Semiconductor and Diode

Theory
Prof. Sana Mehreen, Assistant Professor
Electrical Engineering
 ATOMIC STRUCTURE
• All the materials are composed of very small particles called atoms. The atoms are the
building bricks of all matter.
• An atom consists of a central nucleus of positive charge around which small negatively
charged particles, called electrons revolve in different paths or orbits.
 ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Nucleus:
• It is the central part of an atom and contains protons and neutrons. A proton is a
positively charged particle, while the neutron has the same mass as the proton, but has
no charge.
• Therefore, the nucleus of an atom is positively charged. The sum of protons and neutrons
constitutes the entire weight of an atom and is called atomic weight.
• It is because the particles in the orbit(i.e. electrons) have negligible weight as compared
to protons or neutrons.
 ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Orbit:
• It is the outer part of an atom and contains electrons only. An electron is a negatively
charged particle having negligible mass.
• The charge on an electron is equal but opposite to that on a proton. Also, the number of
electrons is equal to the number of protons in an atom under ordinary conditions.
• Therefore, an atom is neutral as a whole. The number of electrons or protons in an atom
is called atomic number.
 ATOMIC STRUCTURE
• The number of electrons in any orbit is given by 2n2 where n is the number of the
orbit. For example,
• First orbit contains 2 × 12 = 2 electrons
• Second orbit contains 2 × 22 = 8 electrons
• Third orbit contains 2 × 32 = 18 electrons
 ENERGY OF AN ELECTRON
• An electron moving around the nucleus possesses two types of energies viz. kinetic
energy due to its motion and potential energy due to the charge on the nucleus. The
total energy of the electron is the sum of these two energies. The energy of an electron
increases as its distance from the nucleus increases.
• Valence Electrons: The electrons in the outermost orbit of an atom are known as
valence electrons.
• Free Electrons: The valence electrons which are very loosely attached to the nucleus
are known as free electrons.
 CLASSIFICATION OF ENERGY BANDS
Valence Band:
• The electrons in the outermost orbit is known as valence electrons. These valence
electrons contain a series of energy levels and form an energy band known as valence
band. The valence band has the highest occupied energy.
Conduction Band:
• The valence electrons are not tightly held to the nucleus due to which a few of these
valence electrons leave the outermost orbit even at room temperature and become free
electrons.
 CLASSIFICATION OF ENERGY BANDS
• The free electrons conduct current in conductors and are therefore known as conduction
electrons. The conduction band is one that contains conduction electrons and has the
lowest occupied energy levels.
Forbidden Energy Gap:
• The gap between the valence band and the conduction band is referred to as forbidden
gap. If the forbidden energy gap is greater, then the valence band electrons are tightly
bound.
 WHAT IS MATERIAL?
• The electrical conduction properties of different elements can be explained in terms of
the electrons having energies in the valence and conduction bands. The electrons lying in
the lower energy bands, which are normally filled, they have not role in the conduction
process.
• Material can be classified in three types:
i. Insulator
ii. Semiconductor
iii. Conductor
 INSULATOR
• These materials do not allow electrons to pass through them.
• They have high resistance and very low conductance.
• The energy gap in the insulator is very high up to 7 eV.
• The movement of the electrons from the valence band to the conduction band is not
possible in this material so current does not conduct.
• Glass and wood are examples of the insulator.
• Substances which do not allow any electric charges to flow through are called bad
conductors of electricity or insulators.
• They have a very small number of free electrons or no free electrons.
INSULATOR
 SEMICONDUCTOR
• A semiconductor material is one whose electrical properties lie in between those of
insulators and good conductors.
• Semiconductors can be defined as those materials which have almost an empty
conduction band and almost filled valence band with a very narrow energy gap.
• There are no electrons in the conduction band and the valence band is completely filled.
increase in temperature, width of the forbidden energy bands is decreased so that some
of the electrons are converted into the conduction band.
• Examples are: germanium and silicon.
SEMICONDUCTOR
 CONDUCTOR
• Conducting material has lots of free electron for conduction of electric current.
• Gold, Aluminum, Silver, copper; all these metals allow an electric current to flow through
them.
• There is no forbidden gap between the valence band and conduction band which results
in the overlapping of both the bands.
• In this material number of free electrons are available at room temperature.
• Substances which allow electric charges to flow through them easily are called good
conductors of electricity. They have a large number of free electrons.
CONDUCTOR
 CRYSTAL STRUCTURE OF SILICONE
• There are four valence electrons in the outer most orbit of the silicone atom. The nature
of a bond between two silicon atoms is such that each atom provides one valance
electron to share with the other.
• The two valance electrons thus shared are in fact shared equally between the two atoms.
This type of sharing is known as a covalent bond.
 CRYSTAL STRUCTURE OF SILICONE
• In the crystal the outer electrons of all silicon atoms are used to make covalent bonds
with other atoms. There are no electrons available to move from place to place as an
electrical current. Thus, a pure silicon crystal is quite a good insulator.
 INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR

• An intrinsic semiconductor is formed a highly pure semiconductor material thus this

semiconductor is also known as pure semiconductors.
• These are basically undoped semiconductors that do not have doped impurity in it.
• At room temperature, intrinsic semiconductors exhibit almost negligible conductivity.
 EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR
• Extrinsic Semiconductors are semiconductor that is the result of adding an impurity to
a pure semiconductor. These are basically termed as an impure form of
semiconductors.
• The process of adding certain amount of impurity is provided to a pure semiconductor
is known as doping.
• So, a pure semiconductor is doped to generate an extrinsic semiconductor.
• There are two types of extrinsic type semiconductor
✓ P type semiconductor
✓ N type semiconductor
 P - TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR
• When a small amount of trivalent impurities (B, Al, In, Ga) is doped in pure
semiconductor then it results P-type semiconductor, the three valence electrons of the
impurity bonds with three of the four valence electrons of the semiconductor.
• This leaves an absence of electron (hole) in the impurity. These impurity atoms which are
ready to accept bonded electrons are called “acceptors“.
• With the increase in the number of impurities, holes (the positive charge carriers) are
increased. Hence, it is called p-type semiconductor.
• We are adding TRI-VALENT impurity.
P - TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR
 N - TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR
• When a small amount of pentavalent elements impurities (P, As, Sb, Bi) is doped in pure
semiconductor then it results N-type semiconductor, the four valence electrons of the
impurity bonds with the four valence electrons of the semiconductor (Si, Ge) and once
valance electron convert into free electron.
• The impurity atom donates a free electron for conduction in the crystal structure of
semiconductor so it is called “Donor“.
• The number of free electron increases by the addition of more impurity, the negative
charge carrier’s increase. Hence it is called N-type semiconductor.
 N - TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR
• N-type Semiconductor the electrons become the majority charge carrier and holes
become minority charge carrier.
• We are adding PENTA-VALENT impurity.
 JUNCTION DIODES
• A crystal structure made of P and N materials is generally known as junction diode.
• It is generally regarded as a two-terminal device. As shown in the following diagram one
terminal is attached to P-type material and the other to N-type material.
• The common bond point where these materials are connected is called a junction.
• A junction diode allows current carriers to flow in one direction and obstruct the flow of
current in the reverse direction.
 JUNCTION DIODES
• The following figure shows the crystal structure of a junction
diode.
• The structure of crystal is continuous from one end to the
other.
• The junction acts only as a separating point that represents the
end of one material and the beginning of the other.
• Such structure allows electrons to move thoroughly in the
entire structure.
 JUNCTION DIODES
• Diagram shows two portions of semiconductor substance before they are shaped into a P-N
junction. As specified, each part of material has majority and minority current carriers.
• The quantity of carrier symbols shown in each material indicates the minority or majority
function. Electrons are the majority carriers in the N type material and holes are the minority
carriers. In P type material, holes are the majority carriers and electrons are in the minority.
 DEPLETION ZONE
• Initially, when a junction diode is formed, there is a unique interaction between current
carriers.
• In N type material, the electrons move readily across the junction to fill holes in the P
material. This act is commonly called diffusion.
• Diffusion is the result of high accumulation of carriers in one material and a lower
gathering in the other.
• Generally, the current carriers which are near to the junction only takes part in the
process of diffusion.
 DEPLETION ZONE
• Electrons departing the N material cause positive ions to be generated in their place.
While entering the P material to fill holes, negative ions are created by these electrons.
• The area where these holes and electrons
become depleted is generally known by the
term depletion region.
• It is an area where there is lack of majority
current carriers. Normally, a depletion region
is developed when P-N junction is formed.
 Barrier Potential
• N-type and P-type material are considered as electrically neutral before they are joined
together at a common junction.
• However, after joining diffusion takes place instantaneously, as electrons cross the
junction to fill holes causing negative ions to emerge in the P material.
• This action causes the nearby area of the junction to take on a negative charge.
Electrons departing the N material causes it to generate positive ions.
 Barrier Potential
• All this process, in turn, causes the N side of the junction to
take on a net positive charge.
• This particular charge creation tends to force the remaining
electrons and holes away from the junction.
• This action makes it somewhat hard for other charge carriers
to diffuse across the junction. As a result, the charge is built up
or barrier potential emerges across the junction.
• The barrier potential of germanium is approximately 0.3 V, and
of silicon is 0.7 V.
 Barrier Potential
• N-type and P-type material are considered as electrically neutral before they are joined
together at a common junction.
• However, after joining diffusion takes place instantaneously, as electrons cross the
junction to fill holes causing negative ions to emerge in the P material.
• This action causes the nearby area of the junction to take on a negative charge.
Electrons departing the N material causes it to generate positive ions.
Thank You..!!