Introduction to Subatomic Physics

3 - Electromagnetism and special relativity

Émilie Maurice, Leprince-Ringuet Lab, École polytechnique.

E. Maurice Introduction to Subatomic Physics

 Today’s program 1 | 23

1. Recap of the previous episode

2. Electromagnetic 4-vector (potential)

3. Electromagnetic tensor

4. Electromagnetic Lorentz invariant

5. A moving charged particle ?

E. Maurice Introduction to Subatomic Physics

 Recap of the previous episode 2 | 23

Introduction of tools for special relativity problems

1. Spacetime diagram: Minkowski diagram
2. 4-vectors: position, velocity, acceleration
3. Covariant formalism X = x µ e µ
4. Metric: contains the structure of spacetime xµ = ηµν x ν
5. Invariant spacetime interval: X 2 = (ct)2 − x 2 − y 2 − z 2

Special relativity concepts

1. Twin paradox
2. Relativistic Doppler effect
3. Relativistic aberration
4. Apparent faster-than-light movement

E. Maurice Introduction to Subatomic Physics

 4-vector: reminder 3 | 23

4-vector : object with 4 components, which transforms in a

specific way under Lorentz transformation.
”Timelike” component and three ”spacelike” components

E. Maurice Introduction to Subatomic Physics

 4-vector: reminder 3 | 23

4-vector : object with 4 components, which transforms in a

specific way under Lorentz transformation.
”Timelike” component and three ”spacelike” components
 
ct
x 
X = 
 
y 
z

 
c
v 
 x
U =γ 
vy 
vz

E. Maurice Introduction to Subatomic Physics

 Electrical charge and special relativity 4 | 23

• Q : electrical charge → scalar, Lorentz invariant

dQ
• ρ = dV : electrical charge density → Frame dependent
dQ
In R∗ , the rest frame of the system : ρ∗ = dV ∗
In R, moving at +β wrt R∗ : length contraction

E. Maurice Introduction to Subatomic Physics

 Electrical charge and special relativity 4 | 23

• Q : electrical charge → scalar, Lorentz invariant

dQ
• ρ = dV : electrical charge density → Frame dependent
dQ
In R∗ , the rest frame of the system : ρ∗ = dV ∗
In R, moving at +β wrt R∗ : length contraction
dV ∗
dV = −→ ρ = γρ∗
γ

E. Maurice Introduction to Subatomic Physics

 Electrical charge and special relativity 4 | 23

• Q : electrical charge → scalar, Lorentz invariant

dQ
• ρ = dV : electrical charge density → Frame dependent
dQ
In R∗ , the rest frame of the system : ρ∗ = dV ∗
In R, moving at +β wrt R∗ : length contraction
dV ∗
dV = −→ ρ = γρ∗
γ

v , current density: ~j = ρ~
If the charges are moving with ~ v
!
ρc
J= ~j

E. Maurice Introduction to Subatomic Physics

 Electrical charge and special relativity 4 | 23

• Q : electrical charge → scalar, Lorentz invariant

dQ
• ρ = dV : electrical charge density → Frame dependent
dQ
In R∗ , the rest frame of the system : ρ∗ = dV ∗
In R, moving at +β wrt R∗ : length contraction
dV ∗
dV = −→ ρ = γρ∗
γ

v , current density: ~j = ρ~
If the charges are moving with ~ v
! ! !
ρc ρ∗ c ∗ c
J= =γ = γρ = ρ∗ U
~j ρ∗~v ~
v

J is a 4-vector → under a Lorentz transformation : j 0µ = Λµν j ν

E. Maurice Introduction to Subatomic Physics
 Continuity equation 5 | 23
∂ρ ~ ~j = 0
Conservation of the electrical charge : ∂t
+ ∇.

Let’s express it with the covariant formalism !

E. Maurice Introduction to Subatomic Physics

 Continuity equation 5 | 23
∂ρ ~ ~j = 0
Conservation of the electrical charge : ∂t
+ ∇.

Let’s express it with the covariant formalism !

