HCI REVISION

(a) User-Centered Design Approach and Techniques User-centered design (UCD) is a design
philosophy and a process in which the needs, wants, and limitations of end users of a product are
given extensive attention at each stage of the design process. UCD involves four distinct phases:

1. Contextual Inquiry: Understand the context and environment in which the user operates.
This can involve direct observation or interviews with users.
2. Requirements Definition: Define the user requirements based on the insights gathered
during the contextual inquiry.
3. Design and Prototyping: Create design solutions and prototypes that meet the defined
requirements.
4. User Evaluation: Evaluate the design with users to get feedback and refine the solution.

Techniques used in UCD include interviews, surveys, user testing, A/B testing, rapid
prototyping, heuristic evaluation, and persona creation.

(b) Possible Stakeholders of the Interactive Kiosk System

1. Children (End Users): The primary users who will interact with the kiosk.
2. Science Museum Staff: They will manage and maintain the kiosk.
3. Digital Pathways (Developers): The team responsible for developing the kiosk.
4. Educators: They may provide input on the educational content and learning activities.

© Ethnography and Prototyping in Requirements Elicitation Ethnography involves

observing users in their natural environment to understand their behaviors, needs, and real-world
challenges. It provides rich, qualitative data and deep insights into user behavior that can’t be
captured through traditional requirements gathering techniques.

Prototyping, on the other hand, involves creating a preliminary model of the system and using it
to explore requirements and design solutions. It allows for rapid, iterative feedback and can help
identify issues early in the design process.

The combination of ethnography and prototyping is powerful because it allows for a deep
understanding of user needs (through ethnography) and a means to quickly test and iterate on
potential solutions (through prototyping).

(d) Functional vs Non-Functional Requirements Functional requirements define what a

system is supposed to do. For example, in the case of the kiosk, a functional requirement might
be: “The kiosk must provide interactive learning activities about wind turbines.”

Non-functional requirements define how a system is supposed to be. They specify criteria that
can be used to judge the operation of a system. For example, a non-functional requirement for
the kiosk might be: “The kiosk must load interactive activities within 2 seconds.”
In summary, functional requirements are about what the system does, and non-functional
requirements are about how the system does it.

(a) Designing for Users with Cognitive Impairments and Learning Difficulties Users with
cognitive impairments and learning difficulties may face several challenges, including difficulty
in understanding complex instructions, problems with memory and concentration, and challenges
with navigation and spatial awareness. To support these users, consider the following:

1. Simplicity: Keep interfaces simple and intuitive. Avoid unnecessary complexity.

2. Consistency: Maintain consistent layouts and interactions throughout the application.
3. Instructions: Provide clear and concise instructions. Use plain language and avoid
jargon.
4. Feedback: Provide immediate and clear feedback on user actions.
5. Accessibility Features: Implement features like text-to-speech, adjustable text size, and
high-contrast themes.

(b) Structure, Pros, and Cons of Questionnaires in Evaluation Process Questionnaires

typically have a structured format with a mix of question types, including multiple-choice, Likert
scale, and open-ended questions.

Pros:

1. Scalability: Can be distributed to a large number of participants.

2. Quantifiable Data: Easy to analyze statistically.
3. Anonymity: Can encourage more honest responses.

Cons:

1. Limited Depth: May not capture the full context or nuances of user experiences.
2. Response Bias: The way questions are phrased can influence responses.
3. Low Response Rate: Not everyone who receives the questionnaire will complete it.

© Formative and Summative Evaluation Formative evaluation is conducted during the

development process to make improvements. It’s iterative, allowing designers to test ideas and
make changes based on user feedback. For example, usability testing a prototype.

Summative evaluation is conducted after the system is fully developed, to assess the quality and
effectiveness of the final product. It’s used to validate the product against user requirements and
performance goals. For example, measuring success rates and user satisfaction after product
launch.

( (e) How does evaluation fit into a user-centered design lifecycle? (3 Marks)
Sent by you: (a)(i) What is distributed cognition? (2 Marks) (ii) An electricity power plant was
redesigned so that the old system consisting of a single large display screen which could be seen
by all of a team of three operators was replaced by individual workstation screens for operators.
This worked well until there was a problem which resulted in dangerous gases being released.
(a)(i) What is distributed cognition? (2 Marks)

Distributed Cognition Distributed cognition is a theory that cognitive processes are not
confined to an individual, but are distributed across objects, individuals, artifacts, and tools in the
environment. It emphasizes the interactions between these elements as part of the cognitive
process.

