003
CHAPTER 4 – TRAFFIC SIGNAL DESIGN
 50’ TYP
3’ MIN
5’ MAX

2 WIRES
4 WIRES 1 6’ TYP
PRESENCE
2 WIRES
ADVANCE LOOP SPACING 6’ TYP
APPROACH DISTANCE TO
6’ TYP 2
SPEED (MPH) STOP LINE (FT) THRU PHASE ON
35 185’ MIN RECALL OR ON
LOCKING MEMORY
40 230’
45 285’ 6” MIN

50 340’
2 OR 3
55 405’ SHIELDED CABLE(S)
60 475’ IN CONDUIT
PULL BOX
TO POLE BASE OR
SEE ADVANCE CONTROLLER CABINET
LOOP SPACING
CHART

TYPICAL HIGH SPEED APPROACH

50’ TYP
3’ MIN
5’ MAX

2 WIRES
4 WIRES 1 6’ TYP
PRESENCE
2 WIRES
6’ TYP 15-20’ TYP

LOOP TURNS 6’ TYP 3 2

PRESENCE
6” MIN
LOOP NO. TURNS NO. TURNS
LENGTH IN ASPHALT IN CONCRETE
2
6 - 24’ 3 4 PRESENCE
6” MIN
24 - 50’ 2 3
QUADRUPOLE 2-4-2 3-6-3 3 OR 4
SHIELDED CABLE(S)
IN CONDUIT
PULL BOX
TO POLE BASE OR
SEE ADVANCE CONTROLLER CABINET
LOOP SPACING
CHART

ALTERNATE HIGH SPEED APPROACH

(FOR USE WHEN PRESENCE DETECTION IS REQUIRED)
50’ TYP
3’ MIN
5’ MAX

2 DETECTOR NUMBER (LOOPS WITH SAME 2 WIRES

NUMBER INDICATE WIRED IN SERIES 4 WIRES 1 6’ TYP
PRESENCE
2 WIRES
ALL LOOPS TO BE CENTERED IN TRAVEL LANE

ALL DISTANCES FROM STOP LINE 2

PRESENCE
6” MIN

PRESENCE
2

PULL BOX

SHIELDED CABLE(S)
30 MPH OR LESS IN CONDUIT
TO POLE BASE OR
CONTROLLER CABINET

Tennessee Department of Transportation

Traffic Design Manual
Typical Loop Detector
Installation Layout Figure 4.13
 1" CONDUIT WITH 1" CONDUIT WITH
LEAD-IN CABLE LEAD-IN CABLE
LEAD-IN LEAD-IN
CABLE CABLE

TEE TEES

PULL BOX PULL BOX

EDGE OF
PAVEMENT

PREFORMED LOOP

CROSS-LINKED
POLYETHYLENE MATERIAL PREFORMED
QUADRAUPOLE
LOOP WIRE LOOP
TURNS
5/8”

PREFORMED LOOP
CROSS SECTION
4” TYP.

. .
. . . .
. . . .
. . . . .
. ..
. . . .
. .
. . . .
3” MIN.

. . .
.
. .
SURFACE COURSE
. . . . .
. . .
.. . .
. . . ASPHALT LAYERS

PREFORMED
LOOP SUPPORT PREFORMED
WITH CHAIR LOOP

PREFORMED LOOP INSTALLED PREFORMED LOOP INSTALLED

IN NEW CONCRETE IN NEW ASPHALT
(INSTALL UNDER NEW PAVEMENT) (INSTALL UNDER NEW PAVEMENT)

Tennessee Department of Transportation

Traffic Design Manual

Preformed Inductive Loop Figure 4.14

 4.3.7 Microwave Detection – Sometimes referred to as radar detection,
microwaves are beamed toward the roadway by a transmitter device. As a
vehicle enters the influence area of this transmitter, the microwaves are
reflected back to an antenna at a different frequency, allowing the
presence of the vehicle to be detected (see Figure 4.15). This detection
is not influenced by adjacent construction and can be implemented without
lane closures associated with saw cutting loops. Microwave detectors are
also immune to adverse weather such as fog and rain. One advantage
that the microwave detector has over the video detector is that it can often
see around tall vehicles and detect occluded (blocked) vehicles.

Older microwave detectors could not be used as presence detectors,

requiring phases to be set on locking memory. Newer microwave
detectors that use frequency modulated continuous wave (FMCW) can be
used as a presence detector and can detect motionless vehicles. New
microwave detectors can detect up to 200 feet for an area 15 feet wide
and can detect eight separate detection zones within this detection area.

Microwave detection is typically accomplished by a side fire unit that can

detect zones similar to those for stop line inductive loops. This type of
detection can be considered in areas
where loop installation is not possible, When installing microwave
i.e., pavement is in poor condition, etc. or video detection, a
The detection zones may be footnote should be added
programmed using a laptop computer to the Plans noting the
interfaced with the unit. number of cameras, the
number of processing
4.3.8 Video Detection – Video detection is units or other equipment
an image processor consisting of a and the estimated quantity
microprocessor-based CPU and of required cable. Each
software that analyzes video images. intersection is measured
The detector areas are programmed per each.
through a laptop computer. Each
detection zone emulates an inductive loop (see Figure 4.16). Video
detection has the distinct advantage of working throughout a construction
project, when inductive loops are often disturbed. This detection is not
influenced by adjacent construction.

Camera systems provide many features loops cannot, such as incident

monitoring and creating new detection zones anywhere in the field of view.
They are non-destructive to the roadway surface. They also have
shortcomings. Sun angle, shadows, rain, fog, dust, and power spikes can
cause problems. Tall vehicles can obscure a lane causing missed signals.

Camera position is the primary factor for successful operation. Cameras

should be mounted on the most stable fixture possible. Typical mounting
is on a luminaire arm. The use of video detection requires that
consideration be given to sight lines to the detection zones, which can be
obstructed by large trucks or other obstacles. Video detection is a more
expensive detection alternative than other methods and is typically limited
to stop line detection.
TRAFFIC DESIGN MANUAL 4-34 DECEMBER 2003
CHAPTER 4 – TRAFFIC SIGNAL DESIGN
 POLE MOUNTED MICROWAVE UNIT
(17’ TO 23’ MOUNTING HEIGHT)

DETECTION ZONES
10’ (PRESENCE DETECTION)

15’

Tennessee Department of Transportation

Traffic Design Manual
Microwave Detection
(Side-Fired Radar) Figure 4.15
 35’ TYPICAL

CAMERA ASSEMBLY, INCLUDING

CAMERA, LENS, ENCLOSURE
AND SUNSHIELD

CAMERA MOUNTING
BRACKET

STAINLESS STEEL
BANDING
VIDEO CABLE
DRIP LOOP

CAMERA
30 O

DETECTION
ZONES

VIDEO DETECTOR PLACEMENT

Tennessee Department of Transportation

Traffic Design Manual

Video Detection Figure 4.16

 4.3.9 Phase Recalls – The recall feature of a traffic signal controller is a
function that causes the automatic return of the right-of-way to a phase
regardless of actuation on that approach. Minimum Recall returns to the
selected phase for the minimum amount of green time (Minimum Green)
for that phase. Maximum Recall returns to the selected phase for the
maximum of green time (Maximum Green) for that phase. The Maximum
Recall feature is used primarily for fixed time advances and the major
street phase of traffic signals in a signal system. Minimum Recall is used
primarily for the major street phase of a fully-actuated traffic signal not in a
system and for the phase in which the signal is expected to rest.
ƒ Minimum Recall is used for the arterial phase of full-actuated traffic
signals.
ƒ Maximum Recall is used primarily for fixed time (pre-timed)
intersections and the coordinated phase of traffic signals in a system.
ƒ Minimum Recall may be used for left turn or side street phases of
traffic signals in systems when that feature is needed for the desired
operation (to ensure a minimum side street call, etc).

4.4 Pedestrian Signal Interval – Pedestrian intervals are signal timing features
activated by pedestrian pushbuttons or internally generated recalls which allow
pedestrians to receive pedestrian signal displays and/or adequate signal time to
aid in crossing the street. Pedestrian phase timing parameters are detailed in
Section 4.5.7 and the pedestrian signal head requirements are discussed in
Section 4.9.11. Pedestrians are better controlled by pedestrian signal faces
rather than vehicular signal faces, therefore pedestrian signal heads should be
installed at any new intersections where pedestrian phasing is provided.

A pedestrian signal interval is made up of two parts:

ƒ Walk Interval – an interval during which the WALKING PERSON
(symbolizing WALK) signal indication is displayed.
ƒ Pedestrian Change Interval – an interval during which the flashing
UPRAISED HAND (symbolizing DON’T WALK) signal indication is displayed.

4.4.1 Pedestrian Signal Warrants – A

pedestrian signal phase with pedestrian Pedestrian phasing
signal heads shall be installed when any needs should be
of the following occur:16 considered for all new
signalized intersections
1. When Signal Warrant 4, “Pedestrian unless pedestrians are
Volume” is fulfilled. prohibited from using
2. When Signal Warrant 5, “School the intersection.
Crossing” is fulfilled.
3. Obscured signal heads or confusing phasing (such as split-phasing
operation) might present problems for pedestrians.
4. Where there is an established school crossing at the proposed signal
location.
16
MUTCD, FHWA, 2003, p. 4E-1.
TRAFFIC DESIGN MANUAL 4-37 DECEMBER 2003
CHAPTER 4 – TRAFFIC SIGNAL DESIGN
 5. Where sidewalks and pedestrians are present or could be expected to
be present.

4.4.2 Pedestrian Interval Sequence

A. Concurrent Movement – The most common sequence is to move
pedestrians concurrent with parallel vehicular traffic. Care must be
taken, however, not to move pedestrians during the display of a
conflicting left turn or right turn arrow for the parallel vehicular
traffic.
B. Exclusive Movement – This sequence moves pedestrians on a
phase totally separate from any vehicular phase. When used,
pedestrians cross all approaches simultaneously. This sequence
shall only be used where both pedestrian volumes and conflicting
vehicular turning movement volumes are high.
4.4.3 Countdown Pedestrian Signals – Technology has been developed to
provide additional information to the pedestrian regarding the necessary
clearance time to successfully complete the crossing of a roadway at
crosswalks. A pedestrian interval countdown display may be added to a
pedestrian signal head in order to
inform pedestrians of the number of The pedestrian countdown
seconds remaining in the Pedestrian indication provides additional
Change Interval (see Figure 4.17). information on the time left
The countdown indication is located before the pedestrian phase
adjacent to the standard pedestrian terminates.
signal indication and provides a
sequential countdown in seconds from the start of the flashing Pedestrian
Clearance Interval (“DON’T WALK” indication) until the steady “DON’T
WALK” indication is displayed.
The flashing “DON’T WALK” indication is intended to provide the
pedestrian, who has already begun crossing, with adequate time to finish
the crossing; a clearance interval. The solid “DON’T WALK” indication is
intended to keep all pedestrians from being in the intersection at that time.
A countdown pedestrian indication provides pedestrians with additional
information, specifically a descending numerical countdown of the flashing
hand clearance interval, which indicates to the pedestrian the time
available for their crossing and is intended to be intuitively understood.
Providing additional pedestrian clearance time information may help the
pedestrian decide whether to start the
Countdown features on
crossing or wait for the next “WALK”
pedestrian signal heads
indication.
are supplemental and are
If countdown pedestrian signals are not required, but may be
used, a steady UPRAISED HAND used by a local agency.
(symbolizing DONT WALK) signal
indication shall be displayed during the Yellow Change Interval and any All
Red Clearance Interval (prior to a conflicting green being displayed).

TRAFFIC DESIGN MANUAL 4-38 DECEMBER 2003

CHAPTER 4 – TRAFFIC SIGNAL DESIGN
 TYPICAL PEDESTRIAN SIGNAL HEADS COUNTDOWN
PEDESTRIAN
DON’T WALK INDICATION WALK INDICATION SIGNAL HEAD

CROSS
ON CROSS
TO CROSS
ONLY
GREEN STREET ON
LIGHT PUSH BUTTON
WAIT FOR
ONLY GREEN LIGHT SIGNAL

R10-1 R10-3a R10-2a

SIGN FOR INTERSECTION SIGN FOR INTERSECTION SIGN FOR INTERSECTION
WITHOUT PED SIGNALS WITH PUSHBUTTONS BUT WITH PED SIGNALS BUT NO
OR PUSHBUTTONS NO PEDESTRIAN SIGNALS PUSHBUTTONS (OPTIONAL)

START CROSSING START CROSSING

Watch For TO MEDIAN PUSH
Vehicles Watch For Vehicles

DON’T START DON’T START

BUTTON
Finish Crossing
If Started
Finish Crossing
If Started FOR
DON’T CROSS DON’T CROSS

TO CROSS TO CROSS
PUSH BUTTON PUSH BUTTON

R10-3b R10-3d R10-4b

INSTALL AT CORNER INSTALL IN MEDIAN
SIGN FOR INTERSECTION
WITH PEDESTRIAN SIGNALS
AND PUSHBUTTONS PEDESTRIAN SIGNAL SIGNS FOR STREETS WITH MEDIANS

Tennessee Department of Transportation

Traffic Design Manual

Pedestrian Interval Signs and Signals Figure 4.17

 4.4.4 Pedestrian Actuation – Pedestrian detection is typically accomplished by
active devices, primarily a pushbutton. While passive pedestrian detection
is possible, it is rarely used.
Pushbuttons shall be provided where the If pedestrian phasing is
local governing agency requests or utilized, but no
requires, sidewalks are present, or pushbuttons are provided,
where appropriate. any concurrent thru
phases must be on recall
A. Undivided Roadways – When to serve the pedestrian
pedestrian actuated phases are phase.
provided, pedestrian pushbuttons
are to be provided on the appropriate corners with a pushbutton for
each crossing direction. Each pushbutton is to be supplemented by
an R10-3a or R10-3b sign as appropriate with an arrow pointing in
the direction of the crossing.

B. Divided Roadways – On divided roadways, both pedestrian

pushbuttons and pedestrian signals are also to be installed in the
median area if the median is of sufficient width to safely store
pedestrians, and if the amount of pedestrian clearance time
provided is only sufficient to reach the median area.17 The
pushbuttons are to be supplemented with an R10-3d sign.

C. Semi-Actuated Locations – At locations that have vehicle

detectors only on the minor street and pedestrians crossing the
major street are a concern, pedestrian pushbuttons will be needed
for the semi-actuated approaches along with an adequate Minimum
Green to assure a safe crossing of the major street.

D. Fully-Actuated Locations – At A pedestrian pushbutton

locations that have vehicle is required for any
detectors on all approaches and actuated phase with a
pedestrian crossing is allowed, concurrent pedestrian
pushbuttons will be needed on all movement.
non-recalled approaches.

Requirements for locations with and without pedestrian signal heads and
pushbuttons are listed in Table 4.3. The various signs required for the
different pedestrian actuation and indication scenarios are shown in Figure
4.17.

17
MUTCD, FHWA, 2003, p. 4E-6.
TRAFFIC DESIGN MANUAL 4-40 DECEMBER 2003
CHAPTER 4 – TRAFFIC SIGNAL DESIGN
 Table 4.3 Pedestrian Signal Head and Pushbutton Needs

Pedestrian Pedestrian
Requirements
Signal Heads Pushbuttons
Pedestrians use Vehicle Signals to cross
street
Recall for Vehicle Phases with concurrent
Pedestrian Movements
NOT
NO NO Minimum Green time for Vehicle Phases RECOMMEDED
must be greater than required Walk and
Pedestrian Clearance

CROSS ON GREEN LIGHT ONLY (R10-1)

sign required
Pedestrians use Vehicle Signals to cross
street

Minimum Green time for Vehicle Phases

must be greater than required Walk and NOT
NO YES Pedestrian Clearance RECOMMEDED

TO CROSS STREET PUSH BUTTON WAIT

FOR GREEN LIGHT (R10-3a) sign required

Good for Fixed Time Signals

Recall for Vehicle Phases with concurrent

Pedestrian Movements RECOMMENDED
YES NO Minimum Green time for Vehicle Phases FOR FIXED TIME
must be greater than required Walk and CONTROL
Pedestrian Clearance

No Sign Required (R10-2a Optional)

Good for Actuated Signals

Minimum Green time for Vehicle Phases RECOMMENDED

YES YES must be greater than required Walk and FOR ACTUATED
Pedestrian Clearance CONTROL

Pushbutton/Pedestrian Signal (R10-3b or

(R10-3d and R10-4b)) sign required

TRAFFIC DESIGN MANUAL 4-41 DECEMBER 2003

CHAPTER 4 – TRAFFIC SIGNAL DESIGN
 4.4.5 Accessible Pedestrian Signals – The Americans with Disabilities Act
(ADA) requires access to the public right-of-way for people with
disabilities. Access to traffic and signal information is an important feature
of accessible sidewalks and street crossings for pedestrians who have
vision impairments. While most intersections pose little difficulty for
independent travelers who are blind or have low vision, there are some
situations in which the information provided by an accessible pedestrian
signal is necessary for independent and safe crossing.18

The technique used by pedestrians with visual disabilities to cross streets

at traffic signals is to start
crossing when they hear the traffic “Most intersections will not
in front of them stop and the traffic require accessible pedestrian
alongside them begin to move, signals. If a particular signalized
corresponding to the onset of the location presents difficulties for
Green Interval. This is effective at pedestrians who have visual
many locations. The existing disabilities to cross reasonably
environment is often sufficient to safely and effectively, an
provide the information that engineering study should be
pedestrians who have visual conducted that considers the
disabilities need to operate safety and effectiveness for
reasonably safely at a signalized pedestrians in general, as well
location. Therefore, many as the information needs of
signalized locations will not pedestrians with visual
require any accessible pedestrian disabilities” - MUTCD 2003.
signals.19

An accessible pedestrian signal detector may provide assistance in

locating the pushbutton as well as physical confirmation of the Walk
Interval (see Section 4.5.7 for more information on a Walk Interval). The
installation of accessible pedestrian signals at signalized locations should
be based on an engineering study, which should consider the following
factors:20

1. Potential demand for accessible pedestrian signals

2. A request for accessible pedestrian signals
3. Traffic volumes during times when pedestrians might be present,
including periods of low traffic volumes or high turn-on-red volumes
4. The complexity of traffic signal phasing
5. The complexity of intersection geometry

For accessible pedestrian signal locations, each crosswalk can have a

signal device that includes either audible indications or vibrotactile
indications of the WALK indication. In addition, these locations may
contain accessible pedestrian detectors.