∂ for a 4-d space ?
• (ct, x, y, z) = x µ
• ∂ must be differentiated with respect to the x µ coordinates
∂µ ≡ ∂µ = { ∂ , ∇} ~
∂x c∂t

E. Maurice Introduction to Subatomic Physics

 Continuity equation 5 | 23
∂ρ ~ ~j = 0
Conservation of the electrical charge : ∂t
+ ∇.

Let’s express it with the covariant formalism !

∂ for a 4-d space ?
• (ct, x, y, z) = x µ
• ∂ must be differentiated with respect to the x µ coordinates
∂µ ≡ ∂µ = { ∂ , ∇} ~
∂x c∂t

∂µ J µ =

E. Maurice Introduction to Subatomic Physics

 Continuity equation 5 | 23
∂ρ ~ ~j = 0
Conservation of the electrical charge : ∂t
+ ∇.

Let’s express it with the covariant formalism !

∂ for a 4-d space ?
• (ct, x, y, z) = x µ
• ∂ must be differentiated with respect to the x µ coordinates
∂µ ≡ ∂µ = { ∂ , ∇} ~
∂x c∂t

∂ρc
∂µ J µ = ∂0 j 0 + ∂i j i = c∂t
+ Σi ∂i j i
∂ρ ~ ~j
= ∂t
+ ∇.

The continuity equation is : ∂µ J µ = 0

E. Maurice Introduction to Subatomic Physics

 Electric and magnetic fields ? 6 | 23
~ : produced by any charged object
Electric field, E
~ =
Coulomb’s law: E 1 Q
~r
4π0 r 3
with 0 the vacuum permittivity, r the distance from the source
~ is calculated.
charge to the point where E
→ Electrostatic interactions

E. Maurice Introduction to Subatomic Physics

 Electric and magnetic fields ? 6 | 23
~ : produced by any charged object
Electric field, E
~ =
Coulomb’s law: E 1 Q
~r
4π0 r 3
with 0 the vacuum permittivity, r the distance from the source
~ is calculated.
charge to the point where E
→ Electrostatic interactions
~ created when electric charges are in motion
Magnetic field, B:

~ and B
E ~ are different facets of the same coin.

The Lorentz force : force experienced by a charged particle

moving with a velocity ~ ~ and a
v through an electric field E
~
magnetic field B
 
~ =q E
F ~ +~v ×B ~
E. Maurice Introduction to Subatomic Physics
 Maxwell’s equations 7 | 23

~ = ρ ~ =0
~ E
∇. ~ B
∇.
0
~ ~
∇ ~ = − ∂B
~ ×E ~ = µ0~j + µ0 0 ∂ E
~ ×B
∇
∂t ∂t

Equations invariant under rotations

Let’s focus on the homogeneous equations :

~ B
∇. ~ =0

E. Maurice Introduction to Subatomic Physics

 Maxwell’s equations 7 | 23

~ = ρ ~ =0
~ E
∇. ~ B
∇.
0
~ ~
∇ ~ = − ∂B
~ ×E ~ = µ0~j + µ0 0 ∂ E
~ ×B
∇
∂t ∂t

Equations invariant under rotations

Let’s focus on the homogeneous equations :

~ B
∇. ~ = 0 −→ No magnetic charge −→ B
~ =∇ ~
~ ×A

~ ~
 
∇ ~ +
~ ×E ∂B
= 0 becomes ∇ ~ +
~ × E ∂A
=0
∂t ∂t
~ = −∇.φ
~ ~
∂A
=⇒ E − ∂t

E. Maurice Introduction to Subatomic Physics

 Maxwell’s equations 7 | 23

~ = ρ ~ =0
~ E
∇. ~ B
∇.
0
~ ~
∇ ~ = − ∂B
~ ×E ~ = µ0~j + µ0 0 ∂ E
~ ×B
∇
∂t ∂t

Equations invariant under rotations

Let’s focus on the homogeneous equations :

~ B
∇. ~ = 0 −→ No magnetic charge −→ B
~ =∇ ~
~ ×A

~ ~
 
∇ ~ +
~ ×E ∂B
= 0 becomes ∇ ~ +
~ × E ∂A
=0
∂t ∂t
~ = −∇.φ
~ ~
∂A
=⇒ E − ∂t
~
Scalar (electric) potential φ, vector (magnetic) potential A
E. Maurice Introduction to Subatomic Physics
 4-vector potential 8 | 23
φ 
Aµ = ~
,A
c
Combination of the electric and magnetic potentials into a single
object such as A0µ = Λµν Aν under Lorentz transformations