(ii) An electricity power plant was redesigned so that the old system consisting of a single
large display screen which could be seen by all of a team of three operators was replaced by
individual workstation screens for operators. This worked well until there was a problem
which resulted in dangerous gases being released. The team of operators had great
difficulty in finding the source of the problem and deciding what to do. Because they no
longer have access to all the information, they have to spend time explicitly co-ordinating
their understanding of the situation by talking to each other. Under the old system, the
knowledge would be shared – one operator would know what was happening with
another’s area of the plant without explicit communication. Although the team’s individual
responsibilities would still have been clearly divided, the knowledge of the system would be
shared. How could the new system of individual workstations be modified to make better
use of distributed cognition? (11 Marks)

(ii) Modifying the Workstation System To make better use of distributed cognition, the new
system could be modified to include:

1. Shared Displays: In addition to individual screens, include shared displays that show
overall system status.
2. Collaborative Tools: Implement tools that allow operators to annotate or highlight areas
on the shared display.
3. Real-time Updates: Ensure that changes made by one operator are immediately visible
to all others.
4. Communication Channels: Facilitate easy communication between operators, such as
integrated voice or text chat.

d) Explain any four facilities included in an interactive system that allows users to
recover from their mistakes (4 Marks)

Facilities for User Mistake Recovery

1. Undo/Redo: Allows users to revert their actions.

2. Confirmation Dialogs: Asks users to confirm potentially destructive actions.
3. Auto-save and Version History: Automatically saves work and allows users to revert to
previous versions.
4. Error Messages: Provides clear and informative error messages that not only indicate a
problem has occurred, but also provide guidance on how to resolve it.
 (e) How does evaluation fit into a user-centered design lifecycle? (3 Marks)

Evaluation in User-Centered Design Lifecycle Evaluation is a critical part of the user-centered

design lifecycle. It is conducted at various stages to gather user feedback and understand if the
design meets user needs. Initial evaluations might involve testing prototypes with a small group
of users. Later, evaluations might involve larger usability studies with more users to validate that
the design is effective, efficient, and satisfying to use. The results of these evaluations are used to
iteratively refine and improve the design.

a) Personae and Scenario Development in the Design Process

Personae are fictional characters created to represent different user types that might use a service,
product, or website in a similar way. They help the design team to target their designs around
users. Scenario development is a method that uses storytelling to gain insights into users and
their requirements. In the design process, scenarios are used to describe how personas interact
with a product to achieve specific goals.

b) Hierarchical Task Analysis and Use Case Techniques

Hierarchical Task Analysis (HTA) is a systematic method used by UX designers to evaluate the
user steps of an existing system or, alternatively, how they might function when creating a new
product4. It uncovers the multiple tasks required to achieve a specific goal4.

Use Case techniques, on the other hand, are used to define the interactions between a user and a
system to achieve a goal5. They provide a structured way to capture functional requirements from
the user’s perspective5.

While both techniques focus on understanding user goals and tasks, HTA provides a detailed
breakdown of tasks into subtasks, while Use Case focuses more on the interaction between the
user and the system.

c) Types of Disability and Difficulties in Interacting with Computer Interfaces

1. Mobility Disabilities: These can affect both fine and gross motor control6. For example,
a standard keyboard or mouse may be inoperable for someone who does not have use of
their arms and/or hands6.
2. Hearing Impairments: These include mild to moderate hearing loss (hard of hearing)
and substantial to uncorrectable hearing loss (deafness)7.
3. Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD): This involves difficulty focusing
on a single task, focusing for longer periods, or being easily distracted8.

These disabilities can cause difficulties in input, output, and documentation when interacting
with computer interfaces6.

d) Strategies to Support Users with Disabilities

 1. Provide sufficient contrast between background and foreground elements9.
2. Ensure interactive elements are easy to identify9.
3. Don’t use color alone to convey information9.
4. Provide controls for content that starts automatically9.
5. Create personas that encompass the needs, challenges, and goals of users with
disabilities10.
6. Conduct usability testing with assistive technologies to identify pain points and improve
the user experience10.