18
“Accessible Pedestrian Signals”, U.S. Access Board, 1998.
19
MUTCD, FHWA, 2003, p. 4E-3.
20
Ibid, p. 4E-4.
TRAFFIC DESIGN MANUAL 4-42 DECEMBER 2003
CHAPTER 4 – TRAFFIC SIGNAL DESIGN
 ҏ4.4.5.1 Accessible WALK Indications – An accessible pedestrian signal
typically includes a signal device that provides either audible
indications or vibrotactile indications of the Walk Interval.
A. Audible Conformation – Audible pedestrian signal devices
supplement visual WALK indications and are designed to aid
visually impaired pedestrians. When verbal messages are
used to communicate the pedestrian interval, they provide a
message that the Walk Interval is in effect, as well as to
which crossing it applies. The verbal message is provided at
regular intervals throughout the timing of the Walk Interval.
B. Vibrotactile Confirmation – A vibrotactile pedestrian device
communicates information about pedestrian timing through a
vibrating surface by touch. Vibrotactile pedestrian devices
indicate that the Walk Interval is in effect, and for which
direction it applies, through the use of a vibrating directional
arrow or some other means. They are located adjacent to
the pushbutton.

4.4.5.2 Accessible Pedestrian Signal Detector – An accessible

pedestrian signal detector is a device that can assist a pedestrian
with visual or physical disabilities in activating the pedestrian
phase. Accessible pedestrian signal detectors may be either
pushbuttons or passive detection devices. Pushbutton locator
tones, which help the pedestrian find the pushbutton, may also be
used with accessible pedestrian
When used, accessible
signals. A pushbutton locator tone
pedestrian pushbuttons
is a repeating sound that informs
on corners should be
approaching pedestrians that they
separated by at least 10’.
are required to push a button to
actuate pedestrian timing, and that enables visually impaired
pedestrians to locate the pushbutton.

At accessible pedestrian signal locations, pushbuttons should

clearly indicate which crosswalk signal is actuated by each
pushbutton. At corners of signalized locations with accessible
pedestrian signals where two pedestrian pushbuttons are provided,
a distance of at least 10 feet should separate the pushbuttons to
enable pedestrians who have visual disabilities to distinguish and
locate the appropriate pushbutton.

Pushbuttons for accessible pedestrian signals should be located as

follows (see Figure 4.18):
ƒ Adjacent to a level all-weather surface to provide access from a
wheelchair and where there is an all-weather surface,
wheelchair accessible route to the ramp
x Within 5 feet of the crosswalk extended
ƒ Within 10 feet of the edge of the curb, shoulder or pavement
ƒ Parallel to the crosswalk to be used

TRAFFIC DESIGN MANUAL 4-43 DECEMBER 2003

CHAPTER 4 – TRAFFIC SIGNAL DESIGN
 SPAN WIRE

5’ MAX.

SPAN WIRE

5’ MAX.
10’ MAX. (2’ MIN.)

.
IN
’M
10
CORNER WITH TWO RAMPS

NOTE: SCHEMATICS SHOW VARIOUS

COMBINATIONS OF SIGNAL POLES,
PEDESTAL POLES AND PUSHBUTTON
POSTS. DIFFERENT COMBINATIONS
5’ MAX. MAST ARM ARE POSSIBLE.

10’ MAX. (2’ MIN.)

.
IN
’M

LEGEND:
10

DIRECTION FOR PUSHBUTTON

PUSHBUTTON
10’ MAX. (2’ MIN.) PEDESTRIAN PUSHBUTTON POST
WITH PUSHBUTTON

PEDESTAL POLE WITH PEDESTRIAN

CORNER WITH SINGLE RAMP SIGNAL AND PUSHBUTTON

SIGNAL SUPPORT POLE WITH PEDESTRIAN

SIGNAL AND PUSHBUTTON

Tennessee Department of Transportation

Traffic Design Manual
Accessible Pedestrian Signal
Pushbutton Locations Figure 4.18
4.5 Traffic Signal Timing – Proper signal timing is essential to the efficient
operation of a signalized intersection. The objective of signal timing is to
determine the appropriate timing for each required signal phase so as to
minimize the average delay to any single group of vehicles or pedestrians and to
reduce the probability of conflicts that could
cause accidents.21 Regardless of how precise a
TDOT typically provides basic signal theoretical method of signal
timings on the timing detail sheet to allow a timing might be, its
safe startup of the system while the road effectiveness in actual traffic
project is still in the construction phase. If conditions must be observed
the local agency agrees, plans can note in the field and appropriate
that the local agency is to provide initial timing adjustments made after
signal timings. Startup timing should implementation.
emphasize safety over efficiency. These timings should be based on operational
traffic volumes expected for approximately three years after completion of
construction.

4.5.1 Types of Signal Timing Data – In general, an intersection will require

one or more of the following types of signal timing data:

ƒ Preset Timing Intervals – phase timing intervals that are fixed and do
not change.

ƒ Actuated Timing Intervals – a number of timing variables that can

change including individual phase splits that can vary.

ƒ Fixed Time Plan – based on a fixed cycle length (see Figure 4.1 for
basic fixed time cycle schematic). Multiple timing plans may be
needed for different time periods.

ƒ Coordinated Signal Timing Plan – time-of-day and traffic responsive

plans (splits, cycle lengths and offsets) with the intersection is part of a
larger system.

4.5.2 Preset Timing Intervals – All traffic signal controllers have some preset
timing intervals. In non-actuated (pre-timed) control, all intervals are
preset. In semi-actuated or fully-actuated control, some intervals are also
preset and some are variable. Preset intervals found in both pre-timed
and actuated control include the following:

ƒ “Yellow Change (Clearance)” Interval (see Section 4.5.6)

ƒ “Red Clearance (All Red)” Interval (see Section 4.5.6)
ƒ “Walk” Interval (see Section 4.5.7)
ƒ “Pedestrian Change” Interval (see Section 4.5.7)

4.5.3 Pre-Timed Timing Intervals – As previously defined, a pre-timed traffic

signal controller is one in which the timing and phasing do not vary from

21
Traffic Control Devices Handbook, ITE, 2001, p. 352
TRAFFIC DESIGN MANUAL 4-45 DECEMBER 2003
CHAPTER 4 – TRAFFIC SIGNAL DESIGN
 cycle to cycle. In addition to the intervals listed in Section 4.5.2, the basic
timing parameters for a pre-timed controller are:

ƒ Cycle Length
ƒ Green Intervals (Splits) – Maximum Green on Recall
ƒ Number of Timing Plans

If pedestrians regularly use the intersection, pedestrian timing will also

have to be considered both with and without pedestrian signal indications
and/or pushbuttons. The movement green required for vehicles shall be
compared with the required pedestrian
crossing times (see Section 4.5.7). If the Green movement timing
pedestrian timing requirement exceeds for pre-timed signals
the movement green, the pedestrian shall be equal to or
timing shall govern and the movement greater than the required
green lengthened. pedestrian crossing time
if pedestrians use the
Once the signal phasing has been intersection.
decided upon using the guidelines in
Section 4.2, the cycle length of the signal must then be determined. A
signal’s cycle length is defined as the total time in seconds required to
complete a prescribed sequence of signal phases. In general, signal
cycles should be as short as possible to adequately handle the traffic
demand.

4.5.3.1 Cycle Length Determination – Cycle lengths should be

calculated for the different time periods (AM Peak hour, the PM
Peak hour and the off peak periods as a minimum). Additional cycle
lengths for additional time periods may also be needed. There are
several methods that can be used to calculate cycle lengths, two of
which are provided below.

A. Critical Lane Volume Method – The sum of the critical lane

volumes for each signal phase can be used to determine a
minimum cycle length. The first step is assigning peak hour
approach volumes to individual lanes as follows:

ƒ Exclusive Turn Lanes – Where exclusive turn lanes are

available, all turns are assigned to the appropriate turn
lane. The remaining approach thru volumes are equally
distributed to the approach thru lanes.

ƒ Shared Lanes Without Permissive Left Turns – For

shared and/or thru lanes where permissive left turns are
not present, the approach volume is equally distributed
amongst the approach lanes.

ƒ Shared Lanes With Permissive Left Turns – Where

permissive left turns are present in shared lanes, the left
turn volumes must be converted to thru vehicle
equivalents (TVE) (refer to Chapter 16 of the 2000

TRAFFIC DESIGN MANUAL 4-46 DECEMBER 2003

CHAPTER 4 – TRAFFIC SIGNAL DESIGN
 Highway Capacity Manual). They are then added to the
thru and right turn volumes on the approach and equally
distributed to the approach lanes.

The total TVE left turn volume is then subtracted from the
inside (left) shared lane volume to determine the actual
number of thru vehicles in that lane. This actual number
of thru vehicles is added to the actual left turn volume
and assigned to the shared inside (left) lane. The actual
remaining traffic is then distributed equally to the
remaining approach lanes. The highest lane volume for
this approach is the critical lane volume for the approach.

ƒ Using the assumed signal phasing, the highest lane

volume moving in each phase is identified as the critical
lane volume for that phase.
ƒ The critical lane volume for all phases is totaled,
determining the minimum cycle length.

Various methods of establishing cycle length exist;

Webster’s equation is given as Equation 4.1.

Equation 4.1 22

1.5L  5
Optimal Cycle Length (C) =
1.0  ¦Yi

Where: L = usable time per cycle (seconds)

Yi = critical lane volume (ith phase, vph)/saturation flow
(vph)

B. Signal Timing Software – WIN TEAPAC 2000 and SIGNAL

2000 software applications provide a relatively quick and
easy method of determining how well a range of cycle
lengths will work for a given set of conditions at an
intersection.

4.5.3.2 Cycle Lengths in Signal Systems

A. Existing System – Where a traffic signal is to be added to

an existing signal system, it must operate on the same cycle
length as the system or a multiple of it.

B. New System – If individual traffic signals are being timed for

a new signal system, the intersection requiring the longest
cycle lengths is the “critical intersection” and its cycle length
will determine the cycle length for the system.

22
Northwestern University Traffic Institute, Traffic Actuated Control Workshop, November 2001.
TRAFFIC DESIGN MANUAL 4-47 DECEMBER 2003
CHAPTER 4 – TRAFFIC SIGNAL DESIGN
 4.5.3.3 Movement Timing – With solid state equipment the green time
for each phase is set on Maximum Recall because of the lack of
signal detection. This setting for each phase is based on the
average needs for that particular movement as determined by
traffic counts. Ideally, it should be long enough to service all the
vehicles and pedestrians accumulated during the Change
Interval.23 Two methods of calculating the Maximum Green time are
as follow:

A. Manual Calculation – The Green Interval timing can be

calculated for each phase by Equation 4.2.
Equation 4.2 24

ªV A º
G «V xC »  CLR
¬ T ¼
Where: G = Green Interval for phase (sec.)
V A = Critical lane volume for phase (veh/hr.)
VT = Sum of critical lane volumes for all phases (veh/hr.)
C = Cycle Length
CLR = Clearance Interval for phase (sec.)

B. Signal Timing Software – WIN TEAPAC 2000 and SIGNAL

2000 are examples of software applications that provide a
relatively quick and easy method to determine optimum
green phase settings while minimizing the approach and
overall intersection delay.

4.5.4 Basic Actuated Timing Intervals – In addition to the intervals listed in

Section 4.5.2, the following timing parameters are used in a basic
actuated traffic signal controller:

ƒ Minimum Green
ƒ Passage Time
ƒ Maximum Green

4.5.4.1 Minimum Green – The Minimum Green setting is the shortest

time allowed by a phase.

ƒ Approach with Stop Line Detection – When detectors are

located at the approach stop line, a Minimum Green of 6.0
seconds shall be used for thru movements on side streets and
longer for major streets.

23
Traffic Engineering Handbook, ITE, 1999, p. 480
24
Northwestern University Traffic Institute, Traffic Actuated Control Workshop, November 2001.
TRAFFIC DESIGN MANUAL 4-48 DECEMBER 2003
CHAPTER 4 – TRAFFIC SIGNAL DESIGN
 ƒ Approach with Advance Detection Only – When an approach
has only advance detection, the Minimum Green shall be the
amount of time required to clear the stored vehicles between the
stop line and the detectors (see Section 4.5.3.3 for equation to
determine Minimum Green for advance detection).

ƒ Turn Lanes – A Minimum Green of 6.0 seconds shall be used

for any turn lane.

ƒ Approaches with Pedestrian

For approaches with
Phases – The Minimum Green
pedestrian phases, the
required for vehicles shall be
Minimum Green shall be
compared with the required
equal to or greater than
pedestrian crossing times (see
the required pedestrian
Section 4.5.7). If the pedestrian
crossing time.
timing requirement exceeds the
Minimum Green, the pedestrian timing shall govern and the
Minimum Green lengthened.

4.5.4.2 Passage Time (Vehicle Extension or Interval) – This function

extends the green for a phase beyond Minimum Green up to a
preset maximum timing to accommodate additional vehicles
stopped behind the stop line or vehicles approaching the stop line
after the phase indication turns green. It is also the allowable gap
in approaching traffic for the signal phase to lose the green.25 The
basic relationship between these timing parameters is shown in
Figure 4.19.

For maximum efficiency the Passage Time should be set as short

as practical to retain the green as long as a consistent demand is
present, but not so long that it retains vehicles straying behind.
However, where detectors are located at some distance from the
stop line, the Passage Time must be long enough to permit the
vehicle to travel from the detector to the stop line without gapping
out.

Typical Passage Times are 2.0 to 3.0 seconds for stop bar loops,
with longer times for advance loops (3.5 to 6.0 seconds).

4.5.4.3 Maximum Green – The Maximum Green defines the longest

green time allowed for the signal phase in the presence of a
serviceable conflicting call or another phase on recall. It can be
determined using the methods described for Green Interval timing
for pre-timed controllers (see Section 4.5.3.3). At all but
oversaturated intersections, the Maximum Green should be long
enough to clear the largest platoons of traffic expected.

Major thru movements should have a Maximum Green time of

between 60 and 120 seconds.

25
Manual of Traffic Signal Design, ITE,1998, p. 152
TRAFFIC DESIGN MANUAL 4-49 DECEMBER 2003
CHAPTER 4 – TRAFFIC SIGNAL DESIGN
 MAXIMUM GREEN

MINIMUM GREEN EXTENDABLE PERIOD

PASSAGE TIME OR
VEHICLE EXTENSION
(FIXED)

CONSTANT
MIN OR INITIAL GREEN EXTENSIONS

*
SUCCESSIVE ACTUATIONS

CONFLICTING *
CALL
DURING GREEN

*
*
*
*
TIME (SECONDS) *
*
YELLOW

GAP OUT (NO DETECTIONS

WITHIN PASSAGE TIME)
BEGIN YELLOW
LEGEND

PASSAGE TIME (OR VEHICLE EXT)

UNEXPIRED PORTIONS OF PASSAGE TIME

OR VEHICLE EXTENSION INTERVALS

*
DETECTOR ACTUATION ON
CONFLICTING PHASE

* DETECTOR ACTUATION ON A PHASE

WITH RIGHT OF WAY

NOTE - IN THIS SCHEMATIC, THERE IS A DEMAND FOR ANOTHER PHASE AND THE PHASE GAPS OUT PRIOR TO REACHING MAX GREEN.
IF ACTUATIONS CONTINUE TO MAX GREEN, THE GREEN WILL END AT MAX GREEN TIME AND YELLOW WILL BEGIN AT THAT POINT.
IF THERE IS NO DEMAND FROM ANOTHER PHASE, THIS PHASE WILL REST IN GREEN AFTER REACHING MAX.

