1

Outline
• Fundamentals of Metal Forming
• Classification of Metal Forming processes
 Bulk deformation processes
 Forging
 Rolling
 Extrusion
 Rod/Wire drawing
 Sheet metal working processes
 Deep drawing
 Bending
 Stretch forming
 Shearing, Blanking and Punching
Fundamentals of Metal Forming
• Plastic deformation is used to change the shape of metal
workpeice.
• Deformation results from the use of a tool, usually called a
die in metal forming, which applies stresses that exceed the
yield strength of the metal.
• The metal therefore deforms to take a shape determined by
the geometry of the die.
• To be successfully formed, a metal must possess certain
properties.
• Desirable properties include low yield strength and high
ductility. These properties are affected by temperature.
• Ductility is increased and yield strength is reduced when
work temp. is raised. The effect of temp gives rise to
distinctions b/n cold working and hot working.
 Fundamentals of Metal Forming
• Practically all metals, which are not used in cast form are
reduced to some standard shapes for subsequent processing.
• Manufacturing companies producing metals supply metals
in form of ingots which are obtained by casting liquid metal
into a square cross section.
 Slab (500-1800 mm wide and 50-300 mm thick)
 Billets (40 to 150 mm2)
 Blooms (150 to 400 mm2)
• These shapes are further processed through hot rolling,
forging or extrusion, to produce materials in standard form
such as plates, sheets, rods, tubes and structural sections.
Sequence of operations for obtaining different shapes
Classification of Metal Forming processes
Bulk deformation processes
• Characterized by significant deformations and massive
shape changes.
• The surface area to volume ratio of the work is
relatively small.
• The term bulk describes the workparts that have this
low area to volume ratio.
• Reducing an ingot or a billet into standard shapes or
semi-finished products such as sheets, plates, rods,
tubes and wires.
• Examples: Rolling, Forging, Extrusion and Drawing
Basic bulk deformation processes: (a) rolling, (b) forging,
(c) extrusion, and (d) drawing.
Rolling: a compressive deformation process in which the
thickness of a slab or plate is reduced by two opposing
cylindrical tools called rolls.
• The rolls rotate to draw the work into the gap between them
and squeeze it.
Forging: a workpiece is compressed between two opposing dies.
• The die shapes are imparted to the work.
• Forging is traditionally a hot working process, but many types
of forging are performed cold.
Extrusion: a compression process in which the work metal is
forced to flow through a die opening, thereby taking the shape of
the opening.
Drawing: the diameter of a round wire or bar is reduced by
pulling it through a die opening.
Sheet metal working processes
• Forming and cutting operations performed on metal
sheets, strips and coils.
• The surface area to volume ratio of the starting metal is
high.
• Always performed as cold working processes and are
usually accomplished using a set of tools called a punch
and die.
• Examples: Deep drawing, Bending and Shearing
Basic sheet metalworking operations: (a) bending, (b) deep drawing
and (c) shearing: (1) as punch first contacts sheet and (2) after cutting.
Bending: Bending involves straining of a metal sheet or
plate to take an angle along a straight axis.
Drawing: refers to the forming of a flat metal sheet into
a hollow or concave shape, such as a cup, by stretching
the metal.
• A blank holder is used to hold down the blank while
the punch pushes into the sheet metal.
Shearing: Involves cutting rather than forming.
• A shearing operation cuts the work using a punch
and die.
Stresses in metal forming
 Direct compression: forging, rolling, extrusion
 Tension and compression: wire drawing, deep
drawing
 Pure tension: Stretch forming
 Bending: application of bending moments to the
sheet
 Shearing: application of shear forces to cause the
rupture of metal in the plane of shear
Three basic temperature ranges at which the metal can be
formed: Hot working, Cold working and Warm working.
Hot working
• Deformation at temperatures above the recrystallization
temperature.
• Recrystallization temperature is about one-half of
melting point on absolute scale.
• In practice, hot working usually performed somewhat
above 0.5Tm.
• Metal continues to soften as temperature increases
above 0.5Tm, enhancing advantage of hot working
above this level.
Advantages and disadvantages of hot working
Advantages
• Higher ductility – more deformation without cracking.
• Lower flow stress – less mechanical energy required for deformation.
• Pores seal up.
• Micro-segregation is much reduced or removed due to atomic
diffusion, which is higher at high temperatures.
• Stronger, tougher and more ductile than as-cast metals due to breaking
down and refinement of coarse columnar grains in the cast ingot.
Disadvantages
• Surface reactions between the metal and the furnace atmosphere,
i.e., oxidation (oxide scales), decarburization in steels.
• Hot shortness, when the working temperature exceeds the melting
temperature of constituent at grain boundaries such as FeS.
• Dimension tolerance is poor due to thermal expansion at high temp.
• Handling is more difficult (from furnace to machine).
Cold working
• Performed at room temperature but in general < 0.3Tm, where
recovery is limited and recrystallisation does not occur.
• The materials suitable for cold working should have a relatively
low yield stress and a relatively high work hardening rate
(determined primarily by its tensile properties).
Advantages
• Provide work hardening, materials are stronger.
• Provide fine grain size and good surface finish.
• Dimension tolerance is better than in hot working.
• Easier handling (low operating temperatures).
Disadvantages
• Use high amount of deformation due to low operating
temperatures, therefore, require soft materials.
• Equipment (rolls, dies, presses) are big and expensive.
• Reduced ductility, therefore, require subsequent annealing
treatments.
Warm working
• It is the temperature between room temperature and
recrystallization temperature, roughly about 0.3Tm.
• Dividing line between cold working and warm working
often expressed in terms of melting point.