Sure, here are six of Shneiderman’s Eight Golden Rules for interface design:

1. Strive For Consistency: Consistency can be achieved through elements such as fonts,
color, shape, and position being consistently the same in all menus & screens1. Users
should be able to do the same thing in the same way that they have been doing every
time1.
2. Seek Universal Usability: The needs of diverse users must be recognized for facilitating
the transformation of content1. Interfaces need to cater to all levels of users1.
3. Offer Informative Feedback: Proper feedback should be provided for every user
action1. For every action of the user, there should be feedback1.
4. Design Dialogs To Yield Closure: The sequence of actions must be organized clearly
into beginning, middle, and end phases1. Interaction dialogue needs to have a closure that
is recognized by the user as the end of an action1.
5. Permit Easy Reversal of Actions: This rule suggests that users often choose system
functions by mistake and will need a clearly marked “emergency exit” to leave the
unwanted state without having to go through an extended dialogue2.
6. Support Internal Locus of Control: Experienced users want to be in charge. Interfaces
should be designed to make users the initiators of actions rather than the responders2.
7. Prevent Errors:

 Make sure the user interface is as user-friendly as possible. such that user doesn’t
make any serious errors.
 Users can commit errors while interacting with the computers as well as while
inputting or interpreting information.
 If the user commits an error the interface should offer simple, constructive, and
specific instructions for recovery.
 For example, if a user is filing a form and if he types an invalid captcha or pin
code then he should be redirected to update only the specific mistake and all other
details must be saved and need not be entered again.
 why it’s good practice to use standards and guidelines when designing
interfaces:

 Reduce Learning: Consistency limits the number of ways actions and operations are
represented, ensuring that users do not have to learn new representations for each task3.
 Eliminate Confusion: Making things easier for your users means not forcing them to
learn new representations or toolsets for each task3.
 Faster Performance and Reduced Errors: Design standards or guidelines achieve
design consistency, which allows faster performance and reduces errors4.
 Improve Satisfaction and System Acceptance: Consistent design improves user
satisfaction and system acceptance4.
 Brand Recognition: UI guidelines enforce a consistent experience, creating a unified and
recognizable brand identity5.

1. Discuss the Strategy elements for KCA University

2. Describe the possible Scope of KCA University

3. Based on this Scope, identify which features correspond to a hypertext system and which
to a software interface

Let’s discuss these points:

1. Strategy Elements for KCA University

o Strategic Planning: KCA University has a strategic planning process that
includes strategy implementation, external and internal analysis, plus evaluation
and control1.
o Vision and Mission: The University’s vision is to be the leading TVET College
providing quality and accessible training that is responsive to and focused on the
needs and expectations of the industry2. Its mission is to equip students with
relevant skills, create employment opportunities, and drive economic growth2.
o Core Values: KCA University emphasizes values such as Initiative,
Advancement, Collaboration, Integrity, and Equity2.
o Growth Aspirations: The University aims for growth in students trained at KCA
Technical College and placed into meaningful career pathways2.
o Strategic Partnerships: KCA University seeks strategic partnerships with
funding partners, delivery partners, media partners, student pipeline partners, and
industry partners2.
2. Possible Scope of KCA University
o Academic Programs: KCA University offers a wide range of academic programs
in business, technology, education, and more3.
 oStudent Community: The University has a vibrant student community and
provides a dynamic learning environment3.
o Faculty: KCA University boasts a world-class faculty committed to excellence 3.
o Facilities: The University has state-of-the-art facilities to support its academic
programs4.
o History and Growth: KCA University has a rich history and has shown
significant growth over the years4.
3. Features Corresponding to a Hypertext System and a Software Interface
o Hypertext System: The University’s website could be considered a hypertext
system. It contains non-linearly connected data, allowing users to navigate
through different pages and access various types of information5. For example, the
website might have links to academic programs, faculty profiles, admission
procedures, and campus facilities.
o Software Interface: The University’s online learning platform or student portal
could be considered a software interface. It enables interaction between users
(students, faculty, and administrators) and the system, providing functionalities
like course enrollment, content access, assignment submission, and grade
viewing6. The interface would be designed to be user-friendly, intuitive, and
visually appealing7.

) Why is web page design different to designing for printed media? (6 Marks)

Here's why web design differs from print design:

Fixed vs. Fluid Layouts: Print media has a fixed canvas size (e.g., magazine page), while web design needs
to adapt to various screen sizes and devices (responsive design).

Interactivity vs. Static Content: Web pages can be interactive with animations, forms, and hyperlinks.
Print media is static, offering a one-way flow of information.

Resolution: Print uses DPI (dots per inch) for sharp, high-resolution images. Web design uses PPI (pixels
per inch), which relies on screen resolution for image clarity.