E. Maurice Introduction to Subatomic Physics

 4-vector potential 8 | 23
φ 
Aµ = ~
,A
c
Combination of the electric and magnetic potentials into a single
object such as A0µ = Λµν Aν under Lorentz transformations

Not unique → Gauge transformation

Aµ =⇒ Aµ + ∂ µ χ with χ an arbitrary function
Despite the different choices of gauge potentials, the physical
observables, such as electric and magnetic fields, remain the same

E. Maurice Introduction to Subatomic Physics

 4-vector potential 8 | 23
φ 
Aµ = ~
,A
c
Combination of the electric and magnetic potentials into a single
object such as A0µ = Λµν Aν under Lorentz transformations

Not unique → Gauge transformation

Aµ =⇒ Aµ + ∂ µ χ with χ an arbitrary function
Despite the different choices of gauge potentials, the physical
observables, such as electric and magnetic fields, remain the same

1 ∂φ ~ A~ =0
Lorenz gauge ∂µ Aµ = c 2 ∂t
+ ∇.
→ Often employed in solving Maxwell’s equations
→ Simplify the equations (electromagnetic eq., wave propagation)

E. Maurice Introduction to Subatomic Physics

 Electromagnetic tensor : F µν 9 | 23

Combination of the electric and magnetic fields into a single object

that encapsulates the complete electromagnetic field information
at a given point in space and time.

F µν = ∂ µ Aν − ∂ ν Aµ

F µν is antisymmetric: F µν = −F νµ

Is F µν affected by a gauge transformation ?

E. Maurice Introduction to Subatomic Physics

 Electromagnetic tensor : F µν 9 | 23

Combination of the electric and magnetic fields into a single object

that encapsulates the complete electromagnetic field information
at a given point in space and time.

F µν = ∂ µ Aν − ∂ ν Aµ

F µν is antisymmetric: F µν = −F νµ

Is F µν affected by a gauge transformation ?

Gauge transformation: Aµ =⇒ Aµ + ∂ µ χ

F µν =⇒ ∂ µ (Aν +∂ ν χ)−∂ ν (Aµ +∂ µ χ) = ∂ µ Aν −∂ ν Aµ = F µν

E. Maurice Introduction to Subatomic Physics

 ~,B
F µν and E ~ fields 10 | 23

~ and B
How F µν is related to E ~ ?

~ = −∇.φ
~ ~
∂A ~ =∇ ~
~ ×A
Using E − ∂t
and B

{F µν } =

E. Maurice Introduction to Subatomic Physics

 ~,B
F µν and E ~ fields 10 | 23

~ and B
How F µν is related to E ~ ?

~ = −∇.φ
~ ~
∂A ~ =∇ ~
~ ×A
Using E − ∂t
and B

−E x /c −E y /c −E z /c
 
0
E x /c 0 −B z By 
{F µν } =  y
 
E /c Bz 0 −B x 


E z /c −B y Bx 0

The electromagnetic tensor consists of six components

E. Maurice Introduction to Subatomic Physics

 Lorentz and Maxwell’s equations 11 | 23
 
~ =q E
Lorentz force : F ~ +~ v ×B ~ becomes f µ = qF µν uν
with uν = γ(c, −~ ~ .~
v ) leading to {f µ } = γ(F ~)
v /c, F

E. Maurice Introduction to Subatomic Physics

 Lorentz and Maxwell’s equations 11 | 23
 
~ =q E
Lorentz force : F ~ +~ v ×B ~ becomes f µ = qF µν uν
with uν = γ(c, −~ ~ .~
v ) leading to {f µ } = γ(F ~)
v /c, F

Maxwell equations
~ E
∇. ~ = ρ ~ B
∇. ~ =0
0
~ ~
∇~ ×E ~ = − ∂B ~ = µ0~j + µ0 0 ∂ E
~ ×B
∇
∂t ∂t

become

E. Maurice Introduction to Subatomic Physics

 Lorentz and Maxwell’s equations 11 | 23
 
~ =q E
Lorentz force : F ~ +~ v ×B ~ becomes f µ = qF µν uν
with uν = γ(c, −~ ~ .~
v ) leading to {f µ } = γ(F ~)
v /c, F

