Module-1 Computer Network|21CS52

HKBK College of Engineering

Department of Artificial Intelligence & Machine Learning
SEMESTER – 5
Computer Networks – 21CS52

Module 1
Introduction to Computer Networks:
• Network Hardware
-Personal Area Network
-Local Area Networks
- Metropolitan Area Networks
- Wide Area networks
- Internetworks

• Network Software
- Protocol Hierarchies
- Design Issues for the Layers
- Connection-Oriented Versus Connectionless Service
- Service Primitives
- The Relationship of Services to Protocols

• Reference models
- The OSI Reference Model, 41
- The TCP/IP Reference Model, 45

Physical layer:
• Guided Transmission Media
• Wireless Transmission

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Introduction to Computer Networks

A network is a set of devices (often referred to as nodes) connected by communication

links. A node can be a computer, printer, or any other device capable of sending and/or
receiving data generated by other nodes on the network.
“Computer network’’ to mean a collection of autonomous computers
interconnected by a single technology. Two computers are said to be interconnected if
they are able to exchange information.
The connection need not be via a copper wire; fiber optics, microwaves, infrared, and
communication satellites can also be used.
Networks come in many sizes, shapes and forms, as we will see later. They are
usually connected together to make larger networks, with the Internet being the most
well-known example of a network of networks.
There is considerable confusion in the literature between a computer network
and a distributed system. The key distinction is that in a distributed system, a
collection of independent computers appears to its users as a single coherent system.
Usually, it has a single model or paradigm that it presents to the users. Often a layer of
software on top of the operating system, called middleware, is responsible for
implementing this model. A well-known example of a distributed system is the World
Wide Web. It runs on top of the Internet and presents a model in which everything
looks like a document (Web page).

USES OF COMPUTER NETWORKS

1. Business Applications
• to distribute information throughout the company (resource sharing). sharing physical
resources such as printers, and tape backup systems, is sharing information
• client-server model. It is widely used and forms the basis of much network usage.
• communication medium among employees.email (electronic mail), which
employees generally use for a great deal of daily communication.
• Telephone calls between employees may be carried by the computer network instead
of by the phone company. This technology is called IP telephony or Voice over IP
(VoIP) when Internet technology is used.
• Desktop sharing lets remote workers see and interact with a graphical computer
screen
• doing business electronically, especially with customers and suppliers. This new model
is called e-commerce (electronic commerce) and it has grown rapidly in recent years.
2 Home Applications
• peer-to-peer communication
• person-to-person communication
• electronic commerce
• entertainment.(game playing,)

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3 Mobile Users
• Text messaging or texting
• Smart phones,
• GPS (Global Positioning System)
• m-commerce
• NFC (Near Field Communication)
4 Social Issues
With the good comes the bad, as this new-found freedom brings with it many unsolved
social, political, and ethical issues.
Social networks, message boards, content sharing sites, and a host of other applications
allow people to share their views with like-minded individuals. As long as the subjects
are restricted to technical topics or hobbies like gardening, not too many problems will
arise.
The trouble comes with topics that people actually care about, like politics, religion,
or sex. Views that are publicly posted may be deeply offensive to some people. Worse
yet, they may not be politically correct. Furthermore, opinions need not be limited to
text; high-resolution color photographs and video clips are easily shared over computer
networks. Some people take a live-and-let-live view, but others feel that posting certain
material (e.g., verbal attacks on particular countries or religions, pornography, etc.) is
simply unacceptable and that such content must be censored. Different countries have
different and conflicting laws in this area. Thus, the debate rages.
Computer networks make it very easy to communicate. They also make it easy for the
people who run the network to snoop on the traffic. This sets up conflicts over issues
such as employee rights versus employer rights. Many people read and write email
at work. Many employers have claimed the right to read and possibly censor employee
messages, including messages sent from a home computer outside working hours. Not
all employees agree with this, especially the latter part.
Another conflict is centered around government versus citizen’s rights.
A new twist with mobile devices is location privacy. As part of the process of providing
service to your mobile device the network operators learn where you are at different
times of day. This allows them to track your movements. They may know which
nightclub you frequent and which medical center you visit.

The effectiveness of a data communications system depends on four fundamental

characteristics: delivery, accuracy, timeliness, and jitter.
I. Delivery. The system must deliver data to the correct destination. Data must be
received by the intended device or user and only by that device or user. 2 Accuracy.
The system must deliver the data accurately. Data that have been altered in
transmission and left uncorrected are unusable.
3. Timeliness. The system must deliver data in a timely manner. Data delivered late
are useless. In the case of video and audio, timely delivery means delivering data as they

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are produced, in the same order that they are produced, and without significant delay.
This kind of delivery is called real-time transmission.
4. Jitter. Jitter refers to the variation in the packet arrival time. It is the uneven
delay in the delivery of audio or video packets. For example, let us assume that video
packets are sent every 30 ms. If some of the packets arrive with 30-ms delay and others
with 40-ms delay, an uneven quality in the video is the result.

