UNIT – 3

SUB STRUCTURE

• The substructure is the lower part of a building which is constructed below the ground
level. The function of substructure is the transfer of loads from the superstructure to
the underlying soil. So, the substructure is in direct contact with supporting soil.
Substructure involves footing and plinth of a building.

TUNNELING TECHNIQUES

Process of making tunnels in order to reduce distance of travel or traffic congestion for
highway and railway is called tunnelling.
• A tunnel construction is an underground passage provided beneath earth surface or
water.

• Different methods of tunnel construction and their details are discussed.

• In most of the cases tunnel construction is expensive but it saves time and provides
comfort.

• Large excavation of soil or rock etc. is necessary for a tunnel construction.

• With the availability of modern equipment, excavation and backfilling has become
easier.

• Tunnels can be used for roadways, railways and even as waterways also.

• In many cities, underground metro rail networks work inside a tunnel.

METHODS OF TUNNEL CONSTRUCTION

• Cut and cover method.

• Bored tunnel method.

• Clay kicking method.

• Underwater tunnels.
Cut and cover method

• Generally used to build shallow tunnels.

• In this method, a trench is cut in the soil and it is covered by some support which
can be capable of bearing load on it.

• The cutting can be done by two methods-One is bottom up method in which a tunnel
is excavated under the surface using ground support. Another method is top-down
method in which side support walls are constructed first by slurry walling method or
contiguous bored piling.*

• Then roof is located on the top of the walls and excavation is carried out. Finally, base
slab is constructed.

• Most of the Underground metro rail stations are constructed using cut and cover
method.

Bored tunnel method

• "Bored tunnel method is modern technology. In this case, tunnel boring

machines are used which automatically work and makes the entire tunneling
process easier.”

• It is also quicker process and good method to build tunnel in high traffic areas.
Tunnels boring machines (TBM's) are available in different types suitable for
different ground conditions.

• These machines can be used in difficult conditions such as below the water table etc.
A special pressurized compartment is provided for TBM to work in below water table
conditions.

• The workers should not enter that compartment except for repair works.

• "Care should be taken while TBM is in working conditions. The only difficulty with
this TBM is its heavy weight. So, transportation is difficult and costlier.
Clay Kicking Method

• This method is used for strong clayey soil conditions. This is an old method and used
for small works like sewage pipes installations etc.

• In this method, a hole is excavated into the ground and after some depth tunnel is
excavated which is done by the clay kicker which lies on a plank at 45o angle.

• An excavating tool is provided under clay kicker foot. The excavated using that tool is
collected by other workers.

Shaft Method

• In this method tunnel is constructed at greater depth from the ground surface. The
shaft is built up to the depth where tunnel is required.

• Shaft is a permanent structure which is like well with concrete walls. At required
depth, tunnels are excavated using TBM’s. Shafts are provided at both inlet and outlet
of tunnels. Intermediate shafts are also provided if tunnel is too long.

• After the construction process, these shafts can also be used for ventilation purpose as
well as emergency exits.

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UNDERWATER TUNNEL CONSTRUCTION

• An underwater tunnel is a structure which is built under water to make a way through
it. If construction of bridge is not possible then under water tunnel is good choice.

• Under water tunneling is costly process but have advantages over bridge or ferry
links. Immersed tubes or bored tunnel are two most common methods which are used
to construct under water tunnels.

PIPE JACKING

• Pipe jacking and utility tunneling methods are types of trenchless construction
methods, which involves the requirement of workers to enter the bore hole.
 • Pipe jacking method is used to construct tunnels under existing structures like road
ways, railways etc. In this method, specially made pipes are driven into underground
using hydraulic jacks. Maximum size of 3.2-meter diameter is allowed for tunnels.

BOX JACKING

• It is the process in which a pre-cast R.C.C box or a rigid box is pushed into the soil
with the help of hydraulic jacks ™

• It is non-intrusive method beneath the existing surface. ™

• It is more often used when a subway or a aqueduct or a underground structure is to be

constructed. ™

• It enables the traffic flow without disruption.

APPLICATIONS OF BOX JACKING

• To install storm drains.

• Pedestrian trails.

• Under crossings for livestock and wildlife, in many industrial settings.

• For roadways.