Tennessee Department of Transportation

Traffic Design Manual

Actuated Phase Intervals Figure 4.19

 4.5.5 Volume Density Timing Intervals – Volume-density operation is
Even more sophisticated operation is a more advanced form of
possible with the volume density fully-actuated control. It has
traffic actuated traffic signal controller the ability to calculate the
unit. In addition to the features duration of Minimum Green
discussed above, volume density based on actual demand
provides two means of modifying the (calls on red) and the ability
basic timing intervals. These are: to reduce the maximum
ƒ Variable Initial is a means of allowable time between calls
extending the initial portion of the from Passage Time down to
Green Interval. This is done on a Minimum Gap. Reducing
the basis of the number of the allowable time between
actuations above a preset number calls below the passage time
while the phase is displaying a will improve efficiency by
YELLOW or RED indication. This being better able to detect
extended initial provides additional the end of queued flow.
green time for a queue of vehicles waiting, when the GREEN signal
indication appears, to clear the intersection if the detectors are set
back a distance from the stop bar and there are no vehicles following.

ƒ Gap Reduction is a means of reducing the Passage Time or gap on

the basis of the time that opposing vehicles have waited. In effect, it
benefits the waiting vehicles by reducing the time allowed between
vehicles arriving on the green phase before that phase is terminated.

In addition to the intervals listed in Section 4.5.2, the following timing

parameters are used in volume density signal operation:

ƒ Minimum Initial (Minimum Green)

ƒ Maximum Initial
ƒ Added Initial
ƒ Variable Initial
ƒ Initial Gap (Passage Time),
ƒ Time Before Reduction (TBR)
ƒ Time to Reduce (TTR)
ƒ Minimum Gap
ƒ Maximum Green

These features are typically used for approach speeds of greater than 30
mph and provide a Variable Initial green time as well as a variable “gap”
reduction feature.

Variable Initial – This feature increases the minimum assured green time
(Minimum Initial) so it will be long enough to serve the actual number of
vehicles waiting for the green between the stop line and the detector. This
TRAFFIC DESIGN MANUAL 4-51 DECEMBER 2003
CHAPTER 4 – TRAFFIC SIGNAL DESIGN
 interval is generally used on phases for higher speed approaches where
the detectors are placed quite a distance from the stop line (resulting in
unacceptably long Minimum Initial requirements). This feature allows the
Minimum Initial to be set low for light volumes. Vehicles crossing the
detector when the phase is red will add time to the minimum assured
green, so that when the phase is served, the minimum assured green will
be long enough to serve the actual number of vehicles waiting for the
green (see Figure 4.20).

4.5.5.1 Minimum Initial (Minimum Green) – This setting provides the

guaranteed shortest green time for the signal phase. It cannot
vary. Because of the Added Initial feature, the Minimum Initial does
not have to be long enough to start up and clear the intersection of
all the vehicles waiting between the stop line and the detector.
Instead, it is intended to allow time for the first motorist to respond
to the onset of the GREEN signal indication.26 If pedestrians
regularly use the intersection, the
Minimum Green shall also be For approaches with
calculated for the pedestrian pedestrian phases, the
crossing (see Section 4.5.7). If Minimum Green shall be
the pedestrian timing requirement equal to or greater than
exceeds the Minimum Green plus the required pedestrian
its Yellow Change Interval, the crossing time.
pedestrian timing shall govern.

This value can usually be expected to range between 10-15

seconds on a moderate speed approach and 15-20 seconds for
high-speed approaches.

4.5.5.2 Maximum Initial – The maximum initial setting is the longest

timing to which the Variable Initial interval can be extended. It is
the timing necessary to ensure that a queue of vehicles released at
the beginning of green will be moving across the stop line detector
before the termination of green. Assuming a start up delay of 3
seconds and a discharge rate of 2 seconds per vehicle, the
maximum initial can be calculated by the following equation.

Equation 4.3

MI (sec.) = 3 + 2n
Where: MI = Maximum Initial
n = max number of queued vehicles per lane (from stop line
to detector), calculated as the distance from stop line to
detector divided by 25 ft/vehicle

The maximum initial can not exceed the Maximum Green time for
the phase.

26
Traffic Control Devices Handbook, ITE, 2001, p. 329
TRAFFIC DESIGN MANUAL 4-52 DECEMBER 2003
CHAPTER 4 – TRAFFIC SIGNAL DESIGN
 MAX. INITIAL (SETTING)
CALCULATED VARIABLE INITIAL VARIABLE INITIAL
LESS THAN MIN GREEN - (SECONDS)
USE MIN GREEN TIME AS
VARIABLE INITIAL

MIN GREEN
(SETTING)
VEHICLE ACTUATIONS
DURING YELLOW
AND RED

VARIABLE INITIAL INTERVAL TIMING DETERMINATION

CALCULATED VARIABLE INITIAL LESS THAN MIN. GREEN
ADDED INITIAL
MAX INITIAL (SETTING)

RANGE

VEHICLE SECONDS PER

ACTUATIONS ACTUATION (SETTING)
MIN GREEN
(SETTING)

VEHICLE ACTUATIONS DURING

YELLOW AND RED

VARIABLE INITIAL INTERVAL TIMING DETERMINATION

VARIABLE INITIAL BETWEEN MIN. GREEN AND MAX. INITIAL

MAX INITIAL THRESHOLD (SETTING)

ADDED INITIAL RANGE
MAX INITIAL (SETTING)

VEHICLE SECONDS PER

ACTUATIONS ACTUATION (SETTING)
MIN GREEN
(SETTING)

VEHICLE ACTUATIONS DURING YELLOW AND RED

VARIABLE INITIAL INTERVAL TIMING DETERMINATION

CALCULATED VARIABLE INITIAL GREATER THAN MAX. INITIAL

Tennessee Department of Transportation

Traffic Design Manual
Volume Density Timing
Variable Initial Interval Figure 4.20
 4.5.5.3 Added Initial – Because the initial (or minimum) green is set low
for volume density timing (unless pedestrian timing governs);
additional time is needed to clear the queue of vehicles which have
arrived during the clearance and change intervals. The Added
Initial function provides the additional initial green timing to clear
into the intersection all the vehicles waiting between the stop line
and the detector who were not accommodated by the Minimum
Initial green timing.
The Added Initial is the added interval of timing for each vehicle
actuation that is received on the approach during the clearance and
change intervals, but only becomes active once it exceeds the
Minimum Initial setting.27 The Added Initial can be calculated by
Equation 4.4. The adequacy of this timing must be checked in the
field.

Equation 4.4

MI
Added Initial (sec./act.) =
n

Where: MI = Maximum Initial

n = max number of queued vehicles per lane (from stop line
to detector), calculated as the distance from stop line to
detector divided by 25 ft/vehicle

Often a value of 2 or 3 seconds per vehicle seconds is used for the

Added Initial.

4.5.5.4 Variable Initial – Variable Initial timing describes the initial green
used in a volume density phase before the extendable portion of
the phase starts. If the number of actuations during the clearance
and change intervals is small and the Added Initial time calculated
for these vehicles is less than the Minimum Green, the Variable
Initial is the Minimum Green. With heavy traffic, the Added Initial
increases the initial green beyond the Minimum Green to ensure
that vehicles between the stop line and the detector can clear the
intersection.

Gap Reduction – This feature reduces the Passage Time and as a result
reduces the allowable time gap between actuations that will cause the
green to remain on that approach (see Figure 4.21). When a phase is
green, the time between vehicles to terminate that phase starts out at the
amount of time set for the Passage Time. After the phase has been green
for some time, it becomes desirable to terminate the phase on smaller
distances between vehicles. (i.e., successive actuations must be closer
together than the Passage Time to extend the green).

27
Manual of Traffic Signal Design, ITE, 1998, p. 154
TRAFFIC DESIGN MANUAL 4-54 DECEMBER 2003
CHAPTER 4 – TRAFFIC SIGNAL DESIGN
 MAXIMUM GREEN (SETTING)

BEGINNING OF PHASE DUE TO BEGINNING OF EXTENDABLE GREEN OR OF REST

ACTUATION OR RECALL IF NO FURTHER CONFLICTING DEMAND.

VARIABLE INITIAL EXTENDABLE PERIOD

TIME BEFORE REDUCTION (SETTING) TIME TO REDUCE (SETTING)

(BEGINS WITH FIRST CONFLICTING CALL)
ALLOWABLE GAP (SECONDS)

PASSAGE TIME
SETTING GAP REDUCTION
(INITIAL PRESET GAP) OCCURRING
MINIMUM GAP
(SETTING)

VAR.
*
*
*
CONFLICTING CALL *
SUCCESSIVE ACTUATIONS
* DURING GREEN

*
*
*
LEGEND
*
PASSAGE TIME (OR VEHICLE EXT)
*
UNEXPIRED PORTIONS OF PASSAGE TIME *
OR VEHICLE EXTENSION INTERVALS

*
*
DETECTOR ACTUATION ON *
CONFLICTING PHASE
*
*
DETECTOR ACTUATION ON PHASE
WITH RIGHT OF WAY
*
YELLOW

GAP OUT (NO DETECTIONS

WITHIN PASSAGE TIME)
NOTES: BEGIN YELLOW

1. IN THIS SCHEMATIC, THERE IS A DEMAND FOR ANOTHER PHASE AND THE PHASE GAPS OUT PRIOR TO REACHING MAX GREEN.
IF ACTUATIONS CONTINUE TO MAX GREEN, THE GREEN WILL END AT MAX GREEN TIME AND YELLOW WILL BEGIN AT THAT POINT.
IF THERE IS NO DEMAND FROM ANOTHER PHASE, THIS PHASE WILL REST IN GREEN AFTER REACHING MAX.
2. SEE FIGURE 4.17 FOR VARIABLE INITIAL DETERMINATION.

Tennessee Department of Transportation

Traffic Design Manual
Volume Density Timing
Gap Reduction Feature Figure 4.21
 4.5.5.5 Initial Gap (Passage Time) – The Initial Gap setting in a volume
density controller is the beginning value of the green extension
timing after the Variable Initial green timing expires. It is the same
as Passage Time and is calculated as the time it takes a vehicle to
travel from the detector to the stop line. This can be calculated
using Equation 4.5 shown below.
Equation 4.5

D
Initial Gap (Passage Time) =
V

Where: D = Distance from the detector to the stop line (feet)

V = 85th percentile approach speed (ft/sec.)

4.5.5.6 Time Before Reduction (TBR) – The Time Before Reduction

setting sets the time before the Initial Gap setting is allowed to
begin reducing towards the Minimum Gap setting. It starts as soon
as a call is received on a conflicting phase. It can start at the
beginning of the Minimum Green if vehicles are waiting on other
approaches before the Minimum Green.

The Time Before Reduction should be set at approximately 1/3 of

the Maximum Green. However, it should be observed in the field to
assure that it does not cause the green to prematurely gap out.

4.5.5.7 Time to Reduce (TTR) – The Time to Reduce setting is the time
over which the Initial Gap is reduced to the Minimum Gap and
assures that the phase will not be held by large gaps in traffic. It
begins after the Time Before Reduction is timed out. During the
Time to Reduce, there is a linear reduction in the allowable gap
from the Initial Gap (Passage Time) setting to the Minimum Gap
setting.

The Time to Reduce should be set at approximately 1/3 of the

Maximum Green.

4.5.5.8 Minimum Gap – The Minimum Gap setting establishes the

minimum value for which the allowable gap between actuations can
be reduced after expiration of the Time to Reduce. This is the
average headway between vehicles and is approximately the time it
takes a vehicle to travel from the detector through the dilemma
zone. The amount of time into the green to reduce to the Minimum
Gap should be set at about 2/3 of the maximum time. The allowable
gap will gradually reduce in that time frame. Therefore, the last 1/3
of the Maximum Green would be extended only by tightly spaced
vehicles.

A setting of 2.5 seconds is adequate for a single lane approach.

Generally the Minimum Gap should not be set lower than 2
seconds.

TRAFFIC DESIGN MANUAL 4-56 DECEMBER 2003

CHAPTER 4 – TRAFFIC SIGNAL DESIGN
 4.5.5.9 Last Car Passage – Last Car Passage is a feature to provide full
Passage Time to the last vehicle upon a gap out when the gap time
has been reduced. This helps ensure that the last vehicle receives
sufficient Passage Time to clear the intersection without
encountering dilemma zone issues. When using volume density
timing, this feature should normally be set to “on” when gap
reduction features are utilized.

4.5.5.10 Listed below are some basic rules for volume density timing:
ƒ Min Green > Ped Walk + Ped Clearance
ƒ Min Green < Variable Initial < Max Initial
ƒ Max Initial < Max Green
ƒ TBR + TTR < Max Green
ƒ Passage Time > Min Gap

Table 4.4 lists some recommended volume density timing values for
different approach speeds.

Table 4.4 Recommended Volume Density Timing Values

Distance from
Approach Minimum Maximum Added Initial Gap Time Before Time to Time to Maximum
Stop Line to
Speed Green* Initial Initial (Passage Reduction Reduce Reduce Green
Advance
(MPH) (secs) (secs) (secs) Time) (secs) (secs) (secs) (secs) (secs)
Detector (feet)
1/3 Max 1/3 Max
35 185 10 18 2.4 3.6 2.0 35-70
Green Green
1/3 Max 1/3 Max
40 230 15 21 2.3 3.9 2.0 40-80
Green Green
1/3 Max 1/3 Max
45 285 15 26 2.3 4.3 2.0 45-90
Green Green
1/3 Max 1/3 Max
50 340 20 30 2.2 4.6 2.0 50-100
Green Green
1/3 Max 1/3 Max
55 405 20 35 2.2 5.0 2.0 55-110
Green Green
1/3 Max 1/3 Max
60 475 25 41 2.2 5.4 2.0 60-120
Green Green
1/3 Max 1/3 Max
65 550 25 47 2.1 5.8 2.0 60-120
Green Green

* If pedestrians are an issue for the approach, Minimum Green must be compared against pedestrian timing requirements.

TRAFFIC DESIGN MANUAL 4-57 DECEMBER 2003

CHAPTER 4 – TRAFFIC SIGNAL DESIGN
 4.5.6 Vehicle Clearance Intervals – Vehicle A vehicle clearance interval
clearance intervals consist of a Yellow is composed of a Yellow
Change Interval and an optional All Red Change Interval and an All
Clearance Interval and should provide enough Red Clearance Interval.
time so that the motorist can either stop or
proceed safely through the intersection prior to the release of opposing traffic.

4.5.6.1 Yellow Change Interval (Yellow Clearance Interval) Timing –

The Yellow Change Interval of a traffic signal is used to notify the
motorist that the Green Interval is ending. The Yellow Change
Interval normally has a range of 3.0 to 6.0 seconds. Tennessee
Code Annotated requires a minimum three seconds yellow time,
with 4.0 seconds preferred. Yellow Change Intervals in excess of
5.0 seconds may encourage motorists to “run the yellow” instead of
stopping.28 If a clearance interval time in excess of 5.0 seconds is
required on all but very high speed approaches (greater than 55
mph), the additional time should be provided by an All Red
Clearance Interval.

A. Thru Vehicle Clearances – The clearance interval time for

thru vehicles is calculated by the Equation 4.6 which
includes a reaction time, a deceleration time and an
intersection clearance time. This equation assures that the
clearance interval time is of sufficient length to eliminate the
“dilemma zone” in which a motorist has difficulty in deciding
whether to stop or proceed through the intersection.

Equation 4.6 29

V (w  L)
CP t 
2a V

Where: CP =non-dilemma clearance interval (yellow +

All Red), (sec.)
t =Perception – Reaction Time (normally 1 sec.)
V=Approach speed (ft./sec.)
a =Deceleration rate (typically 10 ft./sec.²)
w =Intersection width, stop line to far cross street curb
line (ft.)
L =Length of vehicle (typically 20 ft.)

The Yellow Change Interval is often set as the sum of the

first two terms of Equation 4.6 (t + V/2a) rounded up to the
next ½ second, and the All Red is set at the value of the third
28
Traffic Engineering Handbook, ITE, 1999, p. 481
29
Manual of Traffic Signal Design, ITE, 1998 p. 143
TRAFFIC DESIGN MANUAL 4-58 DECEMBER 2003
CHAPTER 4 – TRAFFIC SIGNAL DESIGN
 term. Table 4.5 lists calculated and recommended rounded
vehicle clearance timing values for thru phases.

B. Left Turn Vehicle Clearance Interval – In determining the

clearance interval for left turn phases, Equation 4.6 is also
used but the turning path of the vehicle is used for “w” and
the speed of the turning vehicle “V” should be 15 mph. The
turning path of the vehicle is measured on an arc from the
stop line in the left turn lane to the far left curb line of the
street from which the turn is made.

