Microorganism

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Microorganism
"Microbe" redirects here. For other uses, see Microbe (disambiguation).
A cluster of Escherichia coli bacteria

magnified 10,000 times
A microorganism (from the Greek: μικρός, mikros, "small" and ὀργανισμός,

organismós, "organism") is a microscopic living organism, which may be a single cell[1]
or a multicellular organism. The study of microorganisms is called microbiology, a
subject that began with the discovery of microorganisms in 1674 by Antonie van
Leeuwenhoek, using a microscope of his own design.
Microorganisms are very diverse and include all the bacteria and archaea and almost
all the protozoa. They also include some fungi, algae, and certain animals, such as
rotifers. Many macro animals and plants have juvenile stages which are also
microorganisms. Some microbiologists also classify viruses (and viroids) as
microorganisms, but others consider these as nonliving.[2][3]
Microorganisms live in every part of the biosphere, including soil, hot springs, "seven
miles deep" in the ocean, "40 miles high" in the atmosphere and inside rocks far down
within the Earth's crust (see also endolith).[4] Microorganisms, under certain test
conditions, have been observed to thrive in the vacuum of outer space.[5][6] The total
amount of soil and subsurface bacterial carbon is estimated as 5 x 1017 g, or the
"weight of the United Kingdom".[4] The mass of prokaryote microorganisms — which
includes bacteria and archaea, but not the nucleated eukaryote microorganisms —
http://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microorganism 2015/2/8
may be as much as 0.8 trillion tons of carbon (of the total biosphere mass of 4 trillion
tons).[7] On 17 March 2013, researchers reported data that suggested microbial life
forms thrive in the Mariana Trench. the deepest spot in the Earth's oceans.[8][9] Other
researchers reported related studies that microorganisms thrive inside rocks up to
580 m (1,900 ft; 0.36 mi) below the sea floor under 2,590 m (8,500 ft; 1.61 mi) of ocean
off the coast of the northwestern United States[8][10] as well as 2,400 m (7,900 ft; 1.5 mi)
beneath the seabed off Japan.[11] On 20 August 2014, scientists confirmed the
existence of microorganisms living 800 m (2,600 ft; 0.50 mi) below the ice of
Antarctica.[12][13] According to one researcher,"You can find microbes everywhere —
they're extremely adaptable to conditions, and survive wherever they are."[8]
Microorganisms are crucial to nutrient recycling in ecosystems as they act as

decomposers. As some microorganisms can fix nitrogen, they are a vital part of the
nitrogen cycle, and recent studies indicate that airborne microorganisms may play a
role in precipitation and weather.[14] Microorganisms are also exploited in
biotechnology, both in traditional food and beverage preparation, and in modern
technologies based on genetic engineering. A small proportion of microorganisms are
pathogenic and cause disease and even death in plants and animals.[15]
Microorganisms are often referred to as microbes, but this is usually used in reference
to pathogens.
Contents
Evolution
Pre-microbiology
History of microorganisms' discovery
Classification and structure

Prokaryotes
Bacteria
Archaea
Eukaryotes
Protists
Animals
Fungi
Plants
Habitats and ecology
Extremophiles
Soil microorganisms
Symbiotic microorganisms
Importance
Use in digestion
Use in food production
Use in water treatment
Use in energy
Use in production of chemicals, enzymes etc.
Use in science
Use in warfare
Importance in human health

Human digestion
Diseases caused by microbes
Importance in ecology
Hygiene
See also
References
External links
Evolution
Further information: Timeline of evolution and Experimental evolution
Single-celled microorganisms were the first forms of life to develop on Earth,

approximately 3–4 billion years ago.[16][17][18] Further evolution was slow,[19] and for
about 3 billion years in the Precambrian eon, all organisms were microscopic.[20] So, for
most of the history of life on Earth, the only forms of life were microorganisms.[21]
Bacteria, algae and fungi have been identified in amber that is 220 million years old,
which shows that the morphology of microorganisms has changed little since the
Triassic period.[22] The newly discovered biological role played by nickel, however —
especially that engendered by volcanic eruptions from the Siberian Traps (site of the
modern city of Norilsk) — is thought to have accelerated the evolution of methanogens