METHODS OF BOX JACKING

• First the box section is designed and cast at the site or can be transported to the site
according to the requirement. ™

• The foundation boxes are jacked into the ground designed to carry the dead and the
live loads. ™

• Then the high capacity jacks are placed at the back and it pushes the box into the
ground. ™

• A purpose designed tunneling shield is provided in the front end. ™

• Then the box is jacked carefully through the earth. ™

 • Excavation and jacking are done in small increments in advance measures should be
taken to prevent the soil being dragged towards the box.

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ARCH JACKING

• A patented method for the installation of large underground structures is the Jacked
Arch Method.

APPLICATIONS OF ARCH JACKING

• Stage 1. The installation of man-entry foundation boxes or tubes designed for

foundation loads and the soil conditions. These are jacked in to position.

• Stage 2. After driving the boxes or foundation tunnel a guide path for the arch is set
manually inside the boxes

• Stage 3. The main structure is formed from pre-cast arch sections (2 or 3 pin) which
are jacked in behind a shield to form the canopy structure. The base of the arch
sections, as they are driven forward, are located and slide in the guide path (installed
at Stage 2). The foundation boxes have lids which can be removed progressively from
inside the arch shield to expose the track.

• Stage 4. Internal finishes and a floor are installed appropriate to use.

• This method is ideal for many types of underpass and cost effective in creating deep
underground metro stations and caverns.

ADVANTAGES OF ARCH JACKING

• It can be undertaken from a smaller working area.

• It utilizes precast concrete sections that can be produced to a higher quality than in-
situ work.

• It allows a large number of permutations to deal with most soil conditions and shapes
of structures.

• Full scale roadways to international standards can be provided.

 • The individual unit weight of precast sections is such that it does not require high
capacity cranes.

• The depth of cover can be as little as 1 meter.

• Depending on spans the arch units can be either 2 pin or 3 pin. Up to 30metre spans
can be achieved with a 3 pin arch.

• Compared to box jacking the frictional loads and thus the jacking capacity required is
much less

• We are able to incorporate a guaranteed water proofing system between elements.

TYPES OF ARCH JACKING

• Standard Single Span Jacked Arch

• Multi Span Jacked Arches

STANDARD SINGLE SPAN JACKED ARCH

• To install an underground structure without disruption to the surface and traffic or

where the overburden is considerable.

• This could be to create a suitable arch structure for a road , rail track or water course
below any existing facility which could be an existing highway, rail track or building.

MULTI SPAN JACKED ARCHES

• Where the requirement is to install more than a single arch for aesthetic or technical
reasons such as span limitations it is possible to install multi arches.

• This could be to create a suitable arch structure for a road, rail track or water course
below any existing facility which could be an existing highway, rail track or building.
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DIAPHRAGM WALL

• Diaphragm wall is a continuous reinforced concrete wall constructed in the ground to

support major construction activities like the construction of dams, tunnel approaches,
deep basements and enclosures. They act as a retaining wall, support for the
underground structure, as a foundation or facilitate cut off provision in order to
support deep excavation.

• The diaphragm walls can have a thickness ranging from 60cm to 150cm with a width
of 2.0 to 3.5m. The diaphragm walls can be constructed up to a depth of 60m.

VARIOUS METHODS ADOPTED TO CONSTRUCT A DIAPHRAGM WALL

• Slurry trench technique

1. Soil mixing method

2. RC continuous diaphragm wall

3. Precast diaphragm wall

4. Glass diaphragm walls

 Slurry trench technique

 The technique involves excavating a narrow trench that is kept full of an engineered
fluid or slurry.
 The slurry exerts hydraulic pressure against the trench walls and acts as shoring to
prevent collapse.
  Slurry trench excavations can be performed in all types of soil even below ground
water table

Soil mixing method

• This is the method used to make continuous walls by churning up piled soil using an
auger, pouring in cement milk and marking soil mortar columns in the ground using
the soil as aggregate.

• This is an in situ mixing and churning method In the method after completing
excavation of the groove wall using an excavator, soil cement is produced by mixing
and churning excavated soil.

• The excavated soil is classified and graded with cement milk after being put through a
tremie.

• Then the soil cement is poured into the groove wall, after which the steel material is
built as the core material.

RC continuous diaphragm wall

• This method of building a very long continuous diaphragm wall.

• Excavate a given groove between the surface and underground using a stabilizing
liquid.

• Insert a given steel bar pour in concrete, thereby building a reinforced concrete wall
underground.