4.5.6.2 All Red Clearance Interval – The All Red timing is an optional
part of the clearance interval and immediately follows a Yellow
Change Interval. It is used to provide additional timing (beyond that
needed to stop) for a vehicle to clear the intersection before the
display of a conflicting GREEN signal indication. It is calculated
using the third term in Equation 4.6 shown above (2.5 seconds
max).
Table 4.5 Recommended Yellow Change and All Red Clearance Interval Values

Approach Calculated Minimum TOTAL Clearance Interval (seconds)*

Calculated Yellow
Speed Crossing Street Width (feet)
Interval (secs)
(MPH)
30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110
25 2.8 4.2 4.5 4.7 5.0 5.3 5.6 5.8 6.1 6.4
30 3.2 4.3 4.6 4.8 5.0 5.2 5.5 5.7 5.9 6.2
35 3.6 4.5 4.7 4.9 5.1 5.3 5.5 5.7 5.9 6.1
40 3.9 4.8 5.0 5.1 5.3 5.5 5.6 5.8 6.0 6.1
45 4.3 5.1 5.2 5.4 5.5 5.7 5.8 6.0 6.1 6.3
50 4.7 5.3 5.5 5.6 5.8 5.9 6.0 6.2 6.3 6.4
55 5.0 5.7 5.8 5.9 6.0 6.1 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6
60 5.4 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.7 6.8 6.9
65 5.8 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7 6.8 6.9 7.0 7.1

* Based on Equation 4.6

Approach Recommended Recommended All Red Clearance Interval (seconds)

Speed Yellow Interval Crossing Street Width (feet)
(MPH) (secs) 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110
25 4.0 0.5 0.5 1.0 1.5 1.5 2.0 2.0 2.5 2.5
30 4.0 0.5 1.0 1.0 1.5 1.5 1.5 2.0 2.0 2.5
35 4.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 2.0 2.0
40 4.5 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.5 1.5 1.5 2.0 2.0
45 4.5 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.5 1.5 1.5 2.0 2.0
50 5.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.5 1.5 1.5 2.0 2.0
55 5.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.5 1.5 1.5 2.0 2.0
60 5.5 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.5 1.5 2.0 2.0
65 6.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.5 1.5 2.0 2.0

TRAFFIC DESIGN MANUAL 4-59 DECEMBER 2003

CHAPTER 4 – TRAFFIC SIGNAL DESIGN
 4.5.7 Pedestrian Phase Timing

4.5.7.1 Walk Interval – Where pedestrian phases are provided, Walk

Interval timing provides the time necessary for a pedestrian to leave
the curb to cross the street. The typical minimum Walk Interval
time value is 7 seconds.30
Where large groups of To safely cross the street,
pedestrians cross, field pedestrians need at least 7
observation and timing seconds to leave the curb (a
should be used to see how Walk Interval) and time to cross
long it takes the group to the street (a Pedestrian Change
leave the curb. Interval) – MUTCD 2003

4.5.7.2 Pedestrian Change (“Flashing” Don’t Walk) Interval – The

pedestrian clearance time should be sufficient to allow a pedestrian
crossing in the crosswalk who left the curb or shoulder during the
Walk Interval signal indication to travel at a maximum walking
speed of 4 feet per second, to at least the far side of the traveled
way (or to a median of sufficient width for pedestrians to wait).
Where pedestrians who walk slower than normal, or pedestrians
who use wheelchairs, routinely use the crosswalk, a walking speed
of less than 4 feet per second per second should be used in
determining the pedestrian clearance time (typically 3.0 feet per
second).

For typical intersections, a walking speed between 3.0 and 4.0 feet
per second shall be used. Where the crossing is routinely used by
young children, the elderly, the physically challenged or large
groups of pedestrians, a walking speed of 3.0 feet/second is
recommended. The pedestrian clearance time for the Pedestrian
Change Interval is calculated by Equation 4.7 shown below.

When pedestrian signals are used, the concurrent and parallel

vehicular Green Interval plus its Yellow Change Interval must be
checked to assure it is of adequate length to provide enough time
for the pedestrians to cross the street. This must be done whether
or not pedestrian signal indications are provided.

Equation 4.7

W
PED CLR
VP
Where: PED CLR = Pedestrian clearance time (sec.)
W = width of the street (curb line to the far side of the
traveled roadway) (ft.)
VP = pedestrian walking speed (3.0 to 4.0 ft./sec.)

30
MUTCD, FHWA, 2003, p. 4E-8
TRAFFIC DESIGN MANUAL 4-60 DECEMBER 2003
CHAPTER 4 – TRAFFIC SIGNAL DESIGN
 The Pedestrian Change Interval
(pedestrian clearance time) may On high speed approaches,
be entirely contained within the or when the intersection
vehicular Green Interval operates well below
(Equation 4.8), or may utilize capacity, the preferred
the time of both the vehicular method for displaying the
Green and Yellow Change Pedestrian Change Interval
Intervals (Equation 4.9) 31 is to have the pedestrian
Figure 4.22 displays the two clearance time entirely
Pedestrian Change Interval within the vehicular Green
timing alternatives. Interval.

Equation 4.8
Minimum Green (sec.) > Ped. Walk (sec.) + Ped. Clr. (sec.)
Where: Ped. Walk = Pedestrian Walk Interval
Ped. Clr. = Pedestrian clearance time (sec.)

Equation 4.9
Minimum Green (sec.) + Yellow Change (sec.) + All Red (sec.) >
Ped. Walk (sec.) + Ped. Clr. (sec.)
Where: Ped. Walk = Pedestrian Walk Interval
Ped. Clr. = Pedestrian clearance time (sec.)

Table 4.6 Recommended Pedestrian Interval Timing Values

Walking Recommended Recommended Pedestrian Clearance Interval (seconds)

Speed Walk Interval Crossing Street Width (feet)
(feet/sec) (secs) 30 40 50 60 70 80
3.0 7.0 10.0 13.3 16.7 20.0 23.3 26.7
3.5 7.0 8.6 11.4 14.3 17.1 20.0 22.9
4.0 7.0 7.5 10.0 12.5 15.0 17.5 20.0

4.5.8 Traffic Signal Timing Plans – A signal timing plan is a unique

combination of cycle length, phasing, splits (green interval + clearance
interval for each phase) and offsets (for system operation).32 Where
overall intersection volumes vary significantly during the day, more than
one cycle length will be needed. A change in either cycle length or phase
splits will require multiple timing plans. See Section 4.6 for more detail.

31
MUTCD, FHWA, 2003, p. 4E-9.
32
Traffic Control Devices Handbook, ITE, 2001. p. 337
TRAFFIC DESIGN MANUAL 4-61 DECEMBER 2003
CHAPTER 4 – TRAFFIC SIGNAL DESIGN
 VEHICLE GREEN YELLOW ALL RED
RED
FLASHING
WALK STEADY DON’T WALK
DON’T WALK

PREFERRED PEDESTRIAN TIMING SEQUENCE

VEHICLE GREEN YELLOW ALL RED

RED
FLASHING
WALK STEADY DON’T WALK
DON’T WALK

ALTERNATE PEDESTRIAN TIMING SEQUENCE

Tennessee Department of Transportation

Traffic Design Manual
Vehicle/Pedestrian Interval
Timing Relationship Figure 4.22
4.6 Traffic Signal Coordination – Signal coordination occurs when a fixed timing
relationship is established between two or more traffic signals in order to reduce
overall vehicular delay. Signal systems should be designed to move platoons of
the volume of traffic prevailing on any section of roadway. The development of a
wide "green band" to move low volumes of traffic should not restrict the flow of
other traffic. Normally systems are developed to favor the flow of the arterial
street traffic. Sometimes the volume of traffic entering or leaving the system from
side streets may exceed the thru volume on
the arterial. Every effort should be made to The goal of coordination is
define the origin and destination of traffic in delay reduction. Which
the system and to be sure that the major flows approaches experience this
are incorporated into the progression. reduction depends on the
objectives of the system.
On a heavily traveled corridor, the goal of
signal coordination would be to reduce delay on the major street by allowing
uninterrupted flow without significantly impacting side street delay. In a city grid
system, the goal of coordination is to reduce overall delay within the system
through the elimination of bottlenecks and long queues.

To be cost effective and beneficial, signal coordination requires the following:

1. A plan. Federal requirements now call for any agency that implements
any kind of signal coordination or intelligent transportation system to
eventually develop a citywide or regional architecture. The city will have to
determine not only the equipment requirements, but all stakeholders
involved in the plan.

2. A commitment. To function effectively, the local agency must commit to

providing proper maintenance and operation. Timing plans must be
monitored and updated regularly. Whether maintenance and operations
are monitored by in-house staff or by consultant, the agency must have
the staff capability to understand the basic functions of the system and
determine where and when changes and modifications are needed.

3. A need. Signal interconnection systems have varying degrees of benefit.

While any coordination may reduce delay somewhat, it has to be weighed
against the costs of installation, operation, and maintenance. If the
corridor functions well without excessive queuing or delay, interconnection
may not be cost effective.

Traffic signals that are within 1/2 mile of one another should be strongly
considered for coordination.33 The type of coordination utilized may be
dependent upon the maintenance capabilities of the maintaining agency.

4.6.1 Time Base Coordination – This type of traffic coordination is based on

an internal or external electronic clock rather than a physical interconnect.
Timing plans are developed and entered individually into each controller
and a common time reference is used by the individual controller clocks to
33
MUTCD, FHWA, 2003, p. 4D-12.
TRAFFIC DESIGN MANUAL 4-63 DECEMBER 2003
CHAPTER 4 – TRAFFIC SIGNAL DESIGN
 initiate timing patterns. Because this system has no master controller to
keep individual controllers in-synch, it is totally dependent on the time
clocks not drifting. This type of coordination requires frequent visits to
controllers to reset time clocks.

4.6.2 Closed Loop Signal System – The most common signal system used for
coordination today is the “closed loop”
system. This is a distributive processing, A closed loop system
traffic responsive, control and monitoring utilizes on-street master
system. Access to the system from the controllers to monitor
office is usually made through a dial-up and manage local
modem. intersection controllers.

A “closed loop” system consists of the following elements:

ƒ System Detectors
ƒ Local Controller Units
ƒ Controller-Master Communications
ƒ On-Street Master Controller
ƒ Master-Central Communications
ƒ Central Computer and Windows based Software

The system’s principal operational task is to select and implement traffic

signal timing plans in response to real-time traffic conditions, preset time
based events and/or operator commands. The system can also provide
extensive control monitoring, data collection, reporting, and analysis
functions.

Typical capabilities include the ability to upload all timing settings,

operation parameters and status information, as well as the ability to
download all timing settings and operation parameters. Many of today’s
closed loop systems utilize a building block design which enables future
system expansion to occur without major modifications to the existing
system.

4.6.3 Methods of Communication

A. Hard Wire (see Section 4.12) – A 6 pair 19 gauge copper cable

may be run between controllers at adjacent intersections and on-
street masters for coordination purposes. A fiber optic cable may
also be used for coordination and communication purposes. While
fiber optic cable has a high capacity for transmitting information and
is extremely versatile, it has higher installation and maintenance
costs. Fiber optic cables generally require larger termini and pull
boxes.

B. Time-Based (Wireless) – Coordination may be accomplished

internally in each coordinated controller with timing referenced to a
system time base. The internal clock in each controller must be set
precisely (to the second) with the clocks in the adjacent coordinated

TRAFFIC DESIGN MANUAL 4-64 DECEMBER 2003

CHAPTER 4 – TRAFFIC SIGNAL DESIGN
 controllers. However, these internal clocks often drift and can
cause coordination problems over time.

C. Spread Spectrum Radio – Communication using spread spectrum

radio may be carried between units in master and local controller
cabinets. Omni-directional antennas are used at master cabinet
locations and uni-directional (Yagi) antennas are used at local
cabinet locations.

4.6.4 Hard Wire Interconnect Installation – Generally, underground rather

than overhead installation is preferred. The choice, however, may be
determined by local preference, utility conflicts or cost.

A. Conduit – Interconnect cable shall be run in its own conduit,

separate from signal and detector cables. The cable shall be run in
a 2” diameter RGS or PVC conduit at a minimum depth of 30”.

B. Pull boxes – To provide access and facilitate the pulling of long

runs of underground interconnect cables. See Section 4.14 for
details on pull box types.
ƒ Types – Pull boxes for standard interconnect cable shall be
Type B Pull Boxes. Pull boxes for pulling fiber optic cable shall
be larger.
ƒ Spacing – Pull boxes for interconnect cable shall be placed at
distances no greater than 300 feet or at locations where access
for splicing is required. Pull boxes for fiber optic cable runs shall
be placed at 1000 foot intervals.

C. Risers – When transitioning from overhead to underground or vice

versa on a utility pole, 2” RGS diameter riser must be specified for
the interconnect cable.

4.6.5 Coordinated Timing Plans – Arterial control is concerned with controlling

traffic signals along an arterial highway so as to give major consideration
to progressive flow of traffic along that arterial. The green should be
displayed at an intersection sufficiently in advance of the arrival of a major
platoon, to clear vehicles that may be stopped and to allow the platoon to
continue without stopping.

It is better to arrive too early than too late. Vehicles arriving a little bit early
wait a lot less time than vehicles arriving late. Early arrivals can avoid
stopping by adjusting their speed. Vehicles that are a bit late are tempted
to run the yellow light or increase their speed.

The timing plan of a system consists of three elements; cycle length, splits
and offsets. The splits must be determined for each individual intersection
in the system and may vary from intersection to intersection. The split is
the segment of the cycle length allocated to each phase or interval that
may occur (expressed in percent or seconds). In an actuated controller
unit, split is the time in the cycle allocated to a phase. However, the cycle
length for each traffic signal in a system must be the same or a multiple of

TRAFFIC DESIGN MANUAL 4-65 DECEMBER 2003

CHAPTER 4 – TRAFFIC SIGNAL DESIGN
 one another. Determination of an optimum cycle length is the key to any
efficient signal system.

Another factor in the design of the individual intersection that may become
evident during the arterial analysis is that some intersectional cycle
lengths may not be compatible with the cycle length for the system during
some timing plans. These intersections should be designed to have
flexibility to operate fully-actuated during these time periods. The same
approach should be used for traffic signals that do not have programmed
flash where most of the other traffic signals in the system flash during
nighttime hours to reduce delay and improve traffic flow along the corridor.

Signal Timing Plan Development Methods – The following methods of

calculating signal offsets and splits are commonly used:
ƒ Synchro Software
ƒ PASSER II Software
ƒ TEAPAC Software
ƒ Transyt 7f Software
Signal timing plans should always be monitored after installation and field
fine tuned to ensure safe and efficient operation.

4.6.6 Offsets – Where adjacent traffic signals are coordinated (interconnected),

signal offset settings are needed. An offset is the time difference (in either
seconds or percent of cycle) between the start or end of the Green Interval
at one intersection and the start or end of Green Interval at another
intersection, both measured from a system time base.34

4.7 Preemption and Priority Control of Traffic Signals – Traffic signals may be
designed and operated to respond to certain classes of approaching vehicles by
altering the normal signal timing and
phasing plan(s) during the approach and Preemption describes the
passage of those vehicles. The alternative transfer of normal operation
plan(s) may be as simple as extending a of a traffic signal to a special
currently displayed GREEN indication or as control mode of operation.
complex as replacing the entire set of signal Preemption control is
35
phases and timing. typically given to emergency
vehicles and trains.
Typical preemption examples are:

ƒ The prompt displaying of GREEN signal indications at signalized locations

ahead of fire vehicles, law enforcement vehicles, ambulances, and other
official emergency vehicles.
ƒ A special sequence of signal phases and timing to provide additional
clearance time for vehicles to clear the tracks prior to the arrival of a train.
ƒ A special sequence of signal phases to display a RED signal indication to
prohibit turning movements towards the tracks during the approach or
passage of a train or transit vehicle.

34
Traffic Control Devices Handbook, ITE, 2001, p. 335
35
MUTCD, FHWA, 2003, p. 4D-10.
TRAFFIC DESIGN MANUAL 4-66 DECEMBER 2003
CHAPTER 4 – TRAFFIC SIGNAL DESIGN
 Priority control is typically given to certain
Priority control describes a
non-emergency vehicles such as buses and
means by which the
light-rail vehicles. Priority Control describes
assignment of right-of-way
a means by which the assignment of right-of-
is obtained or modified
way is obtained or modified.
usually for transit vehicles.
Typical priority control examples are:

ƒ The displaying of early or extended GREEN signal indications at an

intersection to assist public transit vehicles in remaining on schedule.

ƒ Special phasing to assist public transit vehicles in entering the travel stream
ahead of the platoon of traffic.

Railroad preemption is by far the most important and most complex type of
preemption. It is discussed in detail in Section 4.8.

4.7.1 Emergency Vehicle Preemption – Preemption for emergency

Various mechanisms can be used to vehicles is a method of
preempt traffic signals so that ending conflicting phases
emergency vehicles are provided with and providing a green
safe right of way as soon as practical. indication for emergency
The purpose of such preemption is to vehicles in advance of
provide the right of way to the their arrival.
emergency vehicle as soon as practical.
Emergency preemption systems allow emergency vehicles to interrupt the
normal sequence of traffic signal phasing and provide priority to the
approach with the emergency vehicle. Traditionally, this was
accomplished by communications cables between an emergency center
and traffic signal controllers along predetermined emergency routes.