Content Consumption: Web users often scan and skim content. Print media encourages a more linear
reading experience.

Usability Testing: Websites can be constantly tested and refined based on user behavior. Print media is
finalized before distribution.

Limited Fonts vs. Web Fonts: Print design is restricted to available fonts on the printing press. Web
design can leverage a wider range of fonts through web fonts.

(b) What are design guidelines? (2 Marks)

Design guidelines are a set of principles that ensure consistency, usability, and visual appeal in a design
project. They can cover aspects like typography, color palettes, layout, and branding.

c) Nielsen produced some design guidelines for web sites. What were three issues he covered? (4
Marks)

Jakob Nielsen, a usability expert, proposed heuristics for web usability. Here are three:

Visibility of system status: Users need clear feedback on system actions (e.g., loading indicators, error
messages).

Match between system and the real world: Web elements and language should be familiar and easy to
understand for users.

User control and freedom: Users should be able to undo actions and easily navigate back from mistakes.

(d) What is meant by accessibility? (2 Marks)

Accessibility refers to designing websites usable by everyone, regardless of abilities. This includes users
with visual impairments, hearing difficulties, or cognitive disabilities.

(e) Give three examples of how web sites can aid accessibility. (3 Marks)

Here are three ways websites can be more accessible:

Alt Text: Providing alternative text descriptions for images helps visually impaired users understand the
content.

Keyboard Navigation: Ensuring full functionality through keyboard controls allows users who cannot use
a mouse to navigate the site.

Colour Contrast: Using sufficient color contrast between text and background makes content readable
for users with low vision.

(a) What is the meaning of User-centered design? (8 Marks)

User-centered design (UCD) is an iterative design process that puts users at the forefront of every stage.
Here's a breakdown:

 Focus on Users: UCD prioritizes understanding user needs, behaviors, and goals throughout the
design process.

 Iterative Approach: Designs are constantly refined based on user feedback and testing.

 Usability Testing: UCD involves actively involving users to evaluate and improve designs.

 Benefits: Websites and products created with UCD are typically more user-friendly, intuitive,
and successful.
(b) Discuss audio and visual devices that are used in input and output devices. (2 Marks)

 Input Devices (Audio): Microphones, voice recorders (for speech recognition)

 Input Devices (Visual): Scanners, webcams (capture visual information)

 Output Devices (Audio): Speakers, headphones (produce sound)

 Output Devices (Visual): Monitors, projectors (display visuals)

(c) (i)What is the aim of evaluation? (2 Marks)

Evaluation aims to assess a website or product's usability, effectiveness, and user experience. It helps
identify strengths, weaknesses, and areas for improvement.

(ii) Who should use evaluation? (2 Marks)

Evaluation is valuable for designers, developers, and anyone involved in creating websites or products.
User feedback is crucial, so testers and users themselves also play a role.

(d) Describe two techniques for evaluation, highlighting their key points and the differences between
them (6 Marks)

Here are two common evaluation techniques:

1. Heuristic Evaluation:

o Key Points: Experts evaluate interfaces against established usability principles (e.g.,
Nielsen heuristics).

o Advantages: Efficient, identifies common usability issues.

o Disadvantages: Doesn't involve real users, may miss user-specific problems.

2. User Testing:

o Key Points: Real users interact with the website or product while researchers observe
and collect feedback.

o Advantages: Uncovers user behavior and pain points directly.

o Disadvantages: Can be time-consuming and expensive to recruit and conduct tests

effectively.

The main difference lies in who performs the evaluation. Heuristic evaluation relies on expert analysis,
while user testing involves real users interacting with the product. They provide complementary
insights: heuristics for general usability and user testing for user-specific issues.

(a) Discuss any four interaction styles that are applicable in computing giving its advantages and
disadvantages. (8 Marks)

Here's a breakdown of four common interaction styles in computing:

1. Command Line Interface (CLI):

 o Advantages: Powerful for experienced users, offers precise control, automatable with
scripts.

o Disadvantages: Steep learning curve, unforgiving for errors, not user-friendly for
beginners.

2. Menu-driven Interface:

o Advantages: Easy to learn and use, good for presenting clear choices to users.

o Disadvantages: Can be cumbersome for complex tasks with many menus, may limit user
exploration.

3. Graphical User Interface (GUI) with WIMP (Windows, Icons, Menus, Pointer):

o Advantages: Intuitive and visually appealing, promotes direct manipulation, widely

understood by most users.

o Disadvantages: Can be cluttered with too many icons or menus, may require more
screen space.

