Chapter One
Chapter One
Chapter One
Chapter One
In generally accepted definitions of network analysis and synthesis, there are three key
words: the excitation, the network, and the response as depicted in Fig. 1.1.
Definitions:
current sources, and switches, connected in any manner to perform a certain task
(excitation).
For electrical networks, the excitation and response are given in terms of voltages and
currents which are functions of time, 𝑡. In general, these functions of time are called
However, the signal can be described equally well in terms of spectral or frequency
information. The translation between time and frequency domain representations are
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Network Analysis and Synthesis (ECEG-3122)
distortions.
impedances.
Network Analysis
If the network and the excitation are given, and the problem is to find current or voltage
through/across elements of the network or to find their relation with other voltages or
Consists of characterizing the network itself in terms of time and frequency and
Concerned with determining the response, given the excitation and the network
Network synthesis
If the input and the output are given explicitly or implicitly (in the form of a function
relating the two) and the problem is to create a network that meets the given
Here the problem is to design/synthesize the network from the system function
𝑅(𝑠)
𝐻(𝑠) = 𝐸(𝑠) given the excitation 𝐸(𝑠) and the desired response 𝑅(𝑠)
solutions (networks).
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different properties.
Passive elements are those that have no energy sources. This includes resistors,
Active elements are dependent sources, transistors, op-amps etc. There are
separate energy sources in these elements, without which they cannot function.
A system is linear if superposition theorem holds true for the input-output relationship
If 𝑥1 → 𝑦1
and 𝑥2 → 𝑦2
Similarly, linear elements are those that have a linear response (current or voltage) to
the input (voltage or current); or elements that have linear relationship between current
Unlike lumped parameter elements, many network elements have electrical properties
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A transmission line between a generating station and the load has inductance (due to
the magnetic field set up by the current) and capacitance (between two conductors and
through all the parts. However, points along the line do not have the same electrical
conditions at the same instant of time. This means that the parameters are distributed
physical circuit elements. The elements most often encountered are the resistor R, given
in ohms, the capacitor C, given in farads, and the inductor L, expressed in henrys. The
endpoints of the elements are called terminals. A port is defined as a pair of terminals in
or observed
The energy sources that make up the excitation functions are ideal current or voltage
sources, as shown in Figs. 1.3 a and b. The polarities indicated for the voltage sources
and the direction of flow for the current source are arbitrarily assumed for reference
purposes only. An ideal voltage source is an energy source that provides, at a given
port, a voltage signal that is independent of the current at that port. If we interchange
the words “current” and “voltage” in the last definition, we then define an ideal current
source.
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A dependent voltage (or current) source is a source the voltage (or current) of which
Some physical devices operate almost like ideal dependent sources. For example, an
In network analysis, the principal problem is to find the relationships that exist between
the currents and voltages at the ports of the network. Certain simple voltage-current
relationships for the network elements also serve as defining equations for the elements
themselves. For example, when the currents and voltages are expressed as functions of
time, then the R, L, and C elements, shown in Fig. 1.4, are defined by the equations
𝑣(𝑡) = 𝑅𝑖(𝑡) Or 1
𝑖(𝑡) = 𝑣(𝑡)
𝑅
𝑑𝑖(𝑡) Or 1 𝑡
𝑣(𝑡) = 𝐿 𝑖(𝑡) = ∫ 𝑣(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 + 𝑖(0)
𝑑𝑡 𝐿 0
1 𝑡 or 𝑑𝑣(𝑡)
𝑣(𝑡) = ∫ 𝑖(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 + 𝑣(0) 𝑖(𝑡) = 𝐶
𝐶 0 𝑑𝑡
where the constants of integration 𝑖(0) and 𝑣(0) are initial conditions.