towards the end of the Permian–Triassic extinction event.[23]
Microorganisms tend to have a relatively fast rate of evolution. Most microorganisms

can reproduce rapidly, and bacteria are also able to freely exchange genes through
conjugation, transformation and transduction, even between widely divergent species.
[24]
This horizontal gene transfer, coupled with a high mutation rate and many other
means of genetic variation, allows microorganisms to swiftly evolve (via natural
selection) to survive in new environments and respond to environmental stresses. This
rapid evolution is important in medicine, as it has led to the recent development of
"super-bugs", pathogenic bacteria that are resistant to modern antibiotics.[25]
Pre-microbiology
The possibility that microorganisms exist was discussed for many centuries before their
discovery in the 17th century. The existence of unseen microbiological life was
postulated by Jainism, which is based on Mahavira's teachings as early as 6th century
BCE.[26] Paul Dundas notes that Mahavira asserted the existence of unseen
microbiological creatures living in earth, water, air and fire.[27] The Jain scriptures also
describe nigodas, which are sub-microscopic creatures living in large clusters and
having a very short life, which are said to pervade every part of the universe, even the
tissues of plants and animals.[28] The earliest known idea to indicate the possibility of
diseases spreading by yet unseen organisms was that of the Roman scholar Marcus
Terentius Varro in a 1st-century BC book titled On Agriculture in which he warns
against locating a homestead near swamps:
“ … and because there are bred certain minute creatures that cannot be
seen by the eyes, which float in the air and enter the body through the
mouth and nose and they cause serious diseases.[29]
”
In The Canon of Medicine (1020), Abū Alī ibn Sīnā (Avicenna) hypothesized that
tuberculosis and other diseases might be contagious[30][31]
In 1546, Girolamo Fracastoro proposed that epidemic diseases were caused by

transferable seedlike entities that could transmit infection by direct or indirect contact,
or even without contact over long distances.
All these early claims about the existence of microorganisms were speculative and
were not based on any data or science. Microorganisms were neither proven,
observed, nor correctly and accurately described until the 17th century. The reason for
this was that all these early studies lacked the microscope.
History of microorganisms' discovery
See also: History of biology
Antonie van Leeuwenhoek,

the first microbiologist and the
first to observe
microorganisms using a
microscope
Lazzaro Spallanzani showed

that boiling a broth stopped it
from decaying
Louis Pasteur showed that

Spallanzani's findings held
even if air could enter through
a filter that kept particles out
Robert Koch showed that

microorganisms caused disease
Antonie Van Leeuwenhoek (1632–1723) was one of the first people to observe
microorganisms, using microscopes of his own design.[32] Robert Hooke, a
contemporary of Leeuwenhoek, also used microscopes to observe microbial life; his
1665 book Micrographia describes these observations and coined the term cell.
Before Leeuwenhoek's discovery of microorganisms in 1675, it had been a mystery

why grapes could be turned into wine, milk into cheese, or why food would spoil.
Leeuwenhoek did not make the connection between these processes and
microorganisms, but using a microscope, he did establish that there were forms of life
that were not visible to the naked eye.[33][34] Leeuwenhoek's discovery, along with
subsequent observations by Spallanzani and Pasteur, ended the long-held belief that
life spontaneously appeared from non-living substances during the process of
spoilage.
Lazzaro Spallanzani (1729–1799) found that boiling broth would sterilise it, killing any
microorganisms in it. He also found that new microorganisms could only settle in a
broth if the broth was exposed to air.
Louis Pasteur (1822–1895) expanded upon Spallanzani's findings by exposing boiled