Newer technologies allow a flexible response system using either a light

emitter or siren in the vehicle and a receiver connected to the traffic signal
controller at various intersections. The receiver sends a message to the
signal controller, which terminates the current phase and skips to the
Green Interval on the required approach. Figure 4.23 shows a sample
emergency vehicle preemption design.

4.7.2 Preemption Justification – Emergency vehicle preemption should be

considered at intersections that have frequent conflicts with emergency
vehicles and any intersection that is along a route already using
emergency vehicle preemption equipment.

Because priority control primarily benefits transit operations and is not a

safety device, justification for installation of priority control should be a
joint decision between the traffic engineering agency and the transit
agency. Benefits to transit operations must be weighed against the
possible increased delay for passenger vehicles.

TRAFFIC DESIGN MANUAL 4-67 DECEMBER 2003

CHAPTER 4 – TRAFFIC SIGNAL DESIGN
 2 DETECTOR RECEIVES CALL

G G
R
EMERGENCY VEHICLE
R 5 PROCEEDS
R THRU INTERSECTION

R R
R

TRAFFIC SIGNAL
3 CONTROLLER STOPS
OPPOSING TRAFFIC

TRAFFIC GETS GREEN INDICATION

4 AND CLEARS INTERSECTION PRIOR
TO ARRIVAL OF EMERGENCY VEHICLE

NOTE: THIS EXAMPLE USES DETECTION EMERGENCY VEHICLE

23 1 APPROACHES INTERSECTION
ON EACH APPROACH SO THAT
DIRECTIONAL PREEMPTION
IS POSSIBLE (AS OPPOSED TO
NORTH-SOUTH OR EAST-WEST
PREEMPTION)

Tennessee Department of Transportation

Traffic Design Manual
Emergency Vehicle
Preemption Sequence Figure 4.23
 4.7.3 Preemption Sequence – Preemption of the traffic signal should provide
the following sequence of operation:
1. A Yellow Change Interval and any required All Red Clearance
Interval for any signal phase that is green when preemption is
initiated and which will be red during the preemption interval. The
length of the Yellow Change and All Red Clearance Intervals shall
not be altered by preemption. Phases which will be green during
the preemption period and which are already green when
preemption is initiated shall remain green. Any Pedestrian Walk
Interval in effect when preemption is initiated shall be immediately
terminated. The normal Pedestrian Change Interval may be
abbreviated.
2. An all-red intersection preemption display shall not be used.
3. The traffic signal shall return to normal operation upon termination
of the demand for preemption or the termination of the assured
Green Interval.

4.7.4 Multiple Preemption – A combination of railroad, emergency preemption

and priority control is allowed at an intersection. There is usually a
hierarchy in determining which preemption or priority occurs first when
more than one is received by the traffic
signal controller. “Preemption” always is Railroad preemption
serviced before “priority”. However, must always take
railroad preemption must always override priority over emergency
emergency preemption. This hierarchy vehicle preemption.
shall be as follows:
A. Preemption – Railroad Train over Emergency Vehicle (Fire,
Rescue or Ambulance) over Law Enforcement Vehicle
B. Priority – Light Rail over Bus

4.7.5 Methods of Emergency Vehicle Preemption – Several methods of

traffic signal preemption are typically utilized for emergency vehicles.
A. Hardwired from Source – A connection between the traffic signal
controller and the source of an emergency call (e.g. fire station)
allows preemption.
B. Optically Activated – Optical priority control systems consist of an
emitter mounted on a vehicle, detectors mounted above the
intersection and a phase selector and other equipment in the traffic
signal controller cabinet. The detector senses the optical pulses
emitted by properly equipped emergency vehicles and informs the
traffic signal controller of the presence of designated vehicles.
C. Siren Activated – Siren priority control systems consist of
detectors mounted above the intersection and a phase selector and
other equipment in the traffic signal controller cabinet. The system
is activated by a Class A electronic siren.

TRAFFIC DESIGN MANUAL 4-69 DECEMBER 2003

CHAPTER 4 – TRAFFIC SIGNAL DESIGN
 4.7.6 System Components for Optical and Siren Activated Emergency
Vehicle Preemption – A particular brand can be specified provided the
city has installed the same at other locations and it is the predominate
brand. TDOT will normally install emergency vehicle preemption devices
(optical or siren activated priority control systems) as a part of a traffic
signal installation or upgrade project upon request of the local governing
agency. TDOT will normally not provide emitter/transponders unless the
project’s purpose is to provide a
citywide or area wide preemption When installing preemption, a
system and conforms with the footnote should be added to the
area wide or regional ITS Plans noting the number of
architecture. The typical sensors, the number of phase
information to be shown on traffic selectors or other equipment
signal construction plans for and the estimated quantity of
emergency vehicle preemption is required cable. Each intersection
shown in Figure 4.24. is measured per each.

4.7.7 Priority Control – Priority control systems are less common than
emergency vehicle preemption systems. While a priority control system
might benefit a transit system by keeping its vehicles on a tighter
schedule, it can lead to overall increased congestion at an intersection.
Benefits to transit operations must be weighed against the possible
increased delay for passenger vehicles. Some systems, such as the
optically activated priority control system can provide both preemption for
emergency vehicles and priority control for transit vehicles.

4.8 Railroad Preemption – Railroad preemption Railroad preemption is a

is a special signal phasing sequence which method of ending conflicting
is actuated upon the detection of a train and phases, then clearing and
is designed to clear traffic off the railroad inhibiting movements that
tracks prior to the arrival of the train at the cross the railroad tracks
highway-rail grade crossing. Railroad until the train has cleared
preemption results in a special traffic signal the crossing.
operation depending on the relation of the
railroad tracks to the intersection, the number of phases in the traffic signal and
other traffic conditions. Railroad preemption is normally controlled by the
highway-rail grade crossing warning equipment which sends a signal to the traffic
signal controller to initiate preemption of the traffic signal

Traffic signal preemption at a railroad Intersections closer than

crossing requires a permit with the railroad 200’ to a crossing must use
authority. The highway agency and railroad preemption. An engineering
authority should coordinate to understand the study should be conducted
operation of each other’s system. In order to to determine the need for
determine the minimum preemption warning preemption when a crossing
time, factors such as equipment response is near, but greater than 200’
and programmed delay times, Minimum from a traffic signal.
Green signal time, vehicular and pedestrian
clearances, queue clearances, and the train/vehicle separation times should be
considered. An engineering study at each preempted location may be required to
determine these factors.
TRAFFIC DESIGN MANUAL 4-70 DECEMBER 2003
CHAPTER 4 – TRAFFIC SIGNAL DESIGN
 4

3 8
6
2
1
5
1
2
4 7

3
LEGEND:

1 OPTICAL DETECTOR 1

1 SIREN DETECTOR 1

EXAMPLE CHART TO
BE INCLUDED IN PLANS

PREEMPTION ASSIGNMENTS

DETECTOR 1 PREEMPT 1 /2
O AND /5
O

DETECTOR 2 PREEMPT 3 /1
O AND /6
O

DETECTOR 3 PREEMPT 3 /4
O AND /7
O

DETECTOR 4 PREEMPT 4 /3
O AND /8
O

Tennessee Department of Transportation

Traffic Design Manual
Emergency Vehicle
Preemption Example Figure 4.24
 4.8.1 Railroad Preemption Warrant – The coordination of the operation of a
traffic signal with a nearby highway-rail grade crossing equipped with
flashing lights is justified under the following conditions.36

1. Where the highway-rail grade crossing is located within 200 feet of

the traffic signal, preemption should be used. This distance is
defined as the clear storage distance (CSD) and is measured from
the intersection stop line to the railroad stop line on the near side of
the tracks (typically 6 feet from the rail).

2. However, 200 feet may not be sufficient for some locations. Where
the highway-rail grade crossing is located more than 200 feet from
the traffic signal, but traffic from the signal is anticipated to back up
across the railroad tracks, preemption should be used. Calculation
of the traffic backup is determined with approximately 95% certainty
using Equation 4.10 or 4.11. The traffic back up in the thru lanes
as well as turn lanes should be checked.

Back Up Queue Calculation (Approach v < 0.90)

c
Equation 4.10 37
L = 2qr 1  P 25
Where: L = Length of Queue (ft./lane)
q =Average flow rate
r =Effective red time (approach clearance + red)
P =Proportion of Trucks (as a decimal)
Back Up Queue Calculation (Approach v > 0.90 but less than 1.0)
c
Equation 4.11 38
L = 2qr  'x (1 + P)(25)
Where: L = Length of queue (ft./lane)
q = Average flow rate
r = effective red time (approach clearance + red), (sec)
§v ·
' x = 100 ¨ ratio  0.90 ¸
©c ¹
P = Proportion of trucks (as a decimal)

3. When traffic stopped for a train at the highway-rail grade crossing

frequently backs up into a nearby signalized intersection,
preemption may be used.

36
MUTCD, FHWA, 2003, p. 8D-7.
37
Northwestern University Traffic Institute, Railroad Grade Crossing Workshop. 2003.
38
Ibid.
TRAFFIC DESIGN MANUAL 4-72 DECEMBER 2003
CHAPTER 4 – TRAFFIC SIGNAL DESIGN
 4.8.2 Pre-Signals – A pre-signal provides a signal display on the near side of
the track, supplementing the normal head placement. This operates as
part of the highway intersection traffic signal, controlling traffic
approaching the highway-rail grade crossing
and signalized intersection. A pre-signal is a set of
supplemental traffic
Pre-signals should be considered when: signal faces located in
a position that controls
1. The highway intersection is less than
traffic approaching the
50 feet from the highway-rail crossing
highway-rail grade
(75 feet for a road that is regularly
crossing in advance of
used by multi-unit vehicles).
the intersection.
2. Where the clear storage distance
(CSD) is greater than 75 feet and an engineering study determines
the need39.

In general, a pre-signal should be considered when the clear storage

distance (CSD) as defined in 4.8.1 is not sufficient to safely store the
design vehicle, such as the largest legal truck combination, or if vehicles
regularly queue across the tracks.40

The pre-signal phase sequencing should be progressively timed with an

offset adequate to clear vehicles from the track area and downstream
intersection. The signal heads at the far side of the intersection (away
from the crossing) should be programmable so as to limit their visibility
from vehicles before the tracks41.

When the design vehicle cannot be safely stored in the CSD, or if no gates
are present, a NO TURN ON RED (R10-11) shall be installed on the
approach with the pre-signal to prevent trapping a vehicle42.

4.8.3 Railroad Preemption Sequence – The preemption sequencing of two-

phase and three phase traffic signals are shown in Figure 4.25. Railroad
preemption for an eight phase intersection is shown in Figure 4.26. As the
figures show, the basic phases of the sequence are a right-of-way change
interval, a clear track interval and preemption hold phasing (while the train
is occupying the highway-rail grade crossing).

39
Guidance on Traffic Control Devices at Highway-Rail Grade Crossings, FHWA, 2002, p.24.
40
Traffic Control Devices Handbook, ITE, 2001, p. 392.
41
Guidance on Traffic Control Devices at Highway-Rail Grade Crossings, FHWA, 2002, p.24.
42
MUTCD FHWA, 2003. p. 8D-7.
TRAFFIC DESIGN MANUAL 4-73 DECEMBER 2003
CHAPTER 4 – TRAFFIC SIGNAL DESIGN
 3 PHASE PREEMPTION SEQUENCE WITH PRE-SIGNALS

PR
EE
MP
TIO
N CLEAR TRACK PREEMPTION
GREEN (CTG) HOLD INTERVAL
CLEAR
TRACK

R3-1

R3-1
CHANGE
NORMAL PREEMPTION (CTC)

R3-2

R3-2
PHASE
SEQUENCE

ION
MPT
EE
PR

EXIT TO NORMAL OPERATION

2 PHASE PREEMPTION SEQUENCE WITH PRE-SIGNALS

PR CLEAR TRACK PREEMPTION

EE
MP GREEN (CTG) HOLD INTERVAL
TIO
N
R3-1
R3-1

CLEAR TRACK
NORMAL CHANGE (CTC)
PHASE
R3-2

R3-2

SEQUENCE

ION
MPT
EE
PR

EXIT TO NORMAL OPERATION

Tennessee Department of Transportation

Traffic Design Manual
Railroad Preemption Sequence
(2 and 3 Phase Operation w/ Pre-Signal) Figure 4.25
 NORMAL PHASE SEQUENCE

PREE

ON
PTI
PR

N
M

IO
EE

EM
PTIO

PT
M

R3-1
M
PRE
PT

EE
IO

PR
N
NORMAL PHASE SEQUENCE

R3-2

R3-1
R3-1

CLEAR TRACK CLEAR TRACK PREEMPTION

R3-2
R3-2

GREEN (CTG) CHANGE (CTC) HOLD INTERVAL

R3-1 EXIT TO
NORMAL
OPERATION
R3-2
PR
N

ON

PRE
IO

EE
PT

MPTI

M
EMP
M

PT
EE

IO
PR

N
PREE

TIO
N

NORMAL PHASE SEQUENCE

Tennessee Department of Transportation

Traffic Design Manual
Railroad Preemption Sequence
(8-Phase Operation with Pre-Signal) Figure 4.26
 Preemption of the traffic signal should have the following sequence:
1. A Yellow Change Interval and any required All Red Clearance
Interval for any signal phase that is green or yellow when
preemption is initiated and which will be red during the track
clearance interval. The length of Yellow Change and All Red
Clearance Intervals shall not be altered by preemption. Phases
which will be green during the track clearance interval and which
are already green when preemption is initiated, shall remain green.
Any Pedestrian Walk or Pedestrian Change Interval, in effect when
preemption is initiated, shall immediately be terminated and all
pedestrian signal faces shall display steady DON’T WALK
indication.
2. A track clearance interval for the traffic signal phase or phases
controlling the approach which crosses the railroad tracks.
3. Depending on traffic requirements and phasing of the traffic signal
controller, the traffic signal may then do one of the following:
A. Go into flashing operation, with flashing RED or flashing
YELLOW signal indications for the approaches parallel to the
railroad tracks and flashing RED signal indications for all
other approaches. Pedestrian signals shall be extinguished.
B. Revert to limited operation with those signal indications
controlling thru and left turn approaches towards the railroad
tracks displaying steady red. Permitted pedestrian signal
phases shall operate normally.
4. The traffic signal shall return to normal operation following release
of preemption control.

The typical information to be shown on traffic signal construction plans for

railroad preemption is shown in Figure 4.27.

4.8.4 Railroad Preemption Warning Timing43 – The total time to transfer right-
of-way (including Pedestrian Change Intervals) plus the queue clearance
plus the separation time is the preemption time setting. This time should
be greater than the railroad warning time (the time for the circuit to
activate warning devices in advance of the train arrival).

4.8.5 Blank Out Signs – These types of signs display a blank face unless
internally illuminated upon activation for a specific circumstance. Such
signs displaying the message/symbol “NO LEFT TURN” or “NO RIGHT
TURN” are useful as part of the railroad preemption sequence at
signalized intersections immediately adjacent to grade crossing. At these
locations, turn prohibition blank out signs can prevent traffic from turning
into and occupying the limited storage area between the tracks and
intersection and eventually blocking the intersection itself. These signs
are activated upon initiation of the railroad preemption and deactivated
after the preemption is completed.

43
Preemption of Traffic Signals At or Near Railroad Grade Crossings with Active Warning Devices, ITE, 1997. p. 15

TRAFFIC DESIGN MANUAL 4-76 DECEMBER 2003

CHAPTER 4 – TRAFFIC SIGNAL DESIGN
 3A 8A
6
F.O. R3-2 1
5
2 F.O. R3-1
4 7

MUST BE OPTICALLY
3A AND 8A PROGRAMMED

3 8

EXAMPLE CHART TO
BE INCLUDED IN PLANS

RAILROAD PREEMPTION SEQUENCE

CLEAR TRACK PHASES: 3A & 8A PREEMPTION HOLD INTERVALS: PHASES 2 & 5, PHASES 2 & 6, PHASE 7 EXIT PREEMPTION PHASES: 3A & 8A
R3-1 AND R3-2 F.O. SIGNS ACTIVE R3-1 AND R3-2 F.O. SIGNS ACTIVE R3-1 AND R3-2 F.O. SIGNS INACTIVE
O/ 4 O/ 7 O/ 4 O/ 7 O/ 4 O/ 7 O/ 4 O/ 7 O/ 4 O/ 7

O/ 6 O/ 6 O/ 6 O/ 6 O/ 6
O/ 1 O/ 1 O/ 1 O/ 1 O/ 1
O/ 5 O/ 5 O/ 5 O/ 5 O/ 5
O/ 2 O/ 2 O/ 2 O/ 2 O/ 2

O/ 3A O/ 8A O/ 3A O/ 8A O/ 3A O/ 8A O/ 3A O/ 8A O/ 3A O/ 8A

O/ 8 O/ 8 O/ 8 O/ 8 O/ 8

Tennessee Department of Transportation

Traffic Design Manual

Railroad Preemption Example Figure 4.27

4.9 Traffic Signal Heads – Signal heads shall comply with standards of the MUTCD.

4.9.1 Lens Size and Type – Twelve inch (12”) All new signal
diameter lenses are required on all new signal heads should be
heads. Today, traffic signal indications and 12” diameter lenses
pedestrian indications are usually illuminated using LED lamps.
by light emitting diode (L.E.D.) lamps.
Conventional incandescent lamps consume up to 150 watts of power and
require routine maintenance due to filament burn out. The use of LED
lamps can conserve energy and reduce maintenance costs. An LED is a
current operated, semiconductor light source. Power requirements are
considerably less than incandescent lamps. The life expectancy of an LED
lamp is 45,000 hours or 10 years of operation.