A data communications system has five components

I. Message. The message is the information (data) to be communicated. Popular forms
of information include text, numbers, pictures, audio, and video. 2 Sender. The sender
is the device that sends the data message. It can be a computer, workstation, telephone
handset, video camera, and so on.
3. Receiver. The receiver is the device that receives the message. It can be a
computer, workstation, telephone handset, television, and so on.
4. Transmission medium. The transmission medium is the physical path by which
a message travels from sender to receiver. Some examples of transmission media include
twisted-pair wire, coaxial cable, fiber-optic cable, and radio waves.
5. Protocol. A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications. It
represents an agreement between the communicating devices. Without a protocol, two
devices may be connected but not communicating, just as a person speaking French
cannot be understood by a person who speaks only Japanese.

Data Flow
Communication between two devices can be simplex, half-duplex, or full-duplex as
shown in Figure.

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Simplex In simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, as on a oneway street.

Only one of the two devices on a link can transmit; the other can only receive (Figure
a). Keyboards and traditional monitors are examples of simplex devices.
Half-Duplex
In half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the same
time. When one device is sending, the other can only receive, and vice versa (Figure b).
Walkie-talkies and CB (citizens band) radios are both halfduplex systems.
Full-Duplex
In full-duplex, both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously (Figure c).
One common example of full-duplex communication is the telephone network. When
two people are communicating by a telephone line, both can talk and listen at the same
time. The full-duplex mode is used when communication in both directions is required
all the time.

Network Criteria
A network must be able to meet a certain number of criteria. The most important of these
are performance, reliability, and security.
Performance
Performance can be measured in many ways, including transit time and response time.
Transit time is the amount of time required for a message to travel from one device to
another. Response time is the elapsed time between an inquiry and a response. The
performance of a network depends on a number of factors, including the number of
users, the type of transmission medium, the capabilities of the connected hardware, and
the efficiency of the software. Performance is often evaluated by two networking
metrics: throughput and delay. We often need more throughput and less delay.
However, these two criteria are often contradictory. If we try to send more data to the
network, we may increase throughput but we increase the delay because of traffic
congestion in the network.
Reliability: In addition to accuracy of delivery, network reliability is measured by the
frequency of failure, the time it takes a link to recover from a failure, and the network's
robustness in a catastrophe.
Security: Network security issues include protecting data from unauthorized access,
protecting data from damage and development, and implementing policies and
procedures for recovery from breaches and data losses.

Physical Structures
Before discussing networks, we need to define some network attributes.
Type of Connection
A network is two or more devices connected through links. A link is a communications
pathway that transfers data from one device to another. There are two possible types of
connections: point-to-point and multipoint. Point-to-Point A point-to-point connection
provides a dedicated link between two devices. The entire capacity of the link is reserved

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for transmission between those two devices. Most point-to-point connections use an
actual length of wire or cable to connect the two ends, but other options, such as
microwave or satellite links, are also possible
When you change television channels by infrared remote control, you are establishing a
point-to-point connection between the remote control and the television's control
system.
Multipoint A multipoint (also called multi-drop) connection is one in which more than
two specific devices share a single link
In a multipoint environment, the capacity of the channel is shared, either spatially or
temporally. If several devices can use the link simultaneously, it is a spatially shared
connection. If users must take turns, it is a timeshared connection.

Physical Topology
The term physical topology refers to the way in which a network is laid out physically.
Two or more devices connect to a link; two or more links form a topology. The topology
of a network is the geometric representation of the relationship of all the links and
linking devices (usually called nodes) to one another.
There are four basic topologies possible: mesh, star, bus, and ring

MESH:
A mesh topology is the one where every node is connected to every other node in the
network.

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A mesh topology can be a full mesh topology or a partially connected mesh

topology.
In a full mesh topology, every computer in the network has a connection to each of the
other computers in that network. The number of connections in this network can be
calculated using the following formula (n is the number of computers in the network):
n(n-1)/2
In a partially connected mesh topology, at least two of the computers in the network
have connections to multiple other computers in that network. It is an inexpensive way
to implement redundancy in a network. In the event that one of the primary computers
or connections in the network fails, the rest of the network continues to operate normally.
Advantages of a mesh topology
• Can handle high amounts of traffic, because multiple devices can transmit data
simultaneously.
• A failure of one device does not cause a break in the network or transmission of data.
• Adding additional devices does not disrupt data transmission between other devices.
Disadvantages of a mesh topology
• The cost to implement is higher than other network topologies, making it a less desirable
option.
• Building and maintaining the topology is difficult and time consuming.
• The chance of redundant connections is high, which adds to the high costs and potential
for reduced efficiency.
STAR:

A star network, star topology is one of the most common network setups. In this
configuration, every node connects to a central network device, like a hub, switch, or
computer. The central network device acts as a server and the peripheral devices act as
clients. Depending on the type of network card used in each computer of the star
topology, a coaxial cable or a RJ-45 network cable is used to connect computers
together.

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Advantages of star topology

• Centralized management of the network, through the use of the central computer, hub,
or switch.
• Easy to add another computer to the network.
• If one computer on the network fails, the rest of the network continues to function
normally.
• The star topology is used in local-area networks (LANs), High-speed LANs often use a
star topology with a central hub.
Disadvantages of star topology
• Can have a higher cost to implement, especially when using a switch or router as the
central network device.
• The central network device determines the performance and number of nodes the
network can handle.
• If the central computer, hub, or switch fails, the entire network goes down and all
computers are disconnected from the network BUS:

a line topology, a bus topology is a network setup in which each computer and network
device are connected to a single cable or backbone.
Advantages of bus topology
• It works well when you have a small network.
• It's the easiest network topology for connecting computers or peripherals in a linear
fashion.
• It requires less cable length than a star topology.
Disadvantages of bus topology
• It can be difficult to identify the problems if the whole network goes down.
• It can be hard to troubleshoot individual device issues.
• Bus topology is not great for large networks.
• Terminators are required for both ends of the main cable.
• Additional devices slow the network down.
• If a main cable is damaged, the network fails or splits into two.

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RING:

A ring topology is a network configuration in which device connections create a circular

data path. In a ring network, packets of data travel from one device to the next until they
reach their destination. Most ring topologies allow packets to travel only in one
direction, called a unidirectional ring network. Others permit data to move in either
direction, called bidirectional.
The major disadvantage of a ring topology is that if any individual connection in the
ring is broken, the entire network is affected.

Ring topologies may be used in either local area networks (LANs) or wide area networks
(WANs).
Advantages of ring topology
• All data flows in one direction, reducing the chance of packet collisions.
• A network server is not needed to control network connectivity between each
workstation.
• Data can transfer between workstations at high speeds.
• Additional workstations can be added without impacting performance of the network.
Disadvantages of ring topology
• All data being transferred over the network must pass through each workstation on the
network, which can make it slower than a star topology.
• The entire network will be impacted if one workstation shuts down.
• The hardware needed to connect each workstation to the network is more expensive than
Ethernet cards and hubs/switches.

Hybrid Topology A network can be hybrid. For example, we can have a main star
topology with each branch connecting several stations in a bus topology as shown in
Figure.

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Network Hardware

Types of area networks – LAN, MAN and WAN

The Network allows computers to connect and communicate with different
computers via any medium. LAN, MAN, and WAN are the three major types of
networks designed to operate over the area they cover. There are some similarities and
dissimilarities between them. One of the major differences is the geographical area they
cover, i.e. LAN covers the smallest area, MAN covers an area larger than LAN
and WAN comprises the largest of all.

Personal Area Network (PAN)-

PAN is a personal area network having an interconnection of personal technology

devices to communicate over a short distance. It covers only less than 10 meters or 33
feet of area. PAN has fewer users as compared to other networks such as LAN, WAN,
etc. PAN typically uses some form of wireless technology. PAN involves the
transmission of data between information devices such as smartphones, personal
computers, tablet computers, etc.

Advantages:

• Allows for easy communication between personal devices in close proximity.

• Can be set up easily and quickly.
• Uses wireless technology, which eliminates the need for wires and cables.
• PANs are designed to be energy efficient, which means that devices can
communicate with each other without draining their batteries quickly.
• PANs are typically secured using encryption and authentication protocols, which
helps to prevent unauthorized access to data and resources.

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Disadvantages:

• Limited coverage area.

• May not be suitable for large-scale data transfer or communication. PANs typically
have limited bandwidth, which means that they may not be able to handle large
amounts of data or high-speed communication.
• May experience interference from other wireless devices.

Local Area Networks

The next step up is the LAN (Local Area Network). A LAN is a privately owned
network that operates within and nearby a single building like a home, office or factory.
LANs are widely used to connect personal computers and consumer electronics to let
them share resources (e.g., printers) and exchange information. When LANs are used
by companies, they are called enterprise networks.

Wireless LANs are very popular these days, especially in homes, older office buildings,
cafeterias, and other places where it is too much trouble to install cables. In these
systems, every computer has a radio modem and an antenna that it uses to communicate
with other computers. In most cases, each computer talks to a device in the ceiling as
shown in Fig. 1-8(a). This device, called an AP (Access Point), wireless router, or base
station, relays packets between the wireless computers and also between them and the
Internet. Being the AP is like being the popular kid as school because everyone wants
to talk to you. However, if other computers are close enough, they can communicate
directly with one another in a peer-to-peer configuration. There is a standard for wireless
LANs called IEEE 802.11, popularly known as WiFi, which has become very
widespread. It runs at speeds anywhere from 11

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Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) –

MAN or Metropolitan area Network covers a larger area than that covered by a LAN
and a smaller area as compared to WAN. MAN has a range of 5-50km. It connects two
or more computers that are apart but reside in the same or different cities. It covers a
large geographical area and may serve as an ISP (Internet Service Provider). MAN is
designed for customers who need high-speed connectivity. Speeds of MAN range in
terms of Mbps. It’s hard to design and maintain a Metropolitan Area Network.

The fault tolerance of a MAN is less and also there is more congestion in the network.
It is costly and may or may not be owned by a single organization. The data transfer rate
and the propagation delay of MAN are moderate. Devices used for transmission of data
through MAN are Modem and Wire/Cable. Examples of a MAN are part of the
telephone company network that can provide a high-speed DSL line to the customer or
the cable TV network in a city.

Advantages:

• Provides high-speed connectivity over a larger geographical area than LAN.

• Can be used as an ISP for multiple customers.
• Offers higher data transfer rates than WAN in some cases.

Disadvantages:

• Canbe expensive to set up and maintain.

• May experience congestion and network performance issues with increased
usage.
• May have limited fault tolerance and security compared to LANs.

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Wide Area Network (WAN) –

WAN or Wide Area Network is a computer network that extends over a large
geographical area, although it might be confined within the bounds of a state or country.
WAN has a range of above 50 km. A WAN could be a connection of LAN connecting
to other LANs via telephone lines and radio waves and may be limited to an enterprise
(a corporation or an organization) or accessible to the public. The technology is high-
speed and relatively expensive.

There are two types of WAN: Switched WAN and Point-to-Point WAN. WAN is
difficult to design and maintain. Similar to a MAN, the fault tolerance of a WAN is less
and there is more congestion in the network. A Communication medium used for WAN
is PSTN or Satellite Link. Due to long-distance transmission, the noise and error tend to
be more in WAN.

WAN’s data rate is slow about a 10th LAN’s speed since it involves increased distance
and increased number of servers and terminals etc. The speed of WAN ranges from a
few kilobits per second (Kbps) to megabits per second (Mbps). Propagation delay is one
of the biggest problems faced here. Devices used for the transmission of data through
WAN are Optic wires, Microwaves, and Satellites. An example of a Switched WAN is
the asynchronous transfer mode (ATM) network and Point-to-Point WAN is a dial-up
line that connects a home computer to the Internet.

Advantages:

• Covers large geographical areas and can connect remote locations.

• Provides connectivity to the internet.
• Offers remote access to resources and applications.
• Can be used to support multiple users and applications simultaneously.

Disadvantages:

• Can be expensive to set up and maintain.

• Offers slower data transfer rates than LAN or MAN.
• May experience higher latency and longer propagation delays due to longer
distances and multiple network hops.
• May have lower fault tolerance and security compared to LANs.

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Network Software
Protocol Hierarchies

Generally, Computer networks are comprised of or contain a large number of pieces of

hardware and software. To just simplify network design, various networks are organized
and arranged as a stack of layers of hardware and software, one on top of another. The
number, name, content, and function of each layer might vary and can be different from
one network to another. The main purpose of each of layers is just to offer and provide
services to higher layers that are present. Each and every layer has some particular task
or function. In programming, this concept is very common. The networks are organized
and arranged as different layers or levels simply to reduce and minimize complexity of
design of network software.

Example :

Below is diagram representing a five-layer network. The diagram shows communication

between Host 1 and Host 2. The data stream is passed through a number of layers from
one host to other. Virtual communication is represented using dotted lines between peer
layers. Physical communication is represented using solid arrows between adjacent
layers. Through physical medium, actual communication occurs. The layers at same
level are commonly known as peers. The peer basically has a set of communication
protocols. An interface is present between each of layers that are used to explain services
provided by lower layer to higher layer.

Fig- 1 Layers, Protocols & interfaces.

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Advantages :

• The layers generally reduce complexity of communication between networks

• It increases network lifetime.

• It also uses energy efficiently.

• It does not require overall knowledge and understanding of network.

Now consider a more technical example: how to provide communication to the top layer
of the five-layer network in Fig. 1. A message, M, is produced by an application process
running in layer 5 and given to layer 4 for transmission. Layer 4 puts a header in front
of the message to identify the message and passes the result to layer 3. The header
includes control information, such as addresses, to allow layer 4 on the destination
machine to deliver the message. Other examples of control information used in some
layers are sequence numbers (in case the lower layer does not preserve message order),
sizes, and times.

In many networks, no limit is placed on the size of messages transmitted in the layer 4
protocol but there is nearly always a limit imposed by the layer 3 protocol.
Consequently, layer 3 must break up the incoming messages into smaller units, packets,
prepending a layer 3 header to each packet. In this example, M is split into two parts,
M1 and M2, that will be transmitted separately.

Layer 3 decides which of the outgoing lines to use and passes the packets to layer 2.
Layer 2 adds to each piece not only a header but also a trailer, and gives the resulting
unit to layer 1 for physical transmission. At the receiving machine the message moves
upward, from layer to layer, with headers being stripped off as it progresses. None of
the headers for layers below n are passed up to layer n.

The important thing to understand about Fig. 1 is the relation between the virtual and
actual communication and the difference between protocols and interfaces. The peer
processes in layer 4, for example, conceptually think of their communication as being
‘‘horizontal,’’ using the layer 4 protocol. Each one is likely to have procedures called
something like SendToOtherSide and GetFrom-OtherSide, even though these
procedures actually communicate with lower layers across the 3/4 interface, and not
with the other side.

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Fig -2 Example information flow supporting virtual communication in layer-5

Example information flow supporting virtual communication in layer 5

Design Issues for the Layers

A number of design issues exist for the layer to layer approach of computer networks.
Some of the main design issues are as follows −

Reliability

Network channels and components may be unreliable, resulting in loss of bits while data
transfer. So, an important design issue is to make sure that the information transferred
is not distorted.

Scalability

Networks are continuously evolving. The sizes are continually increasing leading to
congestion. Also, when new technologies are applied to the added components, it may
lead to incompatibility issues. Hence, the design should be done so that the networks are
scalable and can accommodate such additions and alterations.

Addressing

At a particular time, innumerable messages are being transferred between large numbers
of computers. So, a naming or addressing system should exist so that each layer can
identify the sender and receivers of each message.

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Error Control

Unreliable channels introduce a number of errors in the data streams that are
communicated. So, the layers need to agree upon common error detection and error
correction methods so as to protect data packets while they are transferred.

Flow Control

If the rate at which data is produced by the sender is higher than the rate at which data
is received by the receiver, there are chances of overflowing the receiver. So, a proper
flow control mechanism needs to be implemented.

Resource Allocation

Computer networks provide services in the form of network resources to the end users.
The main design issue is to allocate and deallocate resources to processes. The
allocation/deallocation should occur so that minimal interference among the hosts
occurs and there is optimal usage of the resources.

Statistical Multiplexing

It is not feasible to allocate a dedicated path for each message while it is being
transferred from the source to the destination. So, the data channel needs to be
multiplexed, so as to allocate a fraction of the bandwidth or time to each host.

Routing

There may be multiple paths from the source to the destination. Routing involves
choosing an optimal path among all possible paths, in terms of cost and time. There are
several routing algorithms that are used in network systems.

Security

A major factor of data communication is to defend it against threats like eavesdropping

and surreptitious alteration of messages. So, there should be adequate mechanisms to
prevent unauthorized access to data through authentication and cryptography.

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Connection-Oriented Versus Connectionless Service

Connection-oriented service is related to the telephone system. It includes connection

establishment and connection termination. In a connection-oriented service, the
Handshake method is used to establish the connection between sender and receiver.

Connection-less service is related to the postal system. It does not include any
connection establishment and connection termination. Connection-less Service does not
give a guarantee of reliability. In this, Packets do not follow the same path to reach their
destination.

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Difference between Connection-oriented and Connection-less Services:

S.NO Connection-oriented Service Connection-less Service

Connection-oriented service is related to Connection-less service is related to

1.
the telephone system. the postal system.

Connection-oriented service is preferred Connection-less Service is preferred

2.
by long and steady communication. by bursty communication.

Connection-less Service is not

3. Connection-oriented Service is necessary.
compulsory.

Connection-less Service is not

4. Connection-oriented Service is feasible.
feasible.

In connection-oriented Service, In connection-less Service,

5.
Congestion is not possible. Congestion is possible.

Connection-oriented Service gives the Connection-less Service does not

6.
guarantee of reliability. give a guarantee of reliability.

In connection-oriented Service, Packets In connection-less Service, Packets

7.
follow the same route. do not follow the same route.

Connection-oriented services require a Connection-less Service requires a

8.
bandwidth of a high range. bandwidth of low range.

Ex: kgTCP (Transmission Control

9. Ex: UDP (User Datagram Protocol)
Protocol)

Connection-oriented requires Connection-less Service does not

10.
authentication. require authentication.

Primitive Meaning
When server is ready to accept request of incoming connection, it
Listen simply put this primitive into action. Listen primitive simply waiting
for incoming connection request.
This primitive is used to connect the server simply by creating or
Connect
establishing connection with waiting peer.
Accept This primitive simply accepts incoming connection from the peer.
These primitive afterwards block the server. Receive primitive
Receive
simply waits for incoming message.

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This primitive is put into action by the client to transmit its request
that is followed by putting receive primitive into action to get the
Send
reply. Send primitive simply sends or transfer the message to the
peer.
This primitive is simply used to terminate or end the connection
Disconnect
after which no one will be able to send any of the message.

Primitives of Connectionless Service:

Primitive Meaning
Unit data primitive is simply required to send packet of data or
Unit data
information.
Facility, This primitive is required for getting details about the performance
Report and working of the network such as delivery statistics or report.

These primitives might be used for a request-reply interaction in a client-server

environment. To illustrate how, we sketch a simple protocol that implements the service
using acknowledged datagrams.
First, the server executes LISTEN to indicate that it is prepared to accept
incoming connections. A common way to implement LISTEN is to make it a blocking
system call. After executing the primitive, the server process is blocked until a request
for connection appears.
Next, the client process executes CONNECT to establish a connection with the
server. The CONNECT call needs to specify who to connect to, so it might have a
parameter giving the server’s address. The operating system then typically sends a
packet to the peer asking it to connect, as shown by (1) in Fig.3 The client process is
suspended until there is a response.
When the packet arrives at the server, the operating system sees that the packet
is requesting a connection. It checks to see if there is a listener, and if so it unblocks the
listener. The server process can then establish the connection with the ACCEPT call.
This sends a response (2) back to the client process to accept the connection. The arrival
of this response then releases the client. At this point the client and server are both
running and they have a connection established.
The obvious analogy between this protocol and real life is a customer (client)
calling a company’s customer service manager. At the start of the day, the service
manager sits next to his telephone in case it rings. Later, a client places a call. When the
manager picks up the phone, the connection is established.
The next step is for the server to execute RECEIVE to prepare to accept the first
request. Normally, the server does this immediately upon being released from the
LISTEN, before the acknowledgement can get back to the client. The RECEIVE call
blocks the server.
Then the client executes SEND to transmit its request (3) followed by the
execution of RECEIVE to get the reply. The arrival of the request packet at the server

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machine unblocks the server so it can handle the request. After it has done the work, the
server uses SEND to return the answer to the client (4). The arrival of
this packet unblocks the client, which can now inspect the answer. If the client has
additional requests, it can make them now. When the client is done, it executes
DISCONNECT to terminate the connection (5). Usually, an initial DISCONNECT is a
blocking call, suspending the client and sending a packet to the server saying that the
connection is no longer needed. When the server gets the packet, it also issues a
DISCONNECT of its own, acknowledging the client and releasing the connection (6).
When the server’s packet gets back to the client machine, the client process is released
and the connection is broken. In a nutshell, this is how connection-oriented
communication works.

Fig:3 A simple client-server interaction using acknowledged datagrams

The relationship of services to protocols

Services and protocols are distinct concepts. This distinction is so important that we
emphasize it again here. A service is a set of primitives (operations) that a layer provides
to the layer above it. The service defines what operations the layer is prepared to perform
on behalf of its users, but it says nothing at all about how these operations are
implemented. A service relates to an interface between two layers, with the lower layer
being the service provider and the upper layer being the service user.

A protocol, in contrast, is a set of rules governing the format and meaning of the
packets, or messages that are exchanged by the peer entities within a layer. Entities use
protocols to implement their service definitions. They are free to change their protocols
at will, provided they do not change the service visible to their users. In this way, the
service and the protocol are completely decoupled.

This is a key concept that any network designer should understand well. To repeat this
crucial point, services relate to the interfaces between layers, as illustrated in Fig.4. In
contrast, protocols relate to the packets sent between peer entities on different machines.
It is very important not to confuse the two concepts.

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An analogy with programming languages is worth making. A service is like an abstract

data type or an object in an object-oriented language. It defines operations that can be
performed on an object but does not specify how these operations are implemented. In
contrast, a protocol relates to the implementation of the service and as such is not visible
to the user of the service.

Many older protocols did not distinguish the service from the protocol. In effect, a
typical layer might have had a service primitive SEND PACKET with the user providing
a pointer to a fully assembled packet. This arrangement meant that all changes to the
protocol were immediately visible to the users. Most network designers now regard such
a design as a serious blunder.

Fig-4 the relationship between a service and a protocol

REFERENCE MODELS

What Is the OSI Model

The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model describes seven layers that computer
systems use to communicate over a network. It was the first standard model for
network communications, adopted by all major computer and telecommunication
companies in the early 1980s

The modern Internet is not based on OSI, but on the simpler TCP/IP model. However,
the OSI 7-layer model is still widely used, as it helps visualize and communicate how
networks operate, and helps isolate and troubleshoot networking problems.

OSI was introduced in 1983 by representatives of the major computer and telecom
companies, and was adopted by ISO as an international standard in 1984.

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OSI Model : The OSI 7 Layers

Fig- 5 The OSI reference model.

7. Application Layer

The application layer is used by end-user software such as web browsers and email
clients. It provides protocols that allow software to send and receive information and
present meaningful data to users. A few examples of application layer protocols are
the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP), File Transfer Protocol (FTP), Post Office
Protocol (POP), Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP), and Domain Name System
(DNS).

6. Presentation Layer

The presentation layer prepares data for the application layer. It defines how two devices
should encode, encrypt, and compress data so it is received correctly on the other end.
The presentation layer takes any data transmitted by the application layer and prepares
it for transmission over the session layer.

5. Session Layer

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The session layer creates communication channels, called sessions, between devices. It
is responsible for opening sessions, ensuring they remain open and functional while
data is being transferred, and closing them when communication ends. The session
layer can also set checkpoints during a data transfer—if the session is interrupted,
devices can resume data transfer from the last checkpoint.

4. Transport Layer

The transport layer takes data transferred in the session layer and breaks it into
“segments” on the transmitting end. It is responsible for reassembling the segments on
the receiving end, turning it back into data that can be used by the session layer. The
transport layer carries out flow control, sending data at a rate that matches the connection
speed of the receiving device, and error control, checking if data was received
incorrectly and if not, requesting it again.

3. Network Layer

The network layer has two main functions. One is breaking up segments into network
packets, and reassembling the packets on the receiving end. The other is routing packets
by discovering the best path across a physical network. The network layer uses network
addresses (typically Internet Protocol addresses) to route packets to a destination node.

2. Data Link Layer

The data link layer establishes and terminates a connection between two physically-
connected nodes on a network. It breaks up packets into frames and sends them from
source to destination. This layer is composed of two parts—Logical Link Control (LLC),
which identifies network protocols, performs error checking and synchronizes frames,
and Media Access Control (MAC) which uses MAC addresses to connect devices and
define permissions to transmit and receive data.

1. Physical Layer

The physical layer is responsible for the physical cable or wireless connection between
network nodes. It defines the connector, the electrical cable or wireless technology
connecting the devices, and is responsible for transmission of the raw data, which is
simply a series of 0s and 1s, while taking care of bit rate control.

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Advantages of OSI Model

The OSI model helps users and operators of computer networks:

• Determine the required hardware and software to build their network.

• Understand and communicate the process followed by components
communicating across a network.
• Perform troubleshooting, by identifying which network layer is causing an issue
and focusing efforts on that layer.

The OSI model helps network device manufacturers and networking software
vendors:

• Create devices and software that can communicate with products from any
other vendor, allowing open interoperability
• Define which parts of the network their products should work with.
• Communicate to users at which network layers their product operates – for
example, only at the application layer, or across the stack.

OSI vs. TCP/IP Model

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The Transfer Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) is older than the OSI model
and was created by the US Department of Defense (DoD). A key difference between
the models is that TCP/IP is simpler, collapsing several OSI layers into one:

• OSI layers 5, 6, 7 are combined into one Application Layer in TCP/IP

• OSI layers 1, 2 are combined into one Network Access Layer in TCP/IP –
however TCP/IP does not take responsibility for sequencing and
acknowledgement functions, leaving these to the underlying transport layer.

Other important differences:

• TCP/IP is a functional model designed to solve specific communication

problems, and which is based on specific, standard protocols. OSI is a generic,
protocol-independent model intended to describe all forms of network
communication.
• In TCP/IP, most applications use all the layers, while in OSI simple applications
do not use all seven layers. Only layers 1, 2 and 3 are mandatory to enable any
data communication.

Physical Layer

Guided Media

It is defined as the physical medium through which the signals are transmitted. It is also
known as Bounded media.

Types Of Guided media:

Twisted pair:

Twisted pair is a physical media made up of a pair of cables twisted with each other. A
twisted pair cable is cheap as compared to other transmission media. Installation of the
twisted pair cable is easy, and it is a lightweight cable. The frequency range for twisted
pair cable is from 0 to 3.5KHz.

A twisted pair consists of two insulated copper wires arranged in a regular spiral pattern.

The degree of reduction in noise interference is determined by the number of turns per
foot. Increasing the number of turns per foot decreases noise interference.

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Types of Twisted pair:

Unshielded Twisted Pair:

An unshielded twisted pair is widely used in telecommunication. Following are the

categories of the unshielded twisted pair cable:

o Category 1: Category 1 is used for telephone lines that have low-speed data.
o Category 2: It can support upto 4Mbps.
o Category 3: It can support upto 16Mbps.
o Category 4: It can gsupport upto 20Mbps. Therefore, it can be used for long-
distance communication.
o Category 5: It can support upto 200Mbps.

Advantages Of Unshielded Twisted Pair:

o It is cheap.
o Installation of the unshielded twisted pair is easy.
o It can be used for high-speed LAN.

Disadvantage:

o This cable can only be used for shorter distances because of attenuation.

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Shielded Twisted Pair

A shielded twisted pair is a cable that contains the mesh surrounding the wire that allows
the higher transmission rate.

Characteristics Of Shielded Twisted Pair:

o The cost of the shielded twisted pair cable is not very high and not very low.
o An installation of STP is easy.
o It has higher capacity as compared to unshielded twisted pair cable.
o It has a higher attenuation.
o It is shielded that provides the higher data transmission rate.

Disadvantages

o It is more expensive as compared to UTP and coaxial cable.

o It has a higher attenuation rate.

Coaxial Cable

o Coaxial cable is very commonly used transmission media, for example, TV wire
is usually a coaxial cable.
o The name of the cable is coaxial as it contains two conductors parallel to each
other.
o It has a higher frequency as compared to Twisted pair cable.
o The inner conductor of the coaxial cable is made up of copper, and the outer
conductor is made up of copper mesh. The middle core is made up of non-
conductive cover that separates the inner conductor from the outer conductor.
o The middle core is responsible for the data transferring whereas the copper mesh
prevents from the EMI(Electromagnetic interference).

Coaxial cable is of two types:

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1. Baseband transmission: It is defined as the process of transmitting a single

signal at high speed.
2. Broadband transmission: It is defined as the process of transmitting multiple
signals simultaneously.

Advantages Of Coaxial cable:

o The data can be transmitted at high speed.

o It has better shielding as compared to twisted pair cable.
o It provides higher bandwidth.

Disadvantages Of Coaxial cable:

o It is more expensive as compared to twisted pair cable.

o If any fault occurs in the cable causes the failure in the entire network.

Fibre Optic

o Fibre optic cable is a cable that uses electrical signals for communication.
o Fibre optic is a cable that holds the optical fibres coated in plastic that are used
to send the data by pulses of light.
o The plastic coating protects the optical fibres from heat, cold, electromagnetic
interference from other types of wiring.
o Fibre optics provide faster data transmission than copper wires.

Diagrammatic representation of fibre optic cable:

Basic elements of Fibre optic cable:

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o Core: The optical fibre consists of a narrow strand of glass or plastic known as a
core. A core is a light transmission area of the fibre. The more the area of the
core, the more light will be transmitted into the fibre.
o Cladding: The concentric layer of glass is known as cladding. The main
functionality of the cladding is to provide the lower refractive index at the core
interface as to cause the reflection within the core so that the light waves are
transmitted through the fibre.
o Jacket: The protective coating consisting of plastic is known as a jacket. The
main purpose of a jacket is to preserve the fibre strength, absorb shock and extra
fibre protection.

Following are the advantages of fibre optic cable over copper:

o Greater Bandwidth: The fibre optic cable provides more bandwidth as

compared copper. Therefore, the fibre optic carries more data as compared to
copper cable.
o Faster speed: Fibre optic cable carries the data in the form of light. This allows
the fibre optic cable to carry the signals at a higher speed.
o Longer distances: The fibre optic cable carries the data at a longer distance as
compared to copper cable.
o Better reliability: The fibre optic cable is more reliable than the copper cable as
it is immune to any temperature changes while it can cause obstruct in the
connectivity of copper cable.
o Thinner and Sturdier: Fibre optic cable is thinner and lighter in weight so it can
withstand more pull pressure than copper cable.

Un-Guided Transmission

o An unguided transmission transmits the electromagnetic waves without using

any physical medium. Therefore it is also known as wireless transmission.
o In unguided media, air is the media through which the electromagnetic energy
can flow easily.

Unguided transmission is broadly classified into three categories:

Radio waves

o Radio waves are the electromagnetic waves that are transmitted in all the
directions of free space.

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o Radio waves are omnidirectional, i.e., the signals are propagated in all the
directions.
o The range in frequencies of radio waves is from 3Khz to 1 khz.
o In the case of radio waves, the sending and receiving antenna are not aligned, i.e.,
the wave sent by the sending antenna can be received by any receiving antenna.
o An example of the radio wave is FM radio.

Applications Of Radio waves:

o A Radio wave is useful for multicasting when there is one sender and many
receivers.
o An FM radio, television, cordless phones are examples of a radio wave.

Advantages Of Radio transmission:

o Radio transmission is mainly used for wide area networks and mobile cellular
phones.
o Radio waves cover a large area, and they can penetrate the walls.
o Radio transmission provides a higher transmission rate.

Microwaves

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Microwaves are of two types:

o Terrestrial microwave
o Satellite microwave communication.

Terrestrial Microwave Transmission

o Terrestrial Microwave transmission is a technology that transmits the focused
beam of a radio signal from one ground-based microwave transmission antenna
to another.
o Microwaves are the electromagnetic waves having the frequency in the range
from 1GHz to 1000 GHz.
o Microwaves are unidirectional as the sending and receiving antenna is to be
aligned, i.e., the waves sent by the sending antenna are narrowly focussed.
o In this case, antennas are mounted on the towers to send a beam to another
antenna which is km away.
o It works on the line of sight transmission, i.e., the antennas mounted on the towers
are the direct sight of each other.

Characteristics of Microwave: Frequency range: The frequency range of terrestrial

microwave is from 4-6 GHz to 21-23 GHz.

o Bandwidth: It supports the bandwidth from 1 to 10 Mbps.

o Short distance: It is inexpensive for short distance.
o Long distance: It is expensive as it requires a higher tower for a longer distance.
o Attenuation: Attenuation means loss of signal. It is affected by environmental
conditions and antenna size.

Advantages Of Microwave:

o Microwave transmission is cheaper than using cables.

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o It is free from land acquisition as it does not require any land for the installation
of cables.
o Microwave transmission provides an easy communication in terrains as the
installation of cable in terrain is quite a difficult task.
o Communication over oceans can be achieved by using microwave transmission.

Disadvantages of Microwave transmission:

o Eavesdropping: An eavesdropping creates insecure communication. Any

malicious user can catch the signal in the air by using its own antenna.
o Out of phase signal: A signal can be moved out of phase by using microwave
transmission.
o Susceptible to weather condition: A microwave transmission is susceptible to
weather condition. This means that any environmental change such as rain, wind
can distort the signal.
o Bandwidth limited: Allocation of bandwidth is limited in the case of microwave
transmission.

Satellite Microwave Communication

o A satellite is a physical object that revolves around the earth at a known height.
o Satellite communication is more reliable nowadays as it offers more flexibility
than cable and fibre optic systems.
o We can communicate with any point on the globe by using satellite
communication.

How Does Satellite work?

The satellite accepts the signal that is transmitted from the earth station, and it amplifies
the signal. The amplified signal is retransmitted to another earth station.

Advantages Of Satellite Microwave Communication:

o The coverage area of a satellite microwave is more than the terrestrial microwave.
o The transmission cost of the satellite is independent of the distance from the
centre of the coverage area.
o Satellite communication is used in mobile and wireless communication
applications.
o It is easy to install.

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o It is used in a wide variety of applications such as weather forecasting, radio/TV

signal broadcasting, mobile communication, etc.

Disadvantages Of Satellite Microwave Communication:

o Satellite designing and development requires more time and higher cost.
o The Satellite needs to be monitored and controlled on regular periods so that it
remains in orbit.
o The life of the satellite is about 12-15 years. Due to this reason, another launch
of the satellite has to be planned before it becomes non-functional.

Infrared

o An infrared transmission is a wireless technology used for communication over

short ranges.
o The frequency of the infrared in the range from 300 GHz to 400 THz.
o It is used for short-range communication such as data transfer between two cell
phones, TV remote operation, data transfer between a computer and cell phone
resides in the same closed area.

Characteristics Of Infrared:

o It supports high bandwidth, and hence the data rate will be very high.
o Infrared waves cannot penetrate the walls. Therefore, the infrared communication
in one room cannot be interrupted by the nearby rooms.
o An infrared communication provides better security with minimum interference.
o Infrared communication is unreliable outside the building because the sun rays
will interfere with the infrared waves.

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