Pros against cold working

• lower forces and power
• more intricate work geometries possible
• need for annealing may be reduced/eliminated.
Friction and Lubrication in metal forming
• In most metal forming processes, friction is
undesirable.
 metal flow is retarded
 forces and power are increased
 wears tooling faster
• Metal working lubricants are applied to tool-work
interface in many forming operations to reduce
harmful effects of friction.
• There are many attributes required of a good metal
working lubricant.
 must be capable of functioning over a wide range of
pressure, temperature, and sliding velocities.
 must have favorable spreading and wetting
characteristics.
 must be compatible with both the die and workpiece
material with regard to wetting and chemical attack.
 should have good thermal stability and resistance to
bacteriological attack and minor contaminants.
 produces a harmless residue that does not cause staining
on subsequent heat treatment or welding, and which is
easily removed.
 should be nontoxic, free of fire hazard & inexpensive.
Benefits of Lubricants in metal forming
 reduced sticking, force, power and tool wear
 better surface finish
 removes heat from the tooling
Important considerations in choosing a Lubricant
- type of forming process
- hot working or cold working
- work material
- chemical reactivity with tool and work materials
- ease of application
- cost
Bulk deformation processes
Forging
• Forging is the working of metal into useful shapes by
hammering or pressing between two suitable dies.
• Most forging operations done above the recrystallisation
temperature.
• Soft metals like Al, Zn, Sn can be cold forged also.
Classification of forging processes
• Based on flow of material
- Open Die Forging
- Closed Die Forging/ Impression Die Forging
• Based on equipment used
- Smith forging - Drop forging - Press forging
Open Die Forging
• In open die forging, large objects are forged between
flat dies or dies of simple shape.
• It is mostly used to produce pre-formed work pieces
for closed die forging.
• Most common open die forging is upsetting of a
cylinder between two flat dies (to reduce height and
increase diameter).
Closed die forging/Impression-die forging
• The work piece is deformed between two die halves,
which carry impressions of the desired final shape.
• The die is a closed cavity and accurate final shapes can
be obtained.
• Uses carefully machined die blocks to produce forgings