4.9.2 Signal Housing – Vehicular signal heads Signal heads should be

are manufactured in either aluminum or aluminum unless the
polycarbonate plastic. The choice of which local agency desires
material to use should be made by the local polycarbonate signal
agency. Because of their light weight, heads.
polycarbonate signal heads must either be
tethered or rigidly mounted so wind sway will not be a factor. Signal
heads shall be constructed of aluminum, unless the local agency prefers
polycarbonate materials. Signal head housings shall be yellow unless
otherwise specified by the local agency.
Because agencies use different Tethered signal heads
combinations of signal housing colors, the must have breakaway
housing colors to be used at the intersection clamps so the head will
shall be noted on the plans if signal heads swing free during
are not all yellow. heavy wind conditions.

4.9.3 Backplates – Signal backplates increase the contrast between the signal
indications and the signal background. A rising or setting sun or intensive
advertising signing can lead to visibility problems. Backplates shall be
used on all rural or high speed locations or
Backplates should be
urban locations where glare or other visual
installed at all rural,
distractions are present. Where used,
high speed or visually
backplates shall have a dull black finish.
distracting locations.
44
4.9.4 Number of Signal Faces
A. Major Movement – A minimum of two signal faces are to be
provided for the major movement on each approach, even if the
major movement is a turning movement.
B. Supplemental Face – If the signal faces are more than 180 feet
beyond the stop line, a supplemental near side signal face is
required.
C. Dual (or Multiple) Left Turns – Where two or more separate left
turn lanes are provided, a separate left turn face shall be provided
for each lane.
44
MUTCD, FHWA, 2003, p. 4D–12
TRAFFIC DESIGN MANUAL 4-78 DECEMBER 2003
CHAPTER 4 – TRAFFIC SIGNAL DESIGN
 HORIZONTAL SIGNAL HEAD PLACEMENT

SUPPLEMENTAL NEAR SIDE

SIGNAL HEAD REQUIRED

SUPPLEMENTAL NEAR
SIDE SIGNAL HEAD
MAY BE BENEFICIAL

DISTANCE FROM STOP LINE

180’ ***
150’ **
ONLY FAR SIDE
SIGNALS REQUIRED

NO OVERHEAD
SIGNALS O
40
40’ *

10’ ALL 12” SIGNAL INDICATIONS REQUIRED

CENTER OF
APPROACH * MINIMUM DISTANCE BETWEEN SIGNAL HEADS
AND STOP LINE
** BETWEEN 150’ AND 180’, SUPPLEMENTAL NEAR
SIDE SIGNAL HEADS MAY BE BENEFICIAL
*** MAXIMUM DISTANCE BETWEEN SIGNAL HEADS
AND STOP LINE WITHOUT NEAR SIDE
SUPPLEMENTAL SIGNALS

VERTICAL SIGNAL HEAD MOUNTING HEIGHT

26
25.6
25

24
HEIGHT ABOVE ROADWAY (FEET)

23
MAXIMUM MOUNTING
22 HEIGHT OF SIGNAL HEAD

21

20

19

18
MINIMUM SIGNAL HEAD CLEARANCE
17 (TO BOTTOM OF SIGNAL HEAD)
16.5
16

15
40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59
HORIZONTAL DISTANCE FROM STOP LINE (FEET)

Tennessee Department of Transportation

Traffic Design Manual
Horizontal and Vertical Locations
of Overhead Vehicle Signal Heads Figure 4.28
 4.9.5 Positioning Relative to the Stop Line – At Intersections with
least one, if not both, of the signal faces signal heads located
required in paragraph 4.9.4.A above should be more than 180’ from
located at a distance between 40-180 feet the stop line require
from the stop line. If both signal faces are supplemental near
more than 180 feet from the stop line, a side signal heads.
supplemental near side signal face is required
(see Figure 4.28).

4.9.6 Horizontal Placement – At least one, if not both, signal faces required in
paragraph 4.9.4.A above shall be placed in the area defined in Section
4D.15 of the MUTCD (see Figure 4.28).

A. Lane Alignment – In general, signal heads should be centered

over the lanes to which they apply or on lane lines between lanes.
Figures 4.29 thru 4.31 show typical left turn signal head
applications and Figure 4.32 shows signal head placement for
various split-phase intersections.

B. Adjacent Signal Faces45 – Adjacent signal faces on the same

span wire or mast arm should typically be placed 12 feet apart and
shall be placed no closer than 8 feet apart.

C. Signal Faces – Left turn signals shall be the left most signal head
and right turn signals shall be the right most signal head in the
signal head arrangement for the approach (see typical examples in
Figures 4.29 thru 4.32).

4.9.7 Vertical Placement – The placement of the signal head over the roadway
shall be such as to provide a minimum 17.5
foot vertical clearance from the bottom of the Signal heads shall be
signal head to the roadway. Where this is mounted with a
impractical, the minimum clearance shall be minimum 16.5’ (17.5’
16.5 feet. RED signal indications should be preferred) vertical
approximately the same height. clearance.

A maximum mounting height to the top of the signal housing for overhead
signals is important to ensure visibility for signal heads that are near the
stop line. The maximum mounting height shall be determined from
Section 4D.15 of the MUTCD. In general, the maximum mounting height
for signals can be determined on a sliding scale of 21 feet for signal heads
40 feet from the stop line and 25.6 feet for signal heads 53 feet from the
stop line. For signal heads between 53 feet and 180 feet, the maximum
mounting height shall be 25.6 feet (see Figure 4.28).

4.9.8 Face Arrangement – Individual signal sections shall be arranged

vertically rather than horizontally unless sight distance or vertical
clearance concerns dictate.
45
MUTCD, FHWA, 2003,p. 4D-13
TRAFFIC DESIGN MANUAL 4-80 DECEMBER 2003
CHAPTER 4 – TRAFFIC SIGNAL DESIGN
 PROTECTED/ PROTECTED
PERMISSIVE PERMISSIVE ONLY
LEFT-TURN LEFT-TURN LEFT-TURN

A A B A E A

(SPLIT PHASE)

A A B A E A

(SPLIT PHASE)

R R
Y Y Y
G G G

A B G
E

Tennessee Department of Transportation

Traffic Design Manual
Signal Head Placement
(No Left Turn Lanes) Figure 4.29
 PROTECTED/ PROTECTED
PERMISSIVE PERMISSIVE ONLY
LEFT-TURN LEFT-TURN LEFT-TURN

W
W/2 (8’ MIN.)

R LEFT R R
TURN
Y Y SIGNAL Y OR Y
G G G G

A B C With sign D Without sign

Tennessee Department of Transportation

Traffic Design Manual
Signal Head Placement
(One Left Turn Lane) Figure 4.30
 PROTECTED ONLY
LEFT-TURN
(PERMISSIVE TREATMENTS NOT APPLICABLE)

C C A A

C C A A

R LEFT R R
TURN
Y SIGNAL Y OR Y
G G G

A C With sign D Without sign

Tennessee Department of Transportation

Traffic Design Manual
Signal Head Placement
(Two Left Turn Lanes) Figure 4.31
 SPLIT PHASE OPERATION
(PERMISSIVE TREATMENTS NOT APPLICABLE)

F B F E A

16’ 16’

F A F E A A F E A

16’ 16’

D A H OR G* F A H OR G*

* USE 5-SECTION
IF RT TURN OVERLAP

R R
R Y R Y
Y Y G Y Y G
G G G G G G
A B E F G H
Tennessee Department of Transportation
Traffic Design Manual
Signal Head Placement
(Split Phase Operation) Figure 4.32
 4.9.9 Left Turn Signals – Three types of left turn signal heads are commonly
used:

A. Three Section heads (R, mY, mG with sign) and (mR, mY, mG)
– Three section left turn heads are used for “protected only” left turn
operation when there exists a separate left turn lane.

B. Four Section Heads (R, Y, G, mG) – Four section left turn heads
are used where the left turn is part of a split phase operation and
also at the top of some “T” intersections.

C. Five Section Heads (R, Y, G, mY, mG) – Five section left turn
signal heads are used both with and without a separate left turn
lane, and where the left turn operation is “protected/permissive” .

4.9.10 Right Turn Signals – Right turn signals are normally provided only where
there is a separate right turn lane accompanied by a right turn signal
overlap with a compatible cross street left turn signal phase. Typically, a
five section head (R, Y, G, Yo, Go) is used.

4.9.11 Pedestrian Signal Indications46 – All pedestrian signal indications shall

use the international symbol designations. The pedestrian countdown
indication is an optional feature on pedestrian signal heads. TDOT allows
only the one section integrated pedestrian head on new signal
installations. The bottom of the housing shall be located 7-10 feet above
the sidewalk. Section 4.4 provides more information on pedestrian
signals. Figure 4.33 shows several pedestrian signal mounting
arrangements.

A. Walking Person Symbol (see Figure 4.17)

ƒ Meaning – Walk
ƒ Color – White
ƒ Size – The symbol shall be approximately 12” tall.
ƒ Location – Integral with and to the right of the upraised hand
symbol.

B. Upraised Hand Symbol (see Figure 4.17)

ƒ Meaning
Flashing – Pedestrian Clearance
Steady – Don’t Walk
ƒ Color – Portland Orange
ƒ Size – The symbol shall be approximately 12” tall.
ƒ Location – Integral with and to the left of the walking person
symbol.

46
MUTCD, FHWA, 2003, p. 4E-1.
TRAFFIC DESIGN MANUAL 4-85 DECEMBER 2003
CHAPTER 4 – TRAFFIC SIGNAL DESIGN
 POLE MOUNTED
SIGNAL

12” PED

10’ 0”
HEAD

2 ½” PEDESTRIAN
PUSH BUTTON
8’ 0”

POST
4” DIA.
PEDESTAL
POLE

PEDESTRIAN
SIGN

PEDESTRIAN
PUSHBUTTON
3’ 6”

BASE WITH DOOR

PUSHBUTTON POST

PEDESTAL POLES

Tennessee Department of Transportation

Traffic Design Manual

Typical Pedestrian Signal Details Figure 4.33

 C. Pedestrian Countdown Indication (see Figure 4.17)
ƒ Meaning
Flashing – Countdown of Pedestrian Change Interval
ƒ Color – Portland Orange
ƒ Size – The digits shall be approximately 8” tall.
ƒ Location – Integral with and right of the upraised hand symbol.

4.9.12 Signal Head Shielding – As a minimum, all signal indications shall be

equipped with cut away (partial) visors to prevent the sun phantom effect
(signal appearing to be on due to the sun reflecting on the signal indication
lens).

4.9.13 Programmable Signal Heads – Programmable signal heads

Other installation problems may exist should be used for any
that would require the signal head to movement where drivers
be shielded or to have its visibility could mistakenly see a
limited. A programmable signal head signal indication that is
utilizes a special optical lens that can intended for another
be “programmed” to provide the signal movement.
display to only desired portions of the
roadway. The programming is accomplished by masking (with tape)
portions of the lens through the rear of the housing. Because the lens is
programmed to be visible from certain areas, the signal head should be
rigid mounted or tethered. Programmable signal heads are much more
expensive than a regular signal head and require correct masking or they
will not work as desired. The most common uses are as follows.
A. Closely Spaced Traffic Signals – Where traffic signals are closely
spaced and simultaneously display conflicting color indications to
approaching motorists, optically programmed visibility lenses
should be installed on the far signal heads.
B. Acute Angle Intersections – Where the intersection of two
roadways is less than 90 degrees causing conflicting signal
indications on one street to be seen by motorists on the other
street, either optically programmed visibility lenses or full tunnel
visors with louvers should be used on the signals heads.
C. Railroad Crossings with Pre-Signals – The signal heads at the
far side of the intersection (beyond the pre-signals) should be
programmable so as to limit their visibility from vehicles before the
tracks.

4.10 Controllers and Cabinets

4.10.1 Traffic Signal Controllers – The standard Eight phase dual-ring

controller to be used at all new signalized controllers should be
intersections shall be an 8-phase, NEMA used at all new traffic
solid state controller that meets current signals.
TDOT standards and specifications.

TRAFFIC DESIGN MANUAL 4-87 DECEMBER 2003

CHAPTER 4 – TRAFFIC SIGNAL DESIGN
 Presently, most cities in Tennessee use NEMA TS-2, Type 2 cabinets and
controllers. An 8-phase controller should be used even when four phase
cabinets are installed. Limited interchangeability of controller equipment is
possible between different manufacturers of NEMA controllers. Many
larger cities standardize on one NEMA controller brand. All controllers
within a system must be of the same brand to achieve system operation.

4.10.2 Controller Cabinets

To prevent problems for
A. Cabinet Types: sight impaired pedestrians,
pole mounted cabinets
ƒ Pole mounted cabinets –
should not be used within a
should only be used for four
sidewalk.
phase intersections.
ƒ Ground mounted cabinets – should be used for all 8-phase
intersections or locations that house a master controller or
significant auxiliary equipment such as video detection
equipment. They may also be used for four phase intersections.
B. Interconnect/Communications – Where installed in a system, the
controller cabinet shall have facilities for the appropriate
communications.
C. Orientation – The controller cabinet shall be so oriented that the
traffic personnel can observe the intersection while working in the
cabinet.
D. Service Pad – All ground mounted controller cabinet installations
not immediately adjacent to a sidewalk shall be provided with a
service pad in front of the cabinet door for use by maintenance
personnel.
E. Location – Controller cabinets should be located as far as practical
off the edge of the roadway and in the same intersection quadrant
as the power source whenever possible. Cabinets should not be
placed within the pedestrian walkway portion of a sidewalk.
Consideration should also be given to the effect of cabinet
placement on sight distance.
F. Cabinet Construction – Cabinets shall be constructed of
aluminum. Standard cabinet sizes are shown in TDOT’s Standard
Drawings.
G. Grounding Requirements – All controller cabinets shall be
grounded separately from support poles.

4.10.3 Power Supply

A. Location – If possible, controller cabinet should be located in the
same quadrant as the electrical service.
B. Quantity – In quantity calculations, the term “electrical service” or
“power supply” includes the pole, circuit breaker, ground rod,
conduit (riser) and conductors on the utility company’s pole and/or
conduit (riser) and conductor on the service pole. A separate 1”

TRAFFIC DESIGN MANUAL 4-88 DECEMBER 2003

CHAPTER 4 – TRAFFIC SIGNAL DESIGN
 conduit rigid steel conduit (RGS) riser must be provided where the
power is brought down a wooden pole.
C. Street Lights – Where street lights are installed on traffic signal
poles, they shall have their own circuit breaker on the service pole
and the power conductor routing shall not pass through the
controller cabinet.
D. Cable Routing – If the power supply cable travels underground, it
shall be run in a separate rigid steel conduit (RGS) conduit from
detector, signal and communications cables. If it travels overhead,
it shall be run on a separate messenger cable above all other signal
cables.

4.11 Traffic Signal Supports – The two basic types of traffic signal supports are
strain poles and mast arm poles.
ƒ Strain Pole – A strain pole is a pole to which span wire is attached for the
purpose of supporting the signal wiring and signal heads (see Figure 4.34).
ƒ Mast Arm Pole – A mast arm pole is a cantilever structure that permits the
overhead installation of the signal heads without overhead messenger cables
and signal wiring, which is run inside the arm structure (see Figure 4.35)

Traffic signal supports, including steel strain poles, concrete strain poles and
mast arm poles, shall be in accordance with TDOT specifications. Adjacent utility
poles shall not be used for traffic signal supports in new installations unless
physical conditions preclude the installation of separate traffic signal supports.

4.11.1 Selection of Support Type – Wood

poles with guy wires should be The major advantages of
considered as an option when selecting wood poles are their lower
traffic signal support poles. cost and relatively shorter
delivery time. However,
Steel or concrete strain poles should wood poles require guy
always be considered when span wires and conduit risers,
lengths exceed 90 feet or easements or which may become
right-of-way will be required for guy maintenance issues over
wires. Steel or concrete strain poles time.
should also be considered when
utilizing a box span arrangement to The primary advantages of
provide additional strength. steel or concrete poles are
better long term
Mast arm poles should be considered maintenance, aesthetics
when aesthetics are an issue. Double and ability to handle longer
mast arm poles should be considered spans or heavier loads.
when some corners lack room for However, they are more
poles. Steel or concrete strain poles or costly and have longer
mast arm poles should also be delivery times.
considered for areas without overhead
utilities.