Fig. 1.4: (a) Resistor, (b) inductor, (c) capacitor (in time domain)
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Fig. 1.5: (a) Resistor, (b) inductor, (c) capacitor (in Laplace domain)
Expressed as a function of the complex frequency variable s, the equations defining the
R, L, and C elements, shown in Fig. 1.4, are (ignoring the initial conditions for the
moment)
𝑣(𝑡) = 𝑅𝐼(𝑠) Or 1
𝐼(𝑠) = 𝑉(𝑠)
𝑅
𝑉(𝑠) = 𝑠𝐿𝐼(𝑠) Or 1
𝐼(𝑠) = 𝑉(𝑠)
𝑠𝐿
1 Or 𝐼(𝑠) = 𝑠𝐶𝑉(𝑠)
𝑉(𝑠) = 𝐼(𝑠)
𝑠𝐶
We see that in the time domain, i.e., where the independent variable is t, the voltage-
current relationships are given in terms of differential equations. On the other hand, in
the complex-frequency domain, the voltage-current relationships for the elements are
expressed in algebraic equations. Algebraic equations are, in most cases, more easily
network is described by its system or transfer function H(s). The response R(s) and the
network. Our task is to determine 𝑅(𝑠). On the other hand for the case of network
synthesis, we are given 𝐸(𝑠) together with the desired response 𝑅(𝑠) and the problem
𝑅(𝑠)
will be to synthesize the network from the system function 𝐻(𝑠) = 𝐸(𝑠).
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Since 𝐸(𝑠) and 𝑅(𝑠) are currents or voltages, then 𝐻(𝑠) is denoted generally as an
immittance is 𝑅(𝑠) is a voltage and 𝐸(𝑠) is a current, or vise versa. A deriving point
immittance is defined to be a function for which the variables are measured at the same
interchange the words “current” and “voltage” in the last definition, we then have
Impedance 𝑅 𝑠𝐿 1
𝑠𝐶
Admittance 1 1 𝑠𝐶
𝑅 𝑠𝐿
Exercises
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3. For the network shown, write the mesh equation in-terms of (a) differential
Fig. 1.6
4. For the network shown in Fig. 1.7, write the node equation in-terms of (a)
Fig. 1.7
this kind, it is generally not practicable to write a complete set of mesh or node
equations and to solve a system of equations for this one current or voltage. It is then
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The current through, or voltage across, any element of a network is equal to the
In other words, this theorem allows us to find a solution for a current or voltage using
only one source at a time. Once we have the solution for each source, we can combine
the results to obtain the total solution. The term algebraic appears in the above theorem
statement because the currents resulting from the sources of the network can have
different directions, just as the resulting voltages can have opposite polarities.
If we are to consider the effects of each source, the other sources obviously must be
removed. Setting a voltage source too zero volts is like placing a short circuit across its
terminals and setting a current source to zero amperes is like replacing it with an open
circuit. In both cases any internal resistance associated with the sources should remain
in the network.
impedance 𝑍1 (𝑠), shown in Fig. 1.8 (a), the rest of the network N can be replaced by
depicted in Fig. 1.8 (b). The equivalent impedance 𝑍𝑒 (𝑠) is the impedance “looking into”
N from the terminals of 𝑍1 (𝑠) when all voltage sources in N are short circuited and all
current sources are open circuited. The equivalent voltage source 𝑉𝑒 (𝑠) is the voltage
which appears between the terminals 1 and 2 in Fig. 1.8 (a), when the element 𝑍1 (𝑠) is
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Example: for the network in Fig. 1.9, let us determine the voltage 𝑣0 (𝑡) across the
resistor by Thevenin’s theorem. The switch closes at 𝑡 = 0, and we assume that all initial
Fig. 1.9
First let us redraw the circuit in terms of its transformed representation, which is given
in Fig. 1.10.