4. Natural Language Interface (NLI):

o Advantages: Allows interaction using natural language, potentially more user-friendly

and accessible.

o Disadvantages: Still under development, can be prone to misinterpretations, limited by

current NLP capabilities.

(b) Discuss KCA University website using Cognitive Task Analysis, GOMS (6 Marks)

Cognitive Task Analysis (CTA) applied to KCA University website:

 Goal: Find information about a specific degree program.

 Tasks:

o Search for the "Academics" section.

o Identify the list of offered programs.

o Navigate to the desired program page.

o Read program details (admission requirements, curriculum).

o (Optional) Download application materials.

 Cognitive Processes: Users need to scan, recognize patterns, and make decisions while
navigating the website.

GOMS (Goals, Operators, Methods, Selection rules) applied to KCA University website:

 Goal: Enroll in a program.

  Operators: Use mouse to click menus, fill out forms, submit information.

 Methods: Follow a sequence of clicks to reach the online application form.

 Selection Rules: Users choose options based on labels and instructions presented on the
website.

Analysis: Applying CTA and GOMS can help identify potential difficulties users might face on the KCA
website. For instance, unclear menu labels or a complex application process could be improved based
on this analysis.

(c) Differentiate between the Gulf of Execution and the Gulf of Evaluation (6 Marks)

The Gulf of Execution (GE) and the Gulf of Evaluation (GEv) are concepts from Norman's Model of
Interaction Design that describe the gap between a user's intention and system response.

 Gulf of Execution (GE):

o Refers to the difficulty of physically performing an action on the interface.

o Examples: Complex keyboard shortcuts, unclear button placement, requiring multiple

steps to achieve a simple task.

o Focuses on the action itself.

 Gulf of Evaluation (GEv):

o Refers to the mental effort required to interpret the system's state and determine what
action to take next.

o Examples: Unclear error messages, cluttered interfaces, lack of visual cues for user
feedback.

o Focuses on interpreting the system's response.

Key Differences:

 GE deals with the physical act of using the interface, while GEv deals with interpreting the
interface's feedback.

 A well-designed interface minimizes both GE and GEv, making it easy to perform actions and
understand the system's response.

(e) Explain the difference between knowledge in the world and knowledge in the head. (2 Marks)

 Knowledge in the head: This refers to information stored in our memory. It includes facts,
concepts, and procedures we need to recall to complete tasks.

 Knowledge in the world: This refers to information stored in the environment. It includes
external resources like manuals, labels, or the design of the interface itself.

Effective system design leverages both types of knowledge. Users shouldn't have to memorize complex
instructions; information should be readily available "in the world" through the interface's design.
(f) (i) Differentiate between “recognition rather than recall” as used in HCI (2 marks)

 Recognition: Users can identify the correct option from a set of presented choices (e.g.,
selecting an icon from a menu).

 Recall: Users need to retrieve information from memory to complete a task (e.g., remembering
a complex password).

HCI emphasizes recognition over recall because it's easier and reduces cognitive load.

(ii) Discuss areas in system design where ‘recognition’ is encouraged (2 Marks)

 Menus: Users recognize familiar icons or labels to choose the desired function.

 Toolbars: Icons represent common actions, facilitating recognition for quick access.

 Error messages: Clear and concise error messages with suggested solutions promote recognition
of the problem and how to fix it.

(iii) Discuss areas in system design where ‘recall’ is encouraged (2 Marks)

 Passwords: Strong passwords require some degree of user recall to prevent unauthorized
access.

 Customizations: Users may need to recall preferences or settings they have customized within
the system.

 Complex tasks: Step-by-step procedures with multiple options might require users to recall
specific information.

(g) Discuss any two metaphors used in the study of HCI and clearly show their importance in system
design. (2 Marks)

Here are two common metaphors used in HCI:

1. Desktop metaphor: This metaphor conceptualizes the computer screen as a physical desktop
with folders, files, and documents. It leverages users' existing knowledge of physical
organization to make the digital world more intuitive.

o Importance: Makes the digital world relatable and easier to learn for users already
familiar with physical organization systems.

2. Conceptual model: This metaphor represents the underlying functionality of the system in a
simplified way, helping users understand how it works. For example, a trash can icon on the
desktop represents a mental model of deleting files.

o Importance: Creates a mental framework for users to understand the system's behavior
and predict outcomes of their actions.