TRAFFIC DESIGN MANUAL 4-89 DECEMBER 2003

CHAPTER 4 – TRAFFIC SIGNAL DESIGN
 POWER SERVICE

12’ TYP. (8’ MIN.)

SPAN WIRE
RED INDICATIONS TO BE
APPROX. SAME HEIGHT

TETHER WIRE

MAXIMUM MOUNTING
HEIGHT
16’ 6” MIN. VERTICAL PER M.U.T.C.D.
POLE MOUNTED CLEARANCE 21’ TO 25’6”
SIGNAL HEAD (17’ 6” TYP.)
(WHERE REQD.)

10’ TYP. PEDESTRIAN

(8’ MIN.) SIGNAL
(WHERE REQD.)
8’ TYP.
(10’ MAX.)

PEDESTRIAN
PUSHBUTTON AND
SIGN (WHERE REQD.)

FOUNDATION

Tennessee Department of Transportation

Traffic Design Manual

Typical Strain Pole Details Figure 4.34

 UNIFORMLY TAPERED STEEL MAST ARM

12’ TYP. (8’ MIN.)

RED INDICATIONS TO BE
APPROX. SAME HEIGHT

UNIFORMLY TAPERED STEEL POLE

LENGTH 22’ TYP.
POLE MOUNTED
MAXIMUM MOUNTING SIGNAL HEAD
HEIGHT (WHERE REQD.)
16’ 6” MIN. VERTICAL PER M.U.T.C.D.
CLEARANCE 21’ TO 25’6”
(17’ 6” TYP.)

PEDESTRIAN
SIGNAL
10’ TYP. (WHERE REQD.)
(8’ MIN.)

8’ TYP. (10’ MAX.)

PEDESTRIAN
VAR. PUSHBUTTON AND
(2’ MIN.) SIGN (WHERE REQD.)

FOUNDATION

Tennessee Department of Transportation

Traffic Design Manual

Typical Mast Arm Pole Details Figure 4.35

 4.11.2 Strain Poles (Wood, Steel or Concrete)

A. Span Length – Strain poles should be located so as to limit the

distance between the stop line and the signal heads to a maximum
of 180 feet. The minimum breaking strength for span wires shall be
noted in the Plans. Each span wire shall be grounded.

B. Span Wire Arrangements – Span wire arrangements in general

allow for further pole setbacks from the roadway than do mast arm
installations. In addition, they eliminate the need for jacking and
boring under the roadway by allowing signal and detector cables to
be run overhead on the signal span wire. The following are the
most common span wire arrangements:
Typical intersections
C. Box Span Arrangement (see Figure will use strain poles
4.36) – This signal arrangement places in a box span
strain poles on each of the four corners arrangement.
of the intersection.

Box Span Advantages:47

1. Allows good alignment of signal heads.
2. Provides the required minimum 40 feet distance between the
signal heads and stop line on all approaches.
3. Provides shorter span wire lengths and sag than diagonal
spans.
4. Provides locations for pedestrian signals.

Box Span Disadvantages:48

1. Requires four poles.
2. Could require supplemental signal heads if the signal heads
are more than 180 feet beyond the approach stop line.

D. Suspended Box Arrangement (see Figure 4.36) – This signal

arrangement is a box span arrangement, but the box is connected
to the poles by diagonal spans. This is typically used at large
intersections in order to minimize the distance between signal
heads and the stop line. A variation where two corners of the box
are connected by diagonal spans and two directly to poles is often
used for skewed intersections.

Suspended Box Advantages:

1. Same advantages as box arrangement (see 4.11.2.C).
2. Decreased distance between the signal heads and stop line.

Suspended Box Disadvantages:

1. Same as box span arrangement but more difficult to install.
47
Traffic Engineering Handbook, ITE, 1999, p. 506.
48
Ibid.
TRAFFIC DESIGN MANUAL 4-92 DECEMBER 2003
CHAPTER 4 – TRAFFIC SIGNAL DESIGN
 8’ MIN.

BOX SPAN SUSPENDED

BOX SPAN

Z-SPAN
(WITH CURBED MEDIAN)

Z-SPAN LEGEND: U-SPAN

SIGNAL HEAD
SUPPLEMENTAL SIGNAL HEAD
(FOR SPANS OVER 180’)
SIGNAL POLE

Tennessee Department of Transportation

Traffic Design Manual
Typical Strain Pole (Span Wire)
Layouts Figure 4.36
 E. Z Span Arrangement (see Figure 4.36) – Z spans are applicable
at offset intersections. Z span installations may be applicable on
divided roadways where median clear zone requirements can be
met.
Z Span Advantages:
1. On divided roadways, shorter span wires are required across
the street with the median.
2. Provides good signal head placement for offset
intersections.

Z Span Disadvantages:49
1. On divided roadways, it places traffic signal poles in median
areas where they are more likely to be struck by vehicles.
Check clear zone requirements.
2. On divided roadways, additional pedestal poles may be
needed if pedestrian signals and detectors are required.
3. On divided roadways, pedestrians cannot see the parallel
signal indications once they get to the median area.

F. Diagonal Span Arrangement – A

diagonal span installation may be Because diagonal spans
applicable at some locations, but tend to create signal
generally presents problems with head visibility problems,
visibility for signal heads. they should not be used
unless other span
Diagonal Span Advantages: arrangements are not
1. Only two poles are required. feasible.

Diagonal Span Disadvantages:

1. All loads are concentrated and place extreme pressure on
poles.
2. Pedestal poles are required when pedestrian indications are
used.
3. Very difficult to obtain horizontal distance requirements and
vertical visibility for signal heads.

G. Pole Height Determination – The height of a strain pole is

determined by Equation 4.12. When providing a pole height on
signal plans, it is important to specify that the top of the pole
foundation should usually be at the same elevation as the roadway
crown. In cut areas, fill may be required to prevent the foundation
from protruding out of the ground. An exception is on high fill
roadway sections where the pole must be located outside of the fill

49
Traffic Engineering Handbook, ITE, 1999, p. 507.
TRAFFIC DESIGN MANUAL 4-94 DECEMBER 2003
CHAPTER 4 – TRAFFIC SIGNAL DESIGN
 area. Consideration must be made to ensure an adequate pole
length is specified in such a situation.

Equation 4.12

PH = 2 + LsS + c + H + d

Where: PH = Pole height (feet)

Ls = maximum span length (feet)

S = design sag (usually 5%)
c = clearance above road (17.5’ typical)
H = height of signal head with backplate (usually 4.5’)
d = side-slope drop off (feet from crown of road)

Where two span wires attach to the same strain pole, the
pole height will be determined by using the longer of the two
span wires. Pole heights shall be rounded up where
necessary to be specified in even number feet (26, 28, 30,
etc.).

H. Pole Location – Generally, strain poles should be located outside

of the clear zone.
ƒ Signal Location – Strain poles should be located so that
signal heads hung on their span wire are located between 40
to 180 feet from the approach stop line.
ƒ Minimum Horizontal Clearances – On curbed roadways,
poles shall be located no closer than two feet to the front of
curb. In all cases, traffic signal poles should be located as
far as practical from the edge of travel lane without adversely
affecting signal visibility.50
ƒ Pedestrian Considerations – When installing a pedestrian
pushbutton, poles should be located adjacent to the sidewalk
within reach of pedestrians.

I. Luminaires – Where street lights are installed on traffic signal

poles, they are to be designed integral with the pole and mounted
at a minimum height of 30 feet above the roadway. Actual mounting
height shall be determined by the luminaire photometrics.

J. Tether Wires – Tether wires shall be

Breakaway tether
installed to minimize signal head
wires should be
movement when polycarbonate signal
installed on any
heads, LED or optically programmed
spans with LED
lenses are specified or at locations where
signal heads.
wind is a consideration. Tether wires
must be able to breakaway from poles when hit or snagged.

50
MUTCD, FHWA, p. 4D-20.
TRAFFIC DESIGN MANUAL 4-95 DECEMBER 2003
CHAPTER 4 – TRAFFIC SIGNAL DESIGN
 4.11.3 Mast Arm Poles – Mast arm supports provide a more rigid mounting for
signal heads and overhead signs than do span wire installations.51
Accordingly they are particularly applicable where programmed visibility
signal heads are used. They also require less maintenance in regards to
turned signal heads and signs. Mast arm installations are more
aesthetically pleasing than span wire
installations since there is no overhead Mast arm supports
span wire or signal wiring. should be considered
when they would match
Very long mast arms can be extremely adjacent signals, when
costly. Generally, mast arms greater than utilities are underground,
65 feet long become unrealistic. Mast when they would result in
arm installations are more expensive then fewer overall poles or
strain poles because they require boring when aesthetics are a
and jacking under the roadway to get primary concern.
signal and detector cables to the
controller cabinet.

A. Single Mast Arm Layout – A typical single mast arm installation is

shown in Figure 4.37 where it is used at the intersection of two
undivided roadways.

Advantages:
1. Provides the required minimum 40 feet distance between the
signal heads and the stop line of all approaches.
2. Provides good far side signal head visibility for pedestrians.
3. Provides locations for pedestrian signal indications and
pedestrian detectors where needed.

Disadvantages:
1. Requires four mast arm poles and foundations for a typical
four leg intersection.

B. Dual Mast Arms – The dual mast arm arrangement is often

applicable at offset intersections and at tee intersections as shown
in Figure 4.37.

Advantages:
1. Uses fewer poles than a strain pole or single mast arm
arrangement.
2. Provides good signal head placement for offset
intersections.
Disadvantages:
1. Additional traffic signal poles may be needed if pedestrian
signals and detectors are required.
2. Sight lines to the signal heads may be obscured.

51
Traffic Engineering Handbook. 1999. p. 508
TRAFFIC DESIGN MANUAL 4-96 DECEMBER 2003
CHAPTER 4 – TRAFFIC SIGNAL DESIGN
 SINGLE MAST ARMS DUAL MAST ARMS

DUAL MAST ARMS COMBINATION SINGLE/DUAL

(OFFSET INTERSECTION) MAST ARMS

LEGEND:
SIGNAL HEAD
MAST ARM SIGNAL POLE

Tennessee Department of Transportation

Traffic Design Manual

Typical Mast Arm Pole Layouts Figure 4.37

 C. Mast Arm Height – Typical mast arm poles have a 22 foot shaft,
unless street lighting is integral with the traffic signal pole.

D. Mast Arm Length – Mast arm length Mast arm lengths

must be specified on signal plan sheets. should be limited to
The arm length is determined by taking 65’ or less.
into account signal head placement in
relation to the approach travel lanes and the pole setback off the
edge of the travel way. The mast arm length shall not exceed the
maximum length currently feasible in construction.

E. Mast Arm Pole Location – The requirements are the same as

those listed for the location of strain poles (see Section 4.11.2.H).

F. Luminaires – Street lights installed on mast arm poles are to be

designed integral with the pole and they are to have a minimum
mounting height of 30 feet above the roadway. Actual mounting
height shall be determined by the luminaire photometrics.

4.12 Signal Wiring – All conductors shall be run inside conduit except loop
conductors in the pavement, cables run along messenger or span wire, or cables
run inside poles. All new cable runs shall be continuous and free of splices. All
signal cable shall meet the applicable requirements of IMSA and National Electric
Code.

4.12.1 Signal Control Cable – All signal control cable shall conform to
applicable IMSA Specification No. 19-1 or 20-1. Stranded cable color
coded AWG No. 14 shall be used for all signal and accessory circuits.

4.12.2 Copper Communications Cable – Copper communications cable shall

be 6 pair, AWG No. 19 polyethylene insulated, polyethylene jacket cable
with electrical shielding meeting the requirements of IMSA Specification
No. 40-2.

4.12.3 Fiber Optic Communications Cable – Fiber optic communications cable

shall be specifically selected to meet the individual needs of a specific
project. All fiber optic cables should be designed with spare fibers for
future use. A rule of thumb is to double the fibers that are needed today
and round up to the nearest six (fiber optic cable is manufactured in
multiples of six).

4.12.4 Inductive Loop Wire – Conductors for traffic loops and home runs shall
be continuous cross-linked polyethylene insulated AWG No. 14 wire,
conforming to IMSA Specification No. 51-1 or 51-3, to the detector
terminals or spliced with shielded detector cable within a pull box, condulet
or pole base.

4.12.5 Loop Detector Lead-In (Shielded Cable) – Loop detector lead-in cable
wire shall be continuous AWG No. 14 wire conforming to the requirements
of IMSA Specification No. 50-2, polyethylene insulated, polyethylene
jacketed shielded cable.

TRAFFIC DESIGN MANUAL 4-98 DECEMBER 2003

CHAPTER 4 – TRAFFIC SIGNAL DESIGN
 4.12.6 Preformed Loop Detector Wire – Preformed loop assemblies are
suitable for placement under new asphalt or concrete pavement.
Preformed loop detector wire shall consist of a minimum of four turns of
No. 18 AWG wire or larger, not to exceed No. 14 AWG wire. The loop
wires shall be installed in protective tubing with a diameter of less than
5/8”. The home run cable shall be installed inside conduit or
manufacturer’s recommended enclosure between the pavement and the
pull box to prevent damage in ground.

4.12.7 Cable Lashing – Cables shall be attached to span or messenger cable by

means of non-corrosive lashing rods or stainless steel wire lashings (one
360 degree spiral of lashing wire per foot.

4.12.8 Cable Sizing for Conduit – After the signal head and signal detector
arrangements/placements have been determined, the necessary signal
wiring required involves the following steps:
A. Signal Head Requirements – The typical wiring requirement of
each individual signal head may be determined by using Figure
4.38.
B. Mast Arm/Span Wire Runs – Determine the length of wiring
required for the signal heads depending on whether span wire or
mast arms are used.
C. Detectors, Power and Interconnect Cable – Determine the wiring
required for detectors, power, and interconnect cables where
applicable.
D. Sizing Conduit – Combine the wiring requirements in 4.12.1 and
4.12.3 above and size the conduit needed for each wiring run using
Table 4.7.

4.13 Conduit – All underground signal wiring shall be encased in conduit to protect
the cables or conductors and facilitate maintenance. All signal wiring above
ground shall be installed in conduit (risers), unless the wiring is inside of a pole or
attached to a span wire or a messenger cable. Conduit used for traffic signal
installation shall have the following characteristics:

4.13.1 Conduit Material Type

A. Underground: PVC (Polyvinyl Chloride Conduit), Schedule 40 or

RGS (Rigid Steel Conduit). Schedule 80 conduit may be permitted
in certain situations.
ƒ In Ground – In general, typical conduit in soil should be PVC,
Schedule 40. See 4.13.4, 4.13.5 and 4.13.6 for special cases.
ƒ Under Driveways – When PVC conduit is shown on the plans
in areas which are subject to vehicular traffic, such as under
driveways, Schedule 80 PVC conduit shall be used.
ƒ Under Roadways: All conduits under roadways shall be RGS.
B. Risers: All risers shall be RGS.

TRAFFIC DESIGN MANUAL 4-99 DECEMBER 2003

CHAPTER 4 – TRAFFIC SIGNAL DESIGN
 3-SECTION SIGNAL HEAD (TYPE 130)
NEUTRAL (WHITE)
V1 COMBINATION, TYPES 130/150A2H
TO RED (RED) (LEFT TURN PERM/PROT.)
7 CONDUCTOR
CABLE
TO YELLOW (ORANGE) V5 NEUTRAL (WHITE)

TO GREEN (GREEN) TO RED (RED)

7 CONDUCTOR
SPARE (BLUE) TO YELLOW (ORANGE) CABLE
SPARE (BLACK)
SPARE (WHITE/BLACK) TO GREEN (GREEN)

TO GREEN ARROW (BLUE)

5-SECTION SIGNAL HEAD TO YELLOW ARROW (BLACK)
(TYPE 150 A2H OR 150 A2V)
SPARE (WHITE/BLACK)
NEUTRAL (WHITE)
V2
TO RED (RED)
7 CONDUCTOR
CABLE
TO YELLOW (ORANGE)

TO GREEN (GREEN) P2 P2
7C to ped. Displays
5C to ped. PB P4
P4
TO GREEN ARROW (BLUE)
TO YELLOW ARROW (BLACK) 7C

SPARE (WHITE/BLACK) V3 V1
(Split phase)

(Prot.)