Fig. 1.10
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We can almost determine by inspection that the Thevenin equivalent voltage source of
𝑉(𝑠)(1⁄𝑠𝐶 )
𝑉𝑒 (𝑠) =
𝑠𝐿1 + 1⁄𝑠𝐶
𝑠𝐿1 (1⁄𝑠𝐶 )
𝑍𝑒 (𝑠) = 𝑠𝐿2 +
𝑠𝐿1 + 1⁄𝑠𝐶
We know that
𝑅𝑉𝑒 (𝑠)
𝑉0 (𝑠) =
𝑍𝑒 (𝑠) + 𝑅
Therefore
𝑅𝑉(𝑠)(1⁄𝑠𝐶 )
𝑉0 (𝑠) =
(𝑅 + 𝑠𝐿2 )(𝑠𝐿1 + 1⁄𝑠𝐶 ) + 𝐿1 ⁄𝐶
Finally
When it is required to find the voltage across an element whose admittance is 𝑌1 (𝑠), the
rest of the network can be represented as an equivalent admittance 𝑌𝑒 (𝑠) in parallel with
an equivalent current source 𝐼𝑒 (𝑠), as shown in Fig. 1.11. The admittance 𝑌𝑒 (𝑠) is the
reciprocal of the Thevenin impedance. The current 𝐼𝑒 (𝑠) is that current which flows
𝐼𝑒 (𝑠)
𝑉1 (𝑠) =
𝑌𝑒 (𝑠) + 𝑌1 (𝑠)
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Fig. 1.11
Example: in the network in Fig. 1.12, the switch closes at 𝑡 = 0. It is given that 𝑣(𝑡) =
0.1𝑒 −5𝑡 and all initial currents and voltages are zero. Let us find the current 𝑖2 (𝑡) by
Norton’s theorem.
Fig. 1.12
The transformed circuit is given in Fig. 1.13. To find the Norton equivalent current
source, we short circuit points 1 and 2 in the network shown. Then 𝐼𝑒 (𝑠) is the current
𝑉(𝑠) 0.1 1
𝐼𝑒 (𝑠) = = =
𝑅1 + 𝑠𝐿 𝐿(𝑠 + 𝑅 ⁄𝐿)(𝑠 + 5) (𝑠 + 5)(𝑠 + 10)
1 𝑠 2 𝐿𝐶 + 𝑠𝑅1 𝐶 + 1 0.5𝑠 2 + 5𝑠 + 10
𝑌𝑒 (𝑠) = 𝑠𝐶 + = =
𝑅1 + 𝑠𝐿 𝑅1 + 𝑠𝐿 𝑠 + 10
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Fig. 1.13
𝐼2 (𝑠) is then
𝐼𝑒 (𝑠) 1
𝐼2 (𝑠) = =
𝑅2 [𝑌𝑒 (𝑠) + 𝐺2 ] (𝑠 + 5)2 (𝑠 + 6)
(𝑠 + 6) − (𝑠 + 5) 1 1
𝐼2 (𝑠) = 2
= 2
−
(𝑠 + 5) (𝑠 + 6) (𝑠 + 5) (𝑠 + 6)(𝑠 + 5)
1 1 1
𝐼2 (𝑠) = 2
− +
(𝑠 + 5) (𝑠 + 5) (𝑠 + 6)
The process of finding the load that will receive maximum power from a particular
system is quite straightforward due to the maximum power transfer theorem, which
A load will receive maximum power from a network when its load impedance is
exactly equal to the Thevenin impedance of the network applied to the load. That is,
𝑍𝐿 (𝑠) = 𝑍𝑇ℎ (𝑠)
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With 𝑍𝐿 (𝑠) = 𝑍𝑇ℎ (𝑠), the system being perfectly matched to the load and the source,
thus the power transfer becomes maximum, and this amount of power 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 can be
element and their interconnection. The behavior of the network, considered as a black
box, leads to a number of classifications like linear, nonlinear: time-invariant and time
variant; passive, active. Also depending on the number of terminals, a network can also
In a linear network, the relationship between the voltage and current is described by a
linear equation. Consider two networks 𝑁1 , and 𝑁2 as shown in Fig.1.14 (a) and (b)
semi-conductor diode and linear resistor R. let the cut-in voltage of the diode be 0.6
volt. In network (a) current 𝐼1 is given by 𝑉/𝑅 and exists for all values of V. In network
(b) if V is less than 0.6 volt the current 𝐼2 is zero and for voltages higher than 0.6 volts 𝐼2
𝑉−0.6
is given by 𝑅+𝑅 , where 𝑅𝐹 is the forward resistance of the diode. Obviously, in network
𝐹
A system (network) is linear if the principle of superposition and (ii) the principle of
proportionality hold. By the superposition principle, if, for a given network, [𝑒1 (𝑡),
𝑟1 (𝑡), and [𝑒2 (𝑡), 𝑟2 (𝑡), are excitation response pairs, then if the excitation were e(t) =
𝑒1 (𝑡) + 𝑒2 (𝑡) the response would be r(t) = 𝑟1 (𝑡) + 𝑟2 (𝑡). By the proportionality principle,
if the excitation were 𝐶1 𝑒1 (𝑡) , where 𝐶1 is a constant, then the response would be
𝐶1 𝑟1 (𝑡)i.e. the constant proportionality 𝐶1 is preserved by the linear network. Let both
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the networks be excited by two serially connected voltage sources 𝑉1 and 𝑉2. Then it can