Maxwell equations
~ E
∇. ~ = ρ ~ B
∇. ~ =0
0
~ ~
∇~ ×E ~ = − ∂B ~ = µ0~j + µ0 0 ∂ E
~ ×B
∇
∂t ∂t

become
∂µ F µν = µ0 j ν and ∂ µ F νρ + ∂ ν F ρµ + ∂ ρ F µν = 0

E. Maurice Introduction to Subatomic Physics

 F µν under a Lorentz transformation ? 12 | 23

F 0µν = ∂ 0µ A0ν − ∂ 0ν A0µ

Using ∂ 0µ = Λµα ∂ α and A0µ = Λµβ Aβ , we can rewrite

E. Maurice Introduction to Subatomic Physics

 F µν under a Lorentz transformation ? 12 | 23

F 0µν = ∂ 0µ A0ν − ∂ 0ν A0µ

Using ∂ 0µ = Λµα ∂ α and A0µ = Λµβ Aβ , we can rewrite

F 0µν = Λµα ∂ α A0ν − Λνβ ∂ β A0µ

= Λµα ∂ α Λνβ Aβ − Λνβ ∂ β Λµα Aα
 
= Λµα Λνβ ∂ α Aβ − ∂ β Aα
= Λµα Λνβ F αβ

F µν transforms covariantly under Lorentz transformations

E. Maurice Introduction to Subatomic Physics

 ~ under a Lorentz transformation ?
E 13 | 23
!
γ −γβ 0 0
Let’s consider a boost along the x-axis → Λµν =
−γβ
0
γ
0
0
1
0
0
0 0 0 1

Longitudinal electric component : E 0x /c = F 010

E. Maurice Introduction to Subatomic Physics

 ~ under a Lorentz transformation ?
E 13 | 23
!
γ −γβ 0 0
Let’s consider a boost along the x-axis → Λµν =
−γβ
0
γ
0
0
1
0
0
0 0 0 1

Longitudinal electric component : E 0x /c = F 010

F 010 = Λ1 α Λ0 β F αβ = Λ1 0 Λ0 1 F 01 + Λ1 1 Λ0 0 F 10
= γ 2 β 2 F 01 + γ 2 F 10 = γ 2 (1 − β 2 )F 10 = F 10

Transverse electric component : E 0y /c = F 020 , E 0z /c = F 030

E. Maurice Introduction to Subatomic Physics

 ~ under a Lorentz transformation ?
E 13 | 23
!
γ −γβ 0 0
Let’s consider a boost along the x-axis → Λµν =
−γβ
0
γ
0
0
1
0
0
0 0 0 1

Longitudinal electric component : E 0x /c = F 010

F 010 = Λ1 α Λ0 β F αβ = Λ1 0 Λ0 1 F 01 + Λ1 1 Λ0 0 F 10
= γ 2 β 2 F 01 + γ 2 F 10 = γ 2 (1 − β 2 )F 10 = F 10

Transverse electric component : E 0y /c = F 020 , E 0z /c = F 030

F 020 = Λ2 α Λ0 β F αβ = Λ2 2 Λ0 0 F 20 + Λ2 2 Λ0 1 F 21 = γF 20 − γβF 21
γ y ~ y

= γ(E y /c − βB z ) = E + (~ v × B)
c
γ z ~ z

F 030 = Λ0 0 F 30 + Λ0 1 F 31 = γ(E z /c + βB y ) = E + (~v × B)
c
~0 = E
In conclusion: E ~ k and E
~ 0 = γ(E
~⊥ + ~ ~ ⊥)
v ×B
k ⊥
E. Maurice Introduction to Subatomic Physics
 ~ under a Lorentz transformation ?
B 14 | 23
!
γ −γβ 0 0
Let’s consider a boost along the x-axis → Λµν =
−γβ
0
γ
0
0
1
0
0
0 0 0 1