(Perm/prot.)
V4
4-SECTION SIGNAL HEAD (TYPE 140A1)
V2
NEUTRAL (WHITE) V1
V3
TO RED (RED) 5C V1 V1
7 CONDUCTOR
CABLE 7C
TO YELLOW (ORANGE) (Perm.) 7C
V1 V1
TO GREEN (GREEN)
7C
TO GREEN ARROW (BLUE) P1
SPARE (BLACK) 5C to ped. Displays
P3
3C to ped. PB
SPARE (WHITE/BLACK)
TYPICAL WIRING SCHEMATIC
(DEPICTING VARIOUS LEFT TURN TREATMENTS)
3-SECTION SIGNAL HEAD
(LEFT TURN-TYPE 130A2 OR 130A3)
NEUTRAL (WHITE)
V4
TO RED (RED) LEGEND
5 CONDUCTOR
CABLE
TO YELLOW ARROW (ORANGE) CONTROLLER

TO GREEN ARROW (GREEN) SIGNAL SUPPORT POLE

SPARE (BLACK)
* 8C AND 9C MAY BE SUBSTITUTED FOR 7C CABLE

Tennessee Department of Transportation

Traffic Design Manual

Typical Traffic Signal Wiring Figure 4.38

 Table 4.7 Typical Wire Sizes

AWG 14 AWG 16
Number of Outside Diameter 2 Number of Outside Diameter 2
Area (in ) Area (in )
Conductors (inches) Conductors (inches)

1 0.17 0.023 1 0.15 0.018

2 0.41 0.132 2 0.34 0.091
3 0.43 0.145 3 0.35 0.096
4 0.47 0.173 4 0.38 0.113
5 0.51 0.204 5 0.42 0.139
6 0.58 0.264 6 0.45 0.159
7 0.58 0.264 7 0.45 0.159
8 0.63 0.312 8 0.49 0.189
9 0.68 0.363 9 0.53 0.221
10 0.72 0.407 10 0.60 0.283
12 0.75 0.442 12 0.64 0.322
13 0.78 0.478 13 0.67 0.353
14 0.78 0.478 14 0.67 0.353
15 0.82 0.528 15 0.70 0.385
16 0.82 0.528 16 0.70 0.385
17 0.91 0.650 17 0.74 0.430
18 0.91 0.650 18 0.74 0.430
19 0.91 0.650 19 0.74 0.430
20 0.95 0.709 20 0.77 0.466
21 0.95 0.709 21 0.77 0.466
22 1.00 0.785 22 0.81 0.515
23 1.00 0.785 23 0.81 0.515
24 1.05 0.866 24 0.85 0.567
25 1.07 0.899 25 0.91 0.650
26 1.07 0.899 26 0.91 0.650
27 1.07 0.899 27 0.91 0.650
28 1.07 0.899 28 0.94 0.694
29 1.11 0.968 29 0.94 0.694
30 1.11 0.968 30 0.94 0.694

Other Cables Conduit Areas

Outside Diameter 2 Maximum
Type Area (in )
(inches) Conduit Size Area (in )
2
Usable Area
6 pair / 19 0.53 0.221 (40% of total)

3/4" 0.44 0.176

1" (25 mm) 0.77 0.308
1 1/2" 1.77 0.708
2" (50 mm) 3.14 1.256
2 1/2" 4.91 1.964
3" 7.07 2.828

TRAFFIC DESIGN MANUAL 4-101 DECEMBER 2003

CHAPTER 4 – TRAFFIC SIGNAL DESIGN
 4.13.2 Conduit Installation Methods – There are three typical construction
techniques used to install underground conduits for traffic signals. The
standard technique used by contractors is the open cutting (or trenching)
method. When there are restrictions to using the open cut method, the
conduit must be installed by either the jacking method or the directional
bore method.
ƒ Open Cut Method – The open cut method is generally permitted when
the conduit is being installed in areas that will not affect traffic such as
grass medians, or within existing roadways when the existing
pavement will be replaced upon project completion.
ƒ Jacking Method – The jacking method is generally used when the
open cut method is not permitted. The jacking method pushes a pipe
sleeve under a roadway, driveway, or railroad track that is 2” larger in
diameter than the conduit(s) that it will be conveying. This method
requires a jacking pit, which must be within the right of way. For 20-foot
pipe sleeve sections, the jacking pit is 32-foot long and 6-foot wide. For
10-foot pipe sleeve sections, the jacking pit is 22-foot long and 6-foot
wide.
ƒ Directional Bore Method – The directional bore method is an optional
method that can be used in lieu of the jacking method. The direction
bore method installs conduits boring along a prescribed route under
the roadway, driveway or railroad track. The directional bore method
does not require a pit, as does the jacking method, however an 8-foot
by 8-foot staging area is needed to install conduits less than 6” in
diameter.

4.13.3 Depth Installed (Underground) – Conduit is placed 18” to 36” below the
finished grade. Typically, conduit below sidewalk is placed 18” deep.

4.13.4 Conduit Sizing – The maximum size conduit to

be used on traffic signal installations shall be 3”. Conduit for traffic
Where larger conduit capacity is required, signal applications
multiple conduit runs will be used. The sizing of shall not be larger
conduit should be such as to not fill over 40% than 3” or smaller
internal area of the conduit (see Table 4.7). than 1”.

Typical traffic signal conduit shall be 2” diameter and detector loop conduit
1” diameter, unless otherwise indicated. Conduits smaller than 1”
diameter shall not be used unless otherwise specified, except grounding
conductors at service points shall be enclosed in 3/4”diameter conduit. No
reducing couplings will be permitted. The conduit between a saw cut and
a pull box for loop lead-ins shall be 1” diameter and not be measured for
separate payment, but will be absorbed in other conduit items.

4.13.5 Communications Cable Conduit – All communications cables shall be

run in a separate conduit from shielded cable, signal cable and power
cable. Conduit for communications interconnect cable should be 2”
diameter.

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 4.13.6 Power Cable Conduit – Conduit for power supply shall be run in a
separate 1” diameter RGS conduit.

4.13.7 Bored and Jacked Conduit – All bored and jacked conduit shall be rigid
(RGS). The estimation of the amount of boring is critical. Care should be
taken for a realistic estimate (overestimation is preferred).

4.13.8 Conduit Radii – All conduit bends shall be large radius to facilitate cable
pulling (6” minimum radius).

4.13.9 Spare Conduit – Spare conduit stubs for future use shall always be
installed in all new controller cabinet bases and pole foundations. These
stubs shall not be measured for separate payment, but will be absorbed in
other conduit items.

4.13.10 Conduit for Road Widening Projects – Conduit and pull boxes should
be considered for installation on collector and arterial street widening
projects where there is a potential for future interconnect needs.

4.14 Pull Boxes – A pull box is an underground When possible, pull

compartment made of various materials such pre- boxes should be
cast concrete or polymer concrete (composite). Pull located adjacent to
boxes used in traffic signal installations shall meet sidewalks rather than
current TDOT standard specifications. in the sidewalk.
4.14.1 Purpose of Pull Boxes:
ƒ To provide access to underground detectors and interconnect cables.
ƒ To provide locations to consolidate separate runs of signal and
detector cables.
ƒ To provide locations to facilitate the pulling of long runs of detector or
interconnect cables.
ƒ To provide locations to store spare lengths of signal detector or
interconnect cables.

4.14.2 Type/Size/Use – Figure 4.39 shows the various size pull boxes and their
normal application or use. Type A Pull Boxes shall be used exclusively for
splicing loop wires to shielded cable only. Type B Pull Boxes shall be
used for all other traffic signal cable applications.

Pull boxes for fiber optic cable must be larger than standard pull boxes
due to the large bending requirements of fiber optic cable.

4.14.3 Spacing – Pull boxes shall be located at 150 foot intervals for signal cable
and detector cable runs. Pull boxes for copper interconnect cable runs
shall be located at 300 foot intervals. Fiber optic pull boxes should be
located every 1,000 feet for fiber optic cable runs.

4.14.4 Material – Pull boxes and covers are to be of load bearing design in
accordance with TDOT standard specifications. In general, all pull boxes
shall be traffic load bearing.

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CHAPTER 4 – TRAFFIC SIGNAL DESIGN
 TRAFFIC SIGNAL PULL BOX DETAILS
6”

TRAFFIC
DEPTH OF
SIGNAL PULLBOX

12”

TOP VIEW SIDE VIEW

MIN. DIMENSIONS
TYPE
LENGTH WIDTH DEPTH
A 12” 12” 6” Type “A” Pull Boxes are used for splicing loop lead-ins.
B 28” 16” 12” Type “B” Pull Boxes are used for all signal cable routing.

FIBER OPTIC PULL BOX DETAILS

6”

3”
3”

12”
6” for trenched conduit
0” for directional bored conduit

TOP VIEW SIDE VIEW

F.O. MIN. DIMENSIONS

F.O. Type “A” Pull Boxes are used when no splicing
TYPE LENGTH WIDTH DEPTH is required in the pull box.
A 36” 26” 32” F.O. Type “B” Pull Boxes are used when splicing
B 49” 32” 36” is required in the pull box.

Tennessee Department of Transportation

Traffic Design Manual

Typical Pull Box Details Figure 4.39

4.15 Street Lighting on Traffic Signal Supports at Intersections (see Chapter 7 for
more information)

4.15.1 Justification – Street lighting may be justified at signalized intersections

as follows:

A. Urban Locations – In urban areas where street lighting already

exists along the highway.

B. Rural Locations – In rural locations where street lighting at the

intersection would have a positive effect on the nighttime safety of
the intersection.

4.15.2 Design – Where used on mast arms or strain poles, the street light
support must be designed integral with the traffic signal support. The pole
manufacturer must provide an acceptable design for review by TDOT.

4.15.3 Mounting Height – Typically 30 foot minimum above roadway. The actual
mounting height shall be determined by the luminaire photometrics.

4.15.4 Wiring Requirements

A. Circuit Breaker – A disconnect and fuse shall be located at the

power pole location.

B. Wire Type – 1-2 conductor, #6 AWG

C. Conduit Size – one inch diameter RGS

D. Isolation – Street light conductors shall not be routed through the

controller cabinet and shall have its own conduit and pull boxes.

E. Pull Boxes – Pull boxes used in lighting applications should be a

maximum of 300’ apart.

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CHAPTER 4 – TRAFFIC SIGNAL DESIGN
4.16 Flashing Operations – All traffic signals are programmed to operate in the flash
mode for emergencies. Signals may also operate in maintenance flash, railroad
preemption flash, or scheduled operational flash modes.

The type of flash used (all-red or yellow-red) must be considered carefully. Driver
expectation is an important factor. Drivers are conditioned to react to situations
through their experiences. Mixing the types of flash can confuse drivers if they
are accustomed to the all-red flash. The benefits of operating a mixed color flash
must be weighed against the disadvantages. Violation of driver expectation can
be a disadvantage of a mixed color flash.

All traffic signals are capable of flashing indications. Flashing operations of a

traffic signal shall comply with Sections 4D.11 and 4D.12 of the MUTCD.

4.16.1 Types of Flashing Operation

A. Emergency Flash – Emergency flash mode is used when the

conflict monitor (malfunction management unit) senses a
malfunction. Emergency flash should use all-red flash exclusively.

B. Maintenance Flash – Maintenance flash mode can be

programmed for the operation of the intersection during routine
maintenance. Yellow-red flash can be used if the main street traffic
is significantly more than the minor street traffic.

C. Railroad Preemption Flash – When a traffic signal is preempted

by a train, flashing operation may be used while the train is going
through the crossing. Either all-red flash or yellow-red flash can be
used.

D. Scheduled Flash – Traffic signals can operate in scheduled flash

mode as a time-of-day operation (nighttime flash). Nighttime flash
can reduce delay at intersections operating in the fixed time mode.
Scheduled flash mode typically uses the yellow-red flash type
operation. Nighttime flash should not be used at fully actuated
intersections unless all other intersections in the area operate
nighttime flash. Again, driver expectation is a major factor in this
decision. Isolated actuated traffic signals do not normally have a
programmed flash mode operation.

4.16.2 Signal Display

A. All Red Flash – This type of flashing operation flashes red to all
intersection approaches. It may be used under the following
conditions:

ƒ Traffic Volumes – Traffic volumes on the two intersecting

streets are approximately equal.

ƒ Minor Street Delay – Minor street traffic would experience

excessive delays and/or hazard in trying to cross the major
street with yellow flashing signal indications. Engineering

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 judgment must be used to balance this benefit against the
delay that will be experienced by the major street traffic.

ƒ Minor Street Sight Distance – Minor street traffic has

insufficient sight distance to safely enter or cross the major
street with yellow flashing signal indications.

B. Yellow-Red Flash – This type flashing operation is the most

common and flashes yellow to the major street and red to the minor
street. Minor street sight distance as well as the difficulty the minor
street traffic will have crossing the major street must be considered.

C. Protected Only Left Turn Signals (3 Section Heads) – These

signal heads shall be flashed red regardless of what color indication
the adjacent signal heads are flashing.

D. Protected/Permissive Left Turn Signals (5 Section Heads) –

These signals shall flash a circular indication of the same color as
indications flashed in the adjacent thru signal head(s).

4.16.3 Dimming LED Signal Indications – If a traffic signal, using LED

indications, is placed in an automatic flashing mode during the night, the
LED signal indications should be dimmed to reduce the brightness of the
indications.

4.17 Stop Signs at Signalized Intersections – The MUTCD prescribes that STOP
signs shall not be used in conjunction with any traffic signal operation, except
when:

ƒ The signal indication for an approach is a flashing red at all times.

ƒ A minor street or driveway is located within or adjacent to the area

controlled by the traffic signal, but does not require separate traffic
signal control because an extremely low potential for conflict exists.

4.18 Signal Control for Driveways within Signalized Intersections – Traffic signal
control for a driveway should be provided only if the driveway serves a
commercial or multi-residential development. Signal control may also be
provided for driveways serving non-profit land uses with significant traffic
generation such as churches. Split-phase operation for these low volume
driveways should be considered and detection should always be provided for the
approach to avoid unnecessary delays for other approaches.

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4.19 New Traffic Signal Inspection – Before allowing a new traffic signal to be
turned on to traffic, a thorough inspection shall be completed to determine
conformance with construction plans and specifications and proper and safe
operation of the signal. Listed below are some of the items that should be
inspected:

1. Confirm that all signal displays are appropriate, non-conflicting and in

concurrence with the MUTCD.

2. Confirm that all controller and cabinet accessories, including

controllers and conflict monitors, are in compliance with all plans,
specifications and relevant national standards.

3. Confirm that signal phasing is appropriate and in concurrence with the

construction plans and that no conflicts in phasing occur.

4. Confirm that pedestrian phases are appropriate with prescribed

clearance phasing and not in conflict with protected left (or right) turns.

5. Confirm that all vehicular detection as specified on the plans, whether

loops, video or otherwise, is properly working under all conditions,
including dark and/or inclement weather.

6. If installed, confirm that system communications are working.

7. If installed, confirm that any emergency vehicle preemption is working

by testing with an actual emergency vehicle and that the timings are
adequate to move the vehicle through the intersection.

8. If installed, confirm that any Railroad Preemption activation circuitry

activates as soon as the Railroad Crossing Equipment indicates the
presence of a train. This test should be performed in the presence of
appropriate railroad officials and with local law enforcement for safety.
The test should assure that any phase not associated with the track
clearance phase is immediately terminated through an appropriate
vehicle clearance interval, the track clearance interval is of sufficient
time to clear exposed vehicles, all illuminated turn restriction signs are
properly activated and the dwell phase will activate after the track
clearance phase also clears through an appropriate interval.

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CHAPTER 4 – TRAFFIC SIGNAL DESIGN
4.20 Traffic Signal Activation Procedures – Activation of a new traffic signal is a
critical part of the signal installation process. The traffic signal designer should
consider the possible consequences of a change in traffic control and add any
notes and items which may improve the safety of the transition period.

When signalization is introduced at locations where a multi-way stop, flashing

beacon operation exists, special measures may be required.

The following steps are recommended for the activation of a new traffic signal:

4.20.1 Advance Flash Period – A new traffic signal installation should be put on
flash operation for a period of seven weekdays prior to the activation of
normal “stop and go” operation, so as to make motorists aware of its
presence.

4.20.2 Publicity – The date and time of the activation of “stop and go” operation
should be advertised in both the local newspaper and on local radio
stations both prior to and on the date of activation.

4.20.3 Activation – The actual activation of normal “stop and go” operation
should be made during an off peak traffic period.

4.20.4 Technical Support – The contractor shall be on-hand for all new traffic
signal activations to immediately trouble shoot or fix any problems that
arise.

4.20.5 Signing Adjustments – Once the traffic signal is turned on normal “stop
and go” operation, remove the stop signs that the traffic signal replaces.

4.20.6 Police Assistance – Police assistance should be requested and be on

site at the time of traffic signal activation to provide emergency traffic
control in case of a malfunction and to help emphasize the new traffic
control change to the motorists.

4.20.7 School Crossing – Should the intersection include a school crossing with
a crossing guard, the crossing guard should be familiarized with the
operation of the new traffic signal.

4.20.8 Fine Tuning – Shortly after the traffic signal is turned on, the engineer
should observe the signal’s operation during both peak and off peak
periods to assure the adequacy of the signal’s timing parameters.

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