Where 𝐼𝑖 (𝑉𝑗 ) is the current into the terminals of network 𝑁𝑖 when excited by a voltage
A network is time invariant if 𝑒(𝑡) → 𝑟(𝑡) implies that 𝑒(𝑡 ± 𝑇) → 𝑟(𝑡 ± 𝑇), where the
symbol → means “gives rise to.” To understand the concept of time invariance in a
linear system, let us suppose that initially the excitation is introduced at 𝑡 = 0, which
gives rise to a response 𝑟(𝑡). If the excitation were introduced at 𝑡 = 𝑇, and if the shape
of the response waveform were the same as in the first case, but delayed by a time 𝑇
(Fig. 1.15), then we could say the system is time invariant. Another way of looking at
this concept is through the fact that time-invariant systems contain only elements that
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response is zero for −∞ < 𝑡 < 𝑇. Otherwise the network is said to be non-causal.
Consider a network made up of a single linear resistor. The energy supplied to (or
If the resistor has to deliver power to the external world, 𝑅 has to be negative. As long
as R is positive the resistor will consume power, and such a resistor is called a passive
resistor.
Let 𝑣(𝑡) and 𝑖(𝑡) be voltage and current at the terminals of a network. Then the energy
A network is said to be passive if, and only if, 𝑊(𝑡, 𝑡0 ) + 𝐸(𝑡0 ) ≥ 0 for all 𝑡 and 𝑡0 , and
for all 𝑣(𝑡) and 𝑖(𝑡), where 𝐸(𝑡0 ) is the energy in the network at 𝑡 = 𝑡0 . Otherwise, the
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network is said to be active. In other words, if the energy delivered to the network is
non-negative for all time and input, the network is said to be passive.
A pair of terminals such that current entering one of the terminals is the same as current
leaving the other terminal is called port. Depending on the number of ports, networks
terminal electrical network in which, current enters trough one terminal and leaves
through another terminal. Resistors, inductors, and capacitors are the examples of one
port network because each one has two terminals. One port network representation is
Here, the pair of terminals, 1 & 1’ represents a port. In this case, we are having only one
Similarly, two port networks is a pair of two terminal electrical network in which,
current enters through one terminal and leaves through another terminal of each port.
Two port network representation is shown in the following Fig. 1.17. Here, one pair of
terminals, 1 and 1’ represents one port and, which is called as port1 and the other pair
of terminals, 2 & 2’ represents another port, which is called port2. Port1 is used as an
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There are four variables 𝑉1, 𝑉2, 𝐼1 and 𝐼2 in a two port network as shown in Fig. 1.17, out
of which, we can choose two variables as independent and another two variables as
dependent. So we will get six possible pairs of equations. These equations represent the
variables are called as parameters. So, each pair of equations will give a set of four
Fig. 1.18
2. Obtain the differential equation relating 𝑖𝐿 and 𝑉𝑠 for the circuit shown in Fig. 1.19.
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Fig. 1.19
3. Find the current 𝐼 in the circuit of Fig. 1.20 using the following methods if the input
A) Nodal analysis
B) Mesh analysis
Fig. 1.20
4. Use the superposition theorem to find the voltage 𝑣0 (𝑡) in the following circuit, if
Fig. 1.21
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5. Find 𝒊𝟏 (𝑡) in Fig. 1.22 below using Thevenin’s theorem. The excitation is 𝑒(𝑡) =
Fig. 1.22
6. In the circuit shown in Fig. 1.23, the switch is closed at 𝑡 = 0, with the network
Fig. 1.23
7. For the circuit shown in Fig. 1.24, what load impedance 𝑍𝐿 absorbs maximum
Fig. 1.24
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