Longitudinal electric component : B 0x = F 032

F 032 = Λ3 α Λ2 β F αβ = Λ3 3 Λ2 2 F 32 = F 32 = B x

Transverse electric component : B 0y = F 013 , B 0z /c = F 021

F 013 = Λ1 α Λ3 β F αβ = Λ1 0 F 03 + Λ1 1 F 13 = −γβ(−E z /c) + γB y
 
= γ(B y + βE z /c) = γ B y − (~ ~ )y /c 2
v ×E
 
F 021 = Λ1 0 F 20 + Λ1 1 F 21 = −γβE y /c + γB z = γ B z − (~ ~ )z /c 2
v ×E

~0 = B
In conclusion: B ~ k and B
~ 0 = γ(B
~⊥ − ~ ~ ⊥ /c 2 )
v ×E
k ⊥

E. Maurice Introduction to Subatomic Physics

 ~ under a Lorentz transformation 15 | 23
~ and B
E
The electromagnetic components parallel to the boost axis are not
altered under a Lorentz transformation :

~0 = E
E ~ k and B
~0 = B
~k
k k

The electromagnetic components perpendicular to the boost axis

are affected in the following way :

E ~⊥ + ~
~ 0 = γ(E ~ ⊥)
v ×B
⊥

~ 0 = γ(B
B ~⊥ − ~ ~ ⊥ /c 2 )
v ×E
⊥

E. Maurice Introduction to Subatomic Physics

 Electromagnetic Lorentz invariant - 1/3 16 | 23

These Lorentz invariants require the introduction of Fµν and ∗ Fµν

• How to compute Fµν ?

E. Maurice Introduction to Subatomic Physics

 Electromagnetic Lorentz invariant - 1/3 16 | 23

These Lorentz invariants require the introduction of Fµν and ∗ Fµν

• How to compute Fµν ?

E x /c E y /c E z /c
 
0
E x /c 0 −B z By 
Fµν = ηµα F αν = ηµα ηβν F αβ = y
 
E /c B z 0 −B  x 

E z /c −B y Bx 0

E. Maurice Introduction to Subatomic Physics

 Electromagnetic Lorentz invariant - 1/3 16 | 23

These Lorentz invariants require the introduction of Fµν and ∗ Fµν

• How to compute Fµν ?

E x /c E y /c E z /c
 
0
E x /c 0 −B z By 
Fµν = ηµα F αν = ηµα ηβν F αβ = y
 
E /c B z 0 −B  x 

E z /c −B y Bx 0

• What is ∗ Fµν ? The electromagnetic dual tensor

∗ 1
Fµν = εµνρσ F ρσ = εµνρσ ∂ ρ Aσ
2

with εµνρσ the Levi-Civita tensor useful to express cross products

in a coordinate-independent manner
E. Maurice Introduction to Subatomic Physics
 Electromagnetic Lorentz invariant - 2/3 17 | 23

The Levi-Civita tensor, εµνρσ , is an antisymmetric tensor whose

components are defined in terms of the permutation symbol


 +1 if (µ, ν, ρ, σ) is an even permutation of (0, 1, 2, 3)


εµνρσ = −1 if (µ, ν, ρ, σ) is an odd permutation of (0, 1, 2, 3)


 0 otherwise

E. Maurice Introduction to Subatomic Physics

 Electromagnetic Lorentz invariant - 2/3 17 | 23

The Levi-Civita tensor, εµνρσ , is an antisymmetric tensor whose

components are defined in terms of the permutation symbol


 +1 if (µ, ν, ρ, σ) is an even permutation of (0, 1, 2, 3)


εµνρσ = −1 if (µ, ν, ρ, σ) is an odd permutation of (0, 1, 2, 3)


 0 otherwise

−B x −B y −B z
 
0
B x 0 −E /c E y /c 
z
It leads to ∗ Fµν = y
 
B z
E /c 0 −E x /c 


Bz −E y /c E x /c 0

E. Maurice Introduction to Subatomic Physics

 Electromagnetic Lorentz invariant - 3/3 18 | 23

The electromagnetic Lorentz invariant are :

1 ~2 ~
~2 − E
F µν Fµν = B
1
F µν ∗ Fµν =
E ~
.B
2 c2 4 c

E. Maurice Introduction to Subatomic Physics

 Electromagnetic Lorentz invariant - 3/3 18 | 23

The electromagnetic Lorentz invariant are :

1 ~2 ~
~2 − E
F µν Fµν = B
1
F µν ∗ Fµν =
E ~
.B
2 c2 4 c

What does it mean ?