broths to the air, in vessels that contained a filter to prevent all particles from passing
through to the growth medium, and also in vessels with no filter at all, with air being
admitted via a curved tube that would not allow dust particles to come in contact with
the broth. By boiling the broth beforehand, Pasteur ensured that no microorganisms
survived within the broths at the beginning of his experiment. Nothing grew in the
broths in the course of Pasteur's experiment. This meant that the living organisms that
grew in such broths came from outside, as spores on dust, rather than spontaneously
generated within the broth. Thus, Pasteur dealt the death blow to the theory of
spontaneous generation and supported germ theory.
In 1876, Robert Koch (1843–1910) established that microorganisms can cause

disease. He found that the blood of cattle which were infected with anthrax always had
large numbers of Bacillus anthracis. Koch found that he could transmit anthrax from
one animal to another by taking a small sample of blood from the infected animal and
injecting it into a healthy one, and this caused the healthy animal to become sick. He
also found that he could grow the bacteria in a nutrient broth, then inject it into a
healthy animal, and cause illness. Based on these experiments, he devised criteria for
establishing a causal link between a microorganism and a disease and these are now
known as Koch's postulates.[35] Although these postulates cannot be applied in all
cases, they do retain historical importance to the development of scientific thought and
are still being used today.[36]
On 8 November 2013, scientists reported the discovery of what may be the earliest
signs of life on Earth—the oldest complete fossils of a microbial mat (associated with
sandstone in Western Australia) estimated to be 3.48 billion years old.[37][38]
Classification and structure
Evolutionary tree showing the common ancestry of all three

domains of life.[39] Bacteria are colored blue, eukaryotes red, and
archaea green. Relative positions of some phyla are shown around
the tree.
Microorganisms can be found almost anywhere in the taxonomic organization of life on

the planet. Bacteria and archaea are almost always microscopic, while a number of
eukaryotes are also microscopic, including most protists, some fungi, as well as some
animals and plants. Viruses are generally regarded as not living and therefore not
considered as microorganisms, although the field of microbiology also encompasses
the study of viruses.
Prokaryotes
Main article: Prokaryote
Prokaryotes are organisms that lack a cell nucleus and the other membrane bound
organelles. They are almost always unicellular, although some species such as
myxobacteria can aggregate into complex structures as part of their life cycle.
Consisting of two domains, bacteria and archaea, the prokaryotes are the most diverse
and abundant group of organisms on Earth and inhabit practically all environments
where the temperature is below +140 °C. They are found in water, soil, air, animals'
gastrointestinal tracts, hot springs and even deep beneath the Earth's crust in rocks.[40]
Practically all surfaces that have not been specially sterilized are covered by
prokaryotes. The number of prokaryotes on Earth is estimated to be around five million
trillion trillion, or 5 × 1030, accounting for at least half the biomass on Earth.[41]
Bacteria
Main article: Bacteria
Staphylococcus aureus bacteria magnified