These metaphors bridge the gap between the technical aspects of the system and the user's mental
model, leading to a more intuitive and user-friendly experience.

Extended Human Information Processing Model

The Extended Human Information Processing Model expands on the traditional model by acknowledging
the role of external tools and the environment in information processing. Here's a breakdown with a
diagram:

Components:

1. Sensory Input: External stimuli are received through senses (sight, hearing, touch, etc.).

2. Perception: Sensory information is interpreted and organized.

3. Attention: Focus is directed towards specific information.

4. Long-Term Memory: Knowledge and experiences stored over time.

5. Working Memory: Holds limited amount of information for active processing.

6. Decision Making: Information is evaluated, and choices are made.

7. External Tools: Physical or digital tools that augment human capabilities (computers,
calculators, etc.).

8. Environment: Physical and social surroundings that influence information processing.

9. Action Output: Responses are produced through physical actions or communication.

Diagram:

+----------+ +----------+ +----------+

| Eyes | | Ears | | Touch |

| | | | | |

+----------+ +----------+ +----------+

+---------+

| Input |

+---------+

+---------+

| Perception |

+---------+

|
 V

+---------+

| Attention |

+---------+

+-----------------+ +---------+ +---------+

| Working Memory | ---- | Long-Term | ---- | External |

+-----------------+ | Memory | | Tools |

| +---------+ +---------+

V |

+---------+ V

| Decision | +---------+

| Making | | Output |

+---------+ +---------+

+---------+

| Actions |

+---------+

+---------+

| Environment |

+---------+

Importance of External Tools and Environment:

The model emphasizes how external tools and the environment can extend human information
processing capabilities. Tools like calculators or spellcheckers offload cognitive tasks, freeing up working
memory for other activities. The environment can provide visual cues, reminders, or access to additional
information that influences decision-making and actions.
This model provides a more comprehensive understanding of how humans interact with information,
acknowledging that our cognitive abilities are often intertwined with the tools and environments we
use.

(a) Discuss meaning of the term ‘computer’ in HCI definition. (2 Marks)

In the context of HCI (Human-Computer Interaction), "computer" refers broadly to any digital system a
user interacts with. This encompasses traditional desktop computers, laptops, tablets, smartphones, and
even voice-controlled devices like smart speakers. Essentially, any electronic device with a user interface
falls under the umbrella of "computer" for HCI purposes.

(b) Explain the four factors that affect usability in HCI (4 Marks)

Usability in HCI refers to the ease of use and effectiveness of a system. Four key factors significantly
impact usability:

1. Learnability: How easily can users understand and learn how to use the system for the first
time? This involves factors like intuitiveness, clear labeling, and consistency in design patterns.

2. Efficiency: Once users have learned the system, how quickly can they complete tasks? This
includes factors like speed of response, minimization of steps, and efficient navigation.

3. Memorability: How well can users remember how to use the system after some time away? This
depends on the system's reliance on complex procedures, consistent use of metaphors, and the
ease of recalling actions.

4. Satisfaction: How enjoyable and pleasant is it for users to interact with the system? This
involves factors like aesthetics, user control, and error handling that minimizes frustration.

By focusing on these four factors, HCI professionals can design interfaces that are not only functional
but also user-friendly and promote a positive user experience.

Perception Theories and Interface Design

(c) Compare the constructivist and ecological theories of perception and give examples of how each
has influenced interface design.

Constructivism:

 Theory: Constructivists believe perception is an active process where users interpret

information based on their existing knowledge and experiences.

 Influence on Design:

o Interface elements should be familiar and leverage existing mental models (e.g., using
icons resembling real-world objects).

o User interface consistency ensures users can apply past experiences to new interactions.

o Progressive disclosure: Introduce complex features gradually as users become familiar

with the system.
Ecological Theory:

 Theory: Ecological theorists believe perception is a direct process where information in the
environment guides our understanding. Affordances (inherent properties suggesting an action)
are crucial.

 Influence on Design:

o Interfaces should be designed with clear affordances, allowing users to intuitively

understand how to interact with elements (e.g., size and shape of buttons implying
clickability).

o Real-world metaphors: Utilize familiar objects or actions to represent system functions

(e.g., "trash can" icon for deleting files).

o Minimalist design: Prioritize essential information and avoid clutter to minimize visual
noise.

Both theories offer valuable insights for interface design. A well-designed interface considers both how
users construct meaning based on their knowledge (constructivism) and how the environment itself
guides perception through affordances (ecological theory).