~ .B
• If E ~ =0→E
~ 0 .B
~ 0 = 0 whatever the frame of reference

~ .B
• If E ~ 6= 0 → it exists a frame R0 where E
~0 kB
~0

E. Maurice Introduction to Subatomic Physics

 Field generated by a charged particle 19 | 23

A charge, q, is moving at +β along the x-axis in the R frame. An

observed is situated at (0, b, 0) in the R frame. At t = 0, the
charge is situated in (0, 0, 0) in R and in its own rest frame.

1. What is the electromagnetic field in the R0 frame (rest frame

of the charge) ?

2. What are the coordinates of the observer in R0 ?

3. What is the electromagnetic field perceived by the observer in

R?

E. Maurice Introduction to Subatomic Physics

 Field generated by a charged particle 20 | 23

1. Electromagnetic field in the R0 frame (rest frame of the charge)

~ 0 (B
→ The charge is at rest : only E ~ 0 = ~0)

~0 = q ~r 0
Coulomb law : E 4π0 r 03

E. Maurice Introduction to Subatomic Physics

 Field generated by a charged particle 20 | 23

1. Electromagnetic field in the R0 frame (rest frame of the charge)

~ 0 (B
→ The charge is at rest : only E ~ 0 = ~0)

~0 = q ~r 0
Coulomb law : E 4π0 r 03

2. Coordinates of the observer (P) in R0 : x 0µ = Λµν x ν

−γβ
     
ct γ 0 0 γct
0 −γβ γ 0 0 −γβct
In R, x µ =   ; Λµν =  → x 0µ = 
    
b 0 0 1 0 b 
0 0 0 0 1 0

E. Maurice Introduction to Subatomic Physics

 Field generated by a charged particle 21 | 23

3. Electromagnetic field perceived by P in R

Need E x , E y , E z and B x , B y ; B z → E x = E x 0 and B x = B x 0 = 0

E y = γ(E 0y + βcB 0z ) E z = γ(E 0z − βcB 0y )

0y 0z
y
B = γ(B − βE /c) B z = γ(B 0z + βE 0y /c)
p p
Starting from r 0 = x 02 + y 02 = γ 2 v 2 t 2 + b 2 , we obtain in R0 :
0
q −vt q b
E 0x = 4π0 (b 2 +v 2 t 02 )3/2
with t 0 = γt, and E 0y = 4π0 (b 2 +v 2 t 02 )3/2

Thus
−q γvt q γb
Ex = , E y = γE 0y = , Ez = 0
4π0 (b 2 + γ 2 v 2 t 2 )3/2 4π0 (b 2 + γ 2 v 2 t 2 )3/2
q γβb
B x = 0, B y = 0, B z = γβE 0y /c =
4π0 c (b 2 + γ 2 v 2 t 2 )3/2
E. Maurice Introduction to Subatomic Physics
 Conclusions 22 | 23

• The electromagnetic tensor encodes all the electromagnetic

information : F µν = ∂ µ Aν − ∂ ν Aµ

~ = −∇φ
~ − ~
∂A ~ =∇ ~
~ ×A
• Aµ : 4-potential such as E ∂t
and B

~0 = E
• Under a Lorentz transformation: E ~k, B
~0 = B
~k
k k

~ 0 = γ(E
E ~⊥ + ~ ~ ⊥ ); B
v ×B ~ 0 = γ(B
~⊥ − ~ ~ ⊥ /c 2 )
v ×E
⊥ ⊥

• Lorentz invariant: 1 µν
F Fµν ~ 2 − E~ 22 and 1 F µν ∗ Fµν =
=B
~ ~
E
.B
2 c 4 c

E. Maurice Introduction to Subatomic Physics

 References 23 | 23

D’Inverno, Introducing Einstein’s Relativity

Taylor, Wheeler, Spacetime Physics (2nd edition)

Cédric Lorcé: PHY431, Relativité (2nd year Engineer, École

polytechnique), French

E. Maurice Introduction to Subatomic Physics