Precast diaphragm wall

• With this method, a continuous trench or longer panels are excavated under self
hardening cement- bentonite (CB) slurry.

• The precast concrete wall sections are lifted and positioned by a crane.

• The CB slurry sets to form the final composite wall.

• The trench is excavated under bentonite slurry, which is then displaced with CB
slurry.
Glass diaphragm walls

• For contained enclosure, a diaphragm wall system consisting of special glass panels
with a sealing made out of glass are used.

• The panels are 50cm wide and upto 15cm long

Common uses of diaphragm wall walls

• To provide structural support for the construction.

• To provide retaining wall.

• To provide deep diaphragms.

Applications of diaphragm wall

• As permanent and temporary foundation wall foundation walls for deep foundation
for deep basements.

• In earth retention schemes for highway and tunnel projects.

• As permanent walls for deep shafts for tunnel access.

• As permanent cut - off walls through the core of earth dams.

• In congested areas for retention systems and permanent foundation walls.

• Deep groundwater barriers through and under dams.

ANCHORING A DIAPHRAGM WALL

• Ground anchor bolts are used in order to link the structural and non-structural
elements of the D-wall to the concrete. The process of casting these anchors into the
diaphragm wall is known as Anchoring.

• The Anchoring activity begins 7 days after the diaphragm wall panels are cast.

Anchoring help in the diaphragm wall construction

• Anchoring assists in transferring the tension and shear forces between these structural
elements and lateral support to the diaphragm wall to sustain force from the top.
 • It involves anchor bolts, steel plates, sleeves and stiffeners to form the anchor on the
diaphragm wall.

• If anchoring is not done, then they have to increase the depth of the wall into the
ground to almost double the size required.

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GROUTING

• The method of using grout to repair cracks in concrete, fill gaps in tiles, seal joints
and stabilize the soil, etc. is called grouting.

• Grouting is used to provide additional strength to a building's foundation and

structure. It is also used to repair cracks in concrete, fill gaps in tiles, seal joints, and
stabilize soils.

Types of Grouting

1. Cement Grouting

2. Chemical Grouting

3. Structural Grouting

4. Bentonite Grouting

5. Bituminous Grouting

6. Resin Grouting

1. Cement Grouting - Cement grouting is used for high permeability land, for which the
grout is prepared using water, sand, and cement. Cement grouting is used to provide
deposit/stabilization and strengthen to a wide variety of structures such as bridges, marine
applications, dams, and rock anchors.

2. Chemical Grouting - Chemical grouting is a form of permeation grouting. This type of

grouting mix usually includes acrylamides, polyurethanes, acrylates, epoxy, and sodium
silicates.
There are two main processes of chemical grouting::

• Two-shot Process

In this process, the pipe is inserted into the ground through a drill. After this, the chemical
material is pumped through the pipe in such a way one is followed by another into the soil.
So that in the process of a chemical reaction the soil can take a solid form at a rapid speed.

• One-shot process

In this method, a chemical mixture of grouting material is prepared in advance and then
poured underground. This process takes time for the structure to harden. A one-shot process
of chemical grouting is used for boreholes.

3. Structural Grouting - A structure is constructed at the site to be mined. Structural grouting

is used to fill the gaps between concrete and rock structures and fill the voids between mined
materials. Apart from this, structural grouting is also used to fill cracks in rocks and joints of
rocks in underground tunnels. Structural grouting is commonly done in tunnels and
underground structures.

4. Bentonite Grouting - Bentonite is the major component in drilling muds or fluids used in
rotary drilling. The suitability of sodium bentonite as a grouting material is 15 times its dry
volume when hydrated. Due to its swelling and gel-like permeability property, it is suitable
for filling gaps between the casings.

5. Bituminous Grouting - Hot bitumen grouting is a special type of grouting in which molten
hot coral is used as the grouting material.

6. Resin Grouting - Epoxy grouts are also known as reactive resin grouts. This type of
grouting material is made from a cement-based mixture. It is not waterproof but has the
ability to absorb water when wet.

APPLICATIONS OF GROUTING

• It is used to repair machine foundations, base plates, load-bearing, and pillar joints in
prefabricated structures.

• Grouting is used to fill gaps, cracks in concrete structures.

• Used for repairing footpaths and the ground under foundations.

 • Defects in masonry and cracks in concrete are repaired by grouting.

• Used in soil stabilization.