about 10,000x
Almost all bacteria are invisible to the naked eye, with a few extremely rare exceptions,
such as Thiomargarita namibiensis.[42] They lack a nucleus and other membrane-bound
organelles, and can function and reproduce as individual cells, but often aggregate in
multicellular colonies.[43] Their genome is usually a single loop of DNA, although they
can also harbor small pieces of DNA called plasmids. These plasmids can be
transferred between cells through bacterial conjugation. Bacteria are surrounded by a
cell wall, which provides strength and rigidity to their cells. They reproduce by binary
fission or sometimes by budding, but do not undergo meiotic sexual reproduction.
However, many bacterial species can transfer DNA between individual cells by a
process referred to as natural transformation.[44][45] In nature, the development of
competence for transformation is usually associated with stressful environmental
conditions, and seems to be an adaptation for facilitating repair of DNA damage in
recipient cells.[46][47] Some species form extraordinarily resilient spores, but for bacteria
this is a mechanism for survival, not reproduction. Under optimal conditions bacteria
can grow extremely rapidly and can double as quickly as every 20 minutes.[48]
Archaea
Main article: Archaea
Archaea are also single-celled organisms that lack nuclei. In the past, the differences
between bacteria and archaea were not recognised and archaea were classified with
bacteria as part of the kingdom Monera. However, in 1990 the microbiologist Carl
Woese proposed the three-domain system that divided living things into bacteria,
archaea and eukaryotes.[49] Archaea differ from bacteria in both their genetics and
biochemistry. For example, while bacterial cell membranes are made from
phosphoglycerides with ester bonds, archaean membranes are made of ether lipids.[50]
Archaea were originally described in extreme environments, such as hot springs, but
have since been found in all types of habitats.[51] Only now are scientists beginning to
realize how common archaea are in the environment, with crenarchaeota being the
most common form of life in the ocean, dominating ecosystems below 150 m in depth.
[52][53]
These organisms are also common in soil and play a vital role in ammonia
oxidation.[54]
Eukaryotes
Main article: Eukaryote
Most living things that are visible to the naked eye in their adult form are eukaryotes,
including humans. However, a large number of eukaryotes are also microorganisms.
Unlike bacteria and archaea, eukaryotes contain organelles such as the cell nucleus,
the Golgi apparatus and mitochondria in their cells. The nucleus is an organelle that
houses the DNA that makes up a cell's genome. DNA itself is arranged in complex
chromosomes.[55] Mitochondria are organelles vital in metabolism as they are the site of
the citric acid cycle and oxidative phosphorylation. They evolved from symbiotic
bacteria and retain a remnant genome.[56] Like bacteria, plant cells have cell walls, and
contain organelles such as chloroplasts in addition to the organelles in other
eukaryotes. Chloroplasts produce energy from light by photosynthesis, and were also
originally symbiotic bacteria.[56]
Unicellular eukaryotes consist of a single cell throughout their life cycle. This
qualification is significant since most multicellular eukaryotes consist of a single cell
called a zygote only at the beginning of their life cycles. Microbial eukaryotes can be
either haploid or diploid, and some organisms have multiple cell nuclei.[57]
Unicellular eukaryotes usually reproduce asexually by mitosis under favorable

conditions. However, under stressful conditions such as nutrient limitations and other
conditions associated with DNA damage, they tend to reproduce sexually by meiosis
and syngamy.[46][58]
Protists
Main article: Protista
Of eukaryotic groups, the protists are most commonly unicellular and microscopic. This
is a highly diverse group of organisms that are not easy to classify.[59][60] Several algae
species are multicellular protists, and slime molds have unique life cycles that involve
switching between unicellular, colonial, and multicellular forms.[61] The number of

species of protists is unknown since we may have identified only a small portion.
Studies from 2001-2004 have shown that a high degree of protist diversity exists in
oceans, deep sea-vents, river sediment and an acidic river which suggests that a large
number of eukaryotic microbial communities have yet to be discovered.[62][63]
A microscopic mite Lorryia formosa
Animals
Main article: Micro-animals
Some micro animals are multicellular but at least one animal group, Myxozoa, is
unicellular in its adult form. Microscopic arthropods include dust mites and spider
mites. Microscopic crustaceans include copepods, some cladocera and water bears.
Many nematodes are also too small to be seen with the naked eye. A common group
of microscopic animals are the rotifers, which are filter feeders that are usually found in
fresh water. Some micro-animals reproduce both sexually and asexually and may
reach new habitats by producing eggs which can survive harsh environments that
would kill the adult animal. However, some simple animals, such as rotifers,
tardigrades and nematodes, can dry out completely and remain dormant for long
periods of time.[64]
Fungi
Main article: Fungus
The fungi have several unicellular species, such as baker's yeast (Saccharomyces
cerevisiae) and fission yeast (Schizosaccharomyces pombe). Some fungi, such as the
pathogenic yeast Candida albicans, can undergo phenotypic switching and grow as
single cells in some environments, and filamentous hyphae in others.[65] Fungi
reproduce both asexually, by budding or binary fission, as well by producing spores,

which are called conidia when produced asexually, or basidiospores when produced
sexually.
Plants
Main article: Plant
The green algae are a large group of photosynthetic eukaryotes that include many
microscopic organisms. Although some green algae are classified as protists, others
such as charophyta are classified with embryophyte plants, which are the most familiar
group of land plants. Algae can grow as single cells, or in long chains of cells. The
green algae include unicellular and colonial flagellates, usually but not always with two
flagella per cell, as well as various colonial, coccoid, and filamentous forms. In the
Charales, which are the algae most closely related to higher plants, cells differentiate
into several distinct tissues within the organism. There are about 6000 species of
green algae.[66]
Habitats and ecology
Microorganisms are found in almost every habitat present in nature. Even in hostile
environments such as the poles, deserts, geysers, rocks, and the deep sea. Some
types of microorganisms have adapted to the extreme conditions and sustained
colonies; these organisms are known as extremophiles. Extremophiles have been
isolated from rocks as much as 7 kilometres below the Earth's surface,[67] and it has
been suggested that the amount of living organisms below the Earth's surface may be
comparable with the amount of life on or above the surface.[40] Extremophiles have
been known to survive for a prolonged time in a vacuum, and can be highly resistant to
radiation, which may even allow them to survive in space.[68] Many types of
microorganisms have intimate symbiotic relationships with other larger organisms;
some of which are mutually beneficial (mutualism), while others can be damaging to
the host organism (parasitism). If microorganisms can cause disease in a host they are
known as pathogens and then they are sometimes referred to as microbes.
Extremophiles
Main article: Extremophile
Extremophiles are microorganisms that have adapted so that they can survive and
even thrive in conditions that are normally fatal to most life-forms. For example, some
species have been found in the following extreme environments:
Temperature: as high as 130 °C (266 °F),[69] as low as −17 °C (1 °F)[70]

Acidity/alkalinity: less than pH 0,[71] up to pH 11.5[72]
Salinity: up to saturation[73]
Pressure: up to 1,000-2,000 atm, down to 0 atm (e.g. vacuum of space)[74]
Radiation: up to 5kGy[75]
Extremophiles are significant in different ways. They extend terrestrial life into much of
the Earth's hydrosphere, crust and atmosphere, their specific evolutionary adaptation
mechanisms to their extreme environment can be exploited in bio-technology, and their
very existence under such extreme conditions increases the potential for
extraterrestrial life.[76]
Soil microorganisms
The nitrogen cycle in soils depends on the fixation of atmospheric nitrogen. One way
this can occur is in the nodules in the roots of legumes that contain symbiotic bacteria
of the genera Rhizobium, Mesorhizobium, Sinorhizobium, Bradyrhizobium, and
Azorhizobium.[77]
Symbiotic microorganisms
Symbiotic microorganisms such as fungi and algae form an association in lichen.

Certain fungi form mycorrhizal symbioses with trees that increase the supply of
nutrients to the tree.
Importance
Microorganisms are vital to humans and the environment, as they participate in the
carbon and nitrogen cycles, as well as fulfilling other vital roles in virtually all
ecosystems, such as recycling other organisms' dead remains and waste products
through decomposition. Microorganisms also have an important place in most higher-
order multicellular organisms as symbionts. Many blame the failure of Biosphere 2 on
an improper balance of microorganisms.[78]
Use in digestion
Some forms of bacteria that live in animals' stomachs help in their digestion. For
example, cows have a variety of different microorganisms in their stomachs that are
essential in their digestion of grass and hay.
The gastrointestinal tract contains an immensely complex ecology of microorganisms.

A typical person harbors more than 500 distinct species of bacteria, representing
dozens of different lifestyles and capabilities. The composition and distribution of this
menagerie varies with age, state of health and diet.
The number and type of bacteria in the gastrointestinal tract vary dramatically by
region. In healthy individuals the stomach and proximal small intestine contain few
microorganisms, largely a result of the bacteriocidal activity of gastric acid; those that
are present are aerobes and facultative anaerobes. One interesting testimony to the
ability of gastric acid to suppress bacterial populations is seen in patients with
achlorhydria, a genetic condition which prevents secretion of gastric acid. Such
patients, which are otherwise healthy, may have as many as 10,000 to 100,000,000
microorganisms per ml of stomach contents.
In sharp contrast to the stomach and small intestine, the contents of the colon literally
teem with bacteria, predominantly strict anaerobes (bacteria that survive only in
environments virtually devoid of oxygen). Between these two extremes is a transitional
zone, usually in the ileum, where moderate numbers of both aerobic and anaerobic
bacteria are found.
The gastrointestinal tract is sterile at birth, but colonization typically begins within a few
hours of birth, starting in the small intestine and progressing caudally over a period of
several days. In most circumstances, a "mature" microbial flora is established by 3 to 4
weeks of age.
It is also clear that microbial populations exert a profound effect on structure and
function of the digestive tract. For example:
The morphology of the intestine of germ-free animals differs considerably from normal
animals - villi of the small intestine are remarkably regular, the rate of epithelial cell
renew is reduced and, as one would expect, the number and size of Peyer's patches is
reduced. The cecum of germ-free rats is roughly 10 times the size of that in a
conventional rat. Bacteria in the intestinal lumen metabolize a variety of sterols and
steroids. For example, bacteria convert the bile salt cholic acid to deoxycholic acid.
Small intestinal bacteria also have an important role in sex steroid metabolism. Finally,
bacterial populations in the large intestine digest carbohydrates, proteins and lipids that
escape digestion and absorption in small intestine. This fermentation, particularly of
cellulose, is of critical importance to herbivores like cattle and horses which make a
living by consuming plants. However, it seems that even species like humans and
rodents derive significant benefit from the nutrients liberated by intestinal
microorganisms.
Use in food production

Main article: Fermentation (food)
Microorganisms are used in brewing, wine making, baking, pickling and other
food-making processes.
They are also used to control the fermentation process in the production of cultured
dairy products such as yogurt and cheese. The cultures also provide flavour and
aroma, and inhibit undesirable organisms.[79]
Use in water treatment

Main article: Sewage treatment
The majority of all oxidative sewage treatment processes rely on a large range of
microorganisms to oxidise organic constituents which are not amenable to
sedimentation or flotation. Anaerobic microorganisms are also used to reduce sludge
solids producing methane gas (amongst other gases) and a sterile mineralised residue.
In potable water treatment, one method, the slow sand filter, employs a complex
gelatinous layer composed of a wide range of microorganisms to remove both
dissolved and particulate material from raw water.[80]
Use in energy
Main articles: Algae fuel, Cellulosic ethanol and Ethanol fermentation
Microorganisms are used in fermentation to produce ethanol,[81] and in biogas reactors

to produce methane.[82] Scientists are researching the use of algae to produce liquid
fuels,[83] and bacteria to convert various forms of agricultural and urban waste into
usable fuels.[84]
Use in production of chemicals, enzymes etc.
Microorganisms are used for many commercial and industrial production of chemicals,
enzymes and other bioactive molecules.
Examples of organic acid produced include
Acetic acid: Produced by the bacterium Acetobacter aceti and other acetic acid
bacteria (AAB)
Butyric acid (butanoic acid): Produced by the bacterium Clostridium butyricum
Lactic acid: Lactobacillus and others commonly called as lactic acid bacteria
(LAB)
Citric acid: Produced by the fungus Aspergillus niger
Microorganisms are used for preparation of bioactive molecules and enzymes.
Streptokinase produced by the bacterium Streptococcus and modified by genetic

engineering is used as a clot buster for removing clots from the blood vessels of
patients who have undergone myocardial infarctions leading to heart attack.
Cyclosporin A is a bioactive molecule used as an immunosuppressive agent in
organ transplantation
Statins produced by the yeast Monascus purpureus are commercialised as blood
cholesterol lowering agents which act by competitively inhibiting the enzyme
responsible for synthesis of cholesterol.[85]
Use in science
Microorganisms are essential tools in biotechnology, biochemistry, genetics, and

molecular biology. The yeasts (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) and fission yeast
(Schizosaccharomyces pombe) are important model organisms in science, since they
are simple eukaryotes that can be grown rapidly in large numbers and are easily
manipulated.[86] They are particularly valuable in genetics, genomics and proteomics.[87]
[88]
Microorganisms can be harnessed for uses such as creating steroids and treating
skin diseases. Scientists are also considering using microorganisms for living fuel cells,
[89]
and as a solution for pollution.[90]
Use in warfare
Main article: Biological warfare
In the Middle Ages, diseased corpses were thrown into castles during sieges using
catapults or other siege engines. Individuals near the corpses were exposed to the
pathogen and were likely to spread that pathogen to others.[91]
Importance in human health
Human digestion
Further information: Human flora § Human bacterial flora and human health
Microorganisms can form an endosymbiotic relationship with other, larger organisms.

For example, the bacteria that live within the human digestive system contribute to gut
immunity, synthesise vitamins such as folic acid and biotin, and ferment complex
indigestible carbohydrates.[92]
Diseases caused by microbes

Main article: Pathogenic microbes
Microorganisms are the cause of many infectious diseases. The organisms involved
include pathogenic bacteria, causing diseases such as plague, tuberculosis and
anthrax; protozoa, causing diseases such as malaria, sleeping sickness, dysentery and
toxoplasmosis; and also fungi causing diseases such as ringworm, candidiasis or
histoplasmosis. However, other diseases such as influenza, yellow fever or AIDS are
caused by pathogenic viruses, which are not usually classified as living organisms and
are not, therefore, microorganisms by the strict definition. As of 2007, no clear
examples of archaean pathogens are known,[93] although a relationship has been
proposed between the presence of some archaean methanogens and human
periodontal disease.[94]
Importance in ecology
Further information: Decomposition
Microorganisms are critical to the processes of decomposition required to cycle

nitrogen and other elements in the natural environment.
Hygiene
Main article: Hygiene
Hygiene is the avoidance of infection or food spoiling by eliminating microorganisms

from the surroundings. As microorganisms, in particular bacteria, are found virtually
everywhere, the levels of harmful microorganisms can be reduced to acceptable levels.
However, in some cases, it is required that an object or substance be completely
sterile, i.e. devoid of all living entities and viruses. A good example of this is a
hypodermic needle.
In food preparation microorganisms are reduced by preservation methods (such as the

addition of vinegar), clean utensils used in preparation, short storage periods, or by
cool temperatures. If complete sterility is needed, the two most common methods are
irradiation and the use of an autoclave, which resembles a pressure cooker.
There are several methods for investigating the level of hygiene in a sample of food,
drinking water, equipment, etc. Water samples can be filtrated through an extremely
fine filter. This filter is then placed in a nutrient medium. Microorganisms on the filter
then grow to form a visible colony. Harmful microorganisms can be detected in food by
placing a sample in a nutrient broth designed to enrich the organisms in question.
Various methods, such as selective media or polymerase chain reaction, can then be
used for detection. The hygiene of hard surfaces, such as cooking pots, can be tested
by touching them with a solid piece of nutrient medium and then allowing the
microorganisms to grow on it.
There are no conditions where all microorganisms would grow, and therefore often
several methods are needed. For example, a food sample might be analyzed on three
different nutrient mediums designed to indicate the presence of "total" bacteria
(conditions where many, but not all, bacteria grow), molds (conditions where the
growth of bacteria is prevented by, e.g., antibiotics) and coliform bacteria (these
indicate a sewage contamination).
See also
Bacterium
Biological warfare
Culture collection
Cyanobacteria
Fungi
Helminths
Microbial biogeography
Microbial intelligence
Nanobacterium
Nylon-eating bacteria
Petri dish
Prokaryote
Protozoa
Soil contamination
Staining
Virus
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External links
Our Microbial Planet A free poster from the National Academy of Sciences about
the positive roles of micro-organisms.
"Uncharted Microbial World: Microbes and Their Activities in the Environment"
Report from the American Academy of Microbiology
Understanding Our Microbial Planet: The New Science of Metagenomics A 20-
page educational booklet providing a basic overview of metagenomics and our
microbial planet.
Tree of Life Eukaryotes
Microbe News from Genome News Network
Medical Microbiology On-line textbook
Through the microscope: A look at all things small On-line microbiology textbook
by Timothy Paustian and Gary Roberts, University of Wisconsin-Madison
Microorganisms in the pond water on YouTube
Methane-spewing microbe blamed in worst mass extinction. CBCNews
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Microorganism - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Page 1 of 26

Last edited 1 day ago by Orphan Wiki

"Microbe" redirects here. For other uses, see Microbe (disambiguation).

A cluster of Escherichia coli bacteria

A microorganism (from the Greek: μικρός, mikros, "small" and ὀργανισμός,

Microorganisms are crucial to nutrient recycling in ecosystems as they act as

History of microorganisms' discovery

Classification and structure

Habitats and ecology

Use in food production

Use in water treatment

Use in production of chemicals, enzymes etc.

Importance in human health

Diseases caused by microbes

Further information: Timeline of evolution and Experimental evolution

Single-celled microorganisms were the first forms of life to develop on Earth,

modern city of Norilsk) — is thought to have accelerated the evolution of methanogens

Microorganisms tend to have a relatively fast rate of evolution. Most microorganisms

In 1546, Girolamo Fracastoro proposed that epidemic diseases were caused by

History of microorganisms' discovery

See also: History of biology

Antonie van Leeuwenhoek,

Lazzaro Spallanzani showed

Louis Pasteur showed that

Robert Koch showed that

Before Leeuwenhoek's discovery of microorganisms in 1675, it had been a mystery

Louis Pasteur (1822–1895) expanded upon Spallanzani's findings by exposing boiled

In 1876, Robert Koch (1843–1910) established that microorganisms can cause

Classification and structure

Evolutionary tree showing the common ancestry of all three

Microorganisms can be found almost anywhere in the taxonomic organization of life on

Staphylococcus aureus bacteria magnified

Unicellular eukaryotes usually reproduce asexually by mitosis under favorable

switching between unicellular, colonial, and multicellular forms.[61] The number of

A microscopic mite Lorryia formosa

reproduce both asexually, by budding or binary fission, as well by producing spores,

Habitats and ecology

Temperature: as high as 130 °C (266 °F),[69] as low as −17 °C (1 °F)[70]

Symbiotic microorganisms such as fungi and algae form an association in lichen.

The gastrointestinal tract contains an immensely complex ecology of microorganisms.

Use in food production

Use in water treatment

Microorganisms are used in fermentation to produce ethanol,[81] and in biogas reactors

Use in production of chemicals, enzymes etc.

Microorganisms are used for preparation of bioactive molecules and enzymes.

Streptokinase produced by the bacterium Streptococcus and modified by genetic

Microorganisms are essential tools in biotechnology, biochemistry, genetics, and

Importance in human health

Microorganisms can form an endosymbiotic relationship with other, larger organisms.

Diseases caused by microbes

Further information: Decomposition

Microorganisms are critical to the processes of decomposition required to cycle

Main article: Hygiene

Hygiene is the avoidance of infection or food spoiling by eliminating microorganisms

In food preparation microorganisms are reduced by preservation methods (such as the

1. Madigan M, Martinko J (editors) (2006). Brock Biology of Microorganisms (13th

9. Glud, Ronnie; Wenzhöfer, Frank; Middelboe, Mathias; Oguri, Kazumasa;

22. Schmidt A, Ragazzi E, Coppellotti O, Roghi G (2006). "A microworld in Triassic

50. De Rosa M, Gambacorta A, Gliozzi A (1 March 1986). "Structure, biosynthesis,

64. Lapinski J, Tunnacliffe A (2003). "Anhydrobiosis without trehalose in bdelloid