• Used to control water leakage in mines, tunnels, dams, underground structures.

• Grouting is used to repair unusual and difficult geotechnical and structural problems

• Used to aid in the excavation process.

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ANCHOR CABLE

• A cable is a flexible structural component that offers no resistance when compressed

or bent in a curved shape. Technically we can say cable has zero bending rigidity.

• It can only support tensile loading.

• Cables are often used in engineering structures for support and to transmit load from
one point to another when used to support suspension roofs, bridges and trolley
wheels, cables form the main load carrying element in the structure.

• Being inextensible the cable has constant length before and after the load is applied,
as a result once the load is applied the geometry of cable remains fixed.

• The easiest structure type to think is a tension structure to resist only tensile force and
of these, the simplest are those which sustain only unidirectional tension as
represented by a cable or thin rod.

Anchor cable materials

• Steel, nylon ropes or plasticated cables may be used for different structures.

• Steel Cables The high tensile strength of steel combined with the efficiency of simple
tension, makes a steel cable the ideal structural element to span large distances.

• Nylon and plastics are suitable only for temporary structures, spanning small
distances. other structural members like masts, compression rings arches or beams
and compression struts may be of concrete or steel preferably. Struts may also be of
timber.
Anchor cable applications

• Suspended type cable

• Stayed type cable

Suspended type cable

• A suspension bridge is a type of bridge in which the deck (the load-bearing portion) is
hung below suspension cables on vertical suspenders.

• This type of bridge has cables suspended between towers, plus vertical suspender
cables that carry the weight of the deck below, upon which traffic crosses. This
arrangement allows the deck to be level or to are upward for additional clearance.

• The main type of force in a suspension bridge are tension in cables and compression
in the pillars.

Stayed type cable

• Cable-stayed bridge, bridge form in which the weight of the deck is supported by a
number of nearly straight diagonal cables in tension running directly to one or more
vertical towers. The towers transfer the cable forces to the foundations through
vertical compression. The tensile forces in the cables also put the deck into horizontal
compression.

• Construction of cable-stayed bridges usually follows the cantilever method, so their

construction begins with the sinking of caissons and the erection of towers and
anchorages.

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CAISSON

• A caisson is a box-like structure that is permanently fixed within the water table of
engineering projects. They are primarily used in the construction of bridges, piers, or
similar structures. Depending on the size and scope of the project, there are three
different caissons used most commonly.
(a) Open caisson

(b) Box caisson

(c) Pneumatic caissons

• Open Caissons – Timber, steel, or concrete box that is open at the top and bottom of
the structure. The walls are generally heavy and pumped with reinforced concrete to
ensure a dry area.

• Box Caissons – Watertight boxes usually composed of timber or concrete that are
open at the top. They are generally floated to the specific area and then sunk into
place with a masonry pier.

• Pneumatic Caissons – Primarily used in underwater construction, these boxes are

closed at the top and open at the bottom. Water is pushed out during the sinking
process by using compressed air.

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COFFERDAMS

• Cofferdams are temporary structures that are installed to divert water away from
worksites. Cofferdams are most commonly used in new construction works or short-
term maintenance projects of shallow bridges, piers, or boat ramps. Traditional
cofferdams are filled with concrete or rock to restrict nearby water or river flow.

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SHEET PILES

• Sheet piles are commonly used for retaining walls, land reclamation, underground
structures such as car parks and basements, in marine locations for riverbank
protection, seawalls, cofferdams, and so on.

• To enclose a site or part thereof to prevent the escape of loose subsoil, such as sand,

• and to safeguard against settlement.

• 2. To retain the sides of the trenches and general excavation.

• 3. To protect river banks.

 • 4. To protect the foundations from scouring actions of nearby river, stream etc. To

• construct costal defense works

Different types of sheet piles

Steel sheet pile

• It is available in various cross-sections and shapes. They can be hot-rolled sheet piles,
cold-rolled, or cold-formed sheet piles. Steel sheet piles durability is enhanced with
the aid of corrosion protection measures such as coating and cathodic protection. Steel
is the most common form of sheet piles as it has good resistance to high driving
stresses, excellent water-tightness, and can be increased in length either by welding or
bolting.

Vinyl sheet pile

• An effective alternative to steel sheet piling for bulkheads, seawalls and cutoff walls.

• They are also superior to alternative materials like concrete and wood.

• The main advantage of vinyl sheet piles is the superior corrosion resistance when
exposed to seawater, where no oxidation occurs.

Wooden sheet pile

These are used for temporary structures and braced sheeting in excavation works. If it is to be
used in permanent structures above the water table, some form of preservative treatment shall
be given.

Concrete sheet pile

• These are usually connected by tongue and groove joints. They are commonly used in
permanent river embankments, canals and other marine structures.

Advantages of sheet pile

• Recyclable and reusable.

• Available a wide range of lengths, size and steel options.

• Can be used for temporary and permanent structures.

 • Can be installed using silent and vibration-free methods.

• Quicker installation than contiguous or secant walls.

• Cofferdams can be constructed in almost any desired shape,

• Provide a close-fitting joint to form an effective water seal.

• Light in weight, making lifting and handling easy

• Length and design of the pile are easily adjustable

• Joints are designed to withstand the high pressure necessary for them to be placed in
place

• A little maintenance is needed above and underwater

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SHORING

• Shoring is lateral support, usually temporary, that is used during the repair or original
construction of buildings and in excavations.

• Shoring in Construction is essentially required to support a deep excavation to prevent

the retained soil from overturns and eventually cause a project mishap. Its support
requirement depends on the types of soil and when an excavation depth is at least
1.20-meter difference in levels from ground level.

Requirement of Shoring

• If the wall shows signs of bulging out due to bad workmanship.

• To repair a crack on the wall due to unequal settlement of the foundation.

• When an adjacent structure is to be dismantled.

• If openings are to be made or enlarged in the wall.

• To give support to walls that are dangerous or are likely to become unstable because
of subsidence, bulging, or leaning.

• For avoiding failure of sound walls caused by the removal of underlying support
 • During demolition works to give support to an adjacent building or structure.

Different types of shoring

• Dead Shoring - Dead shoring is used to temporarily support the walls, roofs, floors,
etc., by providing horizontal members known as needles. This type of shoring is used
to support dead loads that act vertically downwards.

• Rake shoring - Rake shoring is used to support any walls that aren’t structurally
sound within a building. Using cleats, needles, sole plates, inclined members, bracing
and wall plates, they help to keep walls intact to minimize any damage to the existing
building or structure. It is used to transfer the floor and wall loads to the ground
utilizing sloping struts or rakers. The rakers must be positioned correctly so that they
are capable of receiving maximum wall and floor loads.

• Flying Shoring - Flying shoring is a support system that provides horizontal support
to two parallel party walls when removal or collapse of the intermediate building
takes place. These are most often used for supporting temporarily the parallel walls of
two adjacent buildings where an intermediate building has to be demolished or
rebuilt.

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DEWATERING

• Dewatering of excavations is required at construction sites generally for foundation

works.

Methods of Dewatering Excavations at Construction Site-

1. Wellpoint method of dewatering,

2. Eductor wells,

3. Open sump pumping and

4. Deep wellpoint method

Wellpoint

 Wellpoint systems are used to lower groundwater levels to provide stable working
conditions. They consist of a series of small diameter wells that are connected by a
header pipe to a wellpoint pump. The pump creates a vacuum in the header pipe
drawing water up from the ground.
 Wellpoints are typically installed along or around an excavation. The height to which
water can be drawn by vacuum in this way is approximately 6 metres. To function at
greater depths, well points can be installed in stages as the excavation proceeds.

 Wellpoint systems are particularly suited to dewatering for shallow foundations and
excavations, so they are often used for pipeline trench work. A wellpoint system can
be installed quickly in most ground conditions and they are easy to maintain.

Eductor Wells

 High-pressure water is used in the riser units instead of vacuum to draw out water
from the wellpoints. The method uses the venturi principle which is the reduction in
fluid pressure that results when a high-pressure fluid flows through a constricted
section of a pipe.

Open Sump Pumping Method

 This is the most common and economical method of dewatering as gravity is the main
playing force. Sump is created in the excavated area into which the surrounding water
converges and accumulates facilitating easy discharge of water through robust solid
handling pumps.

Deep Well Method

• By creating deep wells around the vicinity, the groundwater is made to fall into them
under the influence of gravity. As a result, the groundwater level in the surroundings
would decline. According to the type and arrangement of pumps, the depths of the
wells could reach up to 30m. This method is generally adopted when a heavy amount
of water from the ground has to be drawn out.
SUPER STRUCTURE

• The superstructure is the portion of a building which is constructed above the ground
level and it serves the purpose of structure’s intended use. It includes columns, beams,
slab upwards including all finishes, door and window schedules, flooring, roofing,
lintels, and parapets.

LAUNCHING GIRDER

• Launching girder is a steel or wooden structural member used to support the super
structures such as bridge deck, off shore structures etc. the operation of launching
girder is more difficult. Proper study and local site investigations are the only way
to make it easier.

USES

• It is used for all type of bridge deck construction

• It is used in the field of pier head construction

• It is used for off shore platform construction

• It is used for deep foundation construction

• It is used for lifting heavy equipment for various constructions.

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BRIDGE DECKS

• The Bridge decks are one of the basic components of the bridge that forms its surface.
The bridge deck may either be cast-in-situ, precast, steel, wood, concrete, or other
pavement systems which are supported on concrete or steel girders or beams
(composite bridges).

Types of Bridge Decks

• Reinforced Concrete Decks

• Solid Slab Bridge Decks

• Reinforced Concrete Decks

• Concrete Decks are most common in bridge construction and this is especially
because of the ease of preparation and placement to various shapes and
sizes. Concrete decks have good durability, are very resistant to wear, and also
provide good traction control.

• Solid Slab Bridge Decks

• Solid rectangular is not very efficient structural form in bridges as because of the
moment of area is small relative to its area and weight. This type of decks mostly
adopted in relatively small span (upto 20m) and the cost of construction is
comparatively low and reinforcement is simple.

• Voided Slab Deck

• Voided rectangular slab sections are used when the span range of bridge in between
20-30m. The presence of voids may increases the cost of construction and this is
because of the voids adds complexity to the reinforcement particularly the
 reinforcement in transverse bending section. But it reduces the self-weight and area of
the concrete to be prestressed with affecting the second moment of area.

• T Slab Sections

• T sections are mostly adopted in span range of 20-40m as an alternative to void slabs
in bridges. The beams can be done on either precast or on site construction. The top
portion of the T section called flange which supports the slab work with beam to
reduce the compression and deflection can be controlled to a great extent.

• Box Slab or girder section

• Box sections are used when the span more than 40m and box sections are more
economical in constructions of decks in this span range. The box girders have many
advantages like good resistance to torsion and this because of the deck is in curved
plane. Also the girder can be constructed in wider because of the presence of two
webs and strong flanges. The interior of the box girders can be used for service such
as gas lines, pipe lines, cables etc.
• Steel Orthotropic Bridge Decks
• Steel orthotropic decks are now extensively used in Europe, South America and Asia.
The main advantages of these decks are the weight of the structure can be
considerably reduced (due to the decks are designed integral with girders as a
common flange), have a long life and easy to install.
TYPES OF BRIDGE DECKS

Composite Bridge Decks

• Composite Bridge Decks can generally refer to the interaction of structural members
of concrete and steel. This is used in bridge construction is mainly because of the
ability to adapt the geometry and design constraints and also the reliability of steel
members. The shear transmission in composite decks is done through shear
connectors which are embedded in concrete and the other end is welded on the steel
beam.
• The concrete is good in compression and steel is good in tension and compression.

Fibre Reinforced Polymer Decks

• Fibre Reinforced Polymers are mostly used in the aerospace industry and now it’s
also used in bridge construction. FRP composite materials are made up of fibre
aligned within resin materials and this makes the panels very strong, customizable,
and very light. Carbon and glass fibres are most often adopted for bridge decking. It is
installed as full-depth deck panels after molding it into cellular panels.

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OFFSHORE PLATFORMS

• Offshore platforms are a structure that is constructed in the ocean or sea to explore or
to produce oil or gas from the sources found below the sea. It is dealt with the
foundations in the sea.

• Offshore platforms are made up of either in steel or concrete. Since this construction
is constructed on sea water utmost care should be taken to resist the structure from the
corrosion problems.

• Uses:

1. Oil and gas exploration

2. Navigation aid tower

3. Bridges and causeways

4. Ship loading and unloading facilities

 • Types of offshore platform

1. Fixed platform

2. Complaint tower

3. Sea shore platform

4. Floating production system

5. Tension leg platform

6. Sub base platform

7. Spar platform

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SPECIAL FORMS OF SHELL

• A shell structure is a three dimensional structure constructed for storage of water, roof
of large column free are such as complex theatres etc.

• The shell is used as special forms

1. Roofs chimney

2. Cooling tower

Construction sequence of shell roofs

• Due to the minimum thickness, shell structures are used for special roof construction.
It is used to cover large area by means of column free structure.

• The following are the special forms of shell roofs.

• Single barrel shell

• Butterfly shell

• Multiple barrel shell

• North light cylindrical shell

Shell roofs

• Advantages

1. Very light form of construction to span 30.0m shell thickness required is 60mm.

2. Dead load can be reduced economizing foundation and supporting system

3. Flat shapes by choosing certain arched shapes.

4. Aesthetically it looks good over other forms of construction.

• Disadvantages:

1. Shuttering problem

2. Greater accuracy in formwork is required

3. Rise of roof may be disadvantages

4. Good labour and supervision necessary

5. Design consideration of shell roof

6. Slope shall not exceed 45° to 65 °

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IN SITU PRESTRESSING IN HIGH RISE STRUCTURE

• Prestressing is the method of increasing tensile strength of member by introducing

internal stresses for prestressing, the tendons are used to introduce stresses and
suitable anchorage is used. Prestressing of concrete member can be obtained by
following two methods:

1. Pre tensioning method

2. Post tensioning method

CONSTRUCTION SEQUENCES IN TALL BUILDING

1. Studying of local soil condition

2. Form work

3. Mixing of concrete

4. Pumping system

5. Use of admixtures

6. Proper curing

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MATERIAL HANDLING

• Material handling consists of transporting, securing and stacking or protect the

manufacturing product for the purpose of construction is known as material handling.
In order to handle materials large amount of equipments such as various types
of conveyors, cranes and trucks and labours are involved.
CLASSIFICATION OF MATERIAL HANDLING

• Transport equipment

• Positioning equipment

• Unit load formation equipment

• Storage equipment

• Identification and control equipment

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ERECTION OF LIGHT WEIGHT COMPONENT OF TALL STRUCTURE

• The light weight components are transported and stacked.

• The suitable scaffolding and temporary supporting structures are made to establish the
light weight component.

• Lifting and placing to the system to ensure stability during erection.

• Aligning and permanently connecting the member by bolting, riveting or welding

concreting.

• Connecting all necessary claddings.

• Removing all scaffolding or supporting structure

PRECAUTIONS

• Well trained workers are used for erection process, because minor mistake can cause
serious effects.

• Proper material handling should be carried out such that it can minimize the storage
requirements.

• Cleaning process should be carried out on the surface of the elements.

• Proper verification should be made to avoid irregular shape of members.

• Proper scaffolding should be avoid any structural failure during erection process.

• The surface treatments should be made by means of proper finishing work.

SUPPORT STRUCTURE FOR HEAVY EQUIPMENT AND CONVEYORS

• The supporting structure is used to indicate any structure used to support a working
platform including plant and equipment. A safe resting surface is required for
supporting structures. The supporting structure should be strong enough rigid and
stable.

ERECTION OF ARTICUALTED STRUCTURES

• An articulated structure is defined as a structure connected/ constructed by joints.

Articulated structures are very useful for the construction of mega structure.

• A traffic management plan is developed and implemented.

• Activities of all contractors are being co-ordinated and supervised.

• The grand surface or supporting structure is suitable for plant to operate safely.

• Weather conditions are continually monitored particularly potentially hazardous

situations like high or string winds and electrical storms. At least one of the erection
crew or another person who remains on site throughout erection process.

• The builder should ensure that the accuracy of each contractors work is within the
tolerance of the level or position nominated by the erection engineer or relevant
standard.

• Any modifications to the building layout also need to checked by the builder for
approval by the erection engineer.

• Only start the erection of member or sub-assembly when equipment to ensure the
structures stability is available and being used.

• Ensure temporary bracing securely anchored Check the fittings for the support of
columns during erection to ensure adequate structural capacity for the erection
conditions.

ERECTION PROCESS OF BRACED DOMES AND SPACE DECK

• If the length of the area to be roofed is more than twice the breadth. It is more
economical to span one way.

• If the area is nearer square the more economical solution . theoretically is to span two
ways.

• The rectangular area can be divided into square or near square areas with lattice girder
and then two way spanning structure can be installed in the sub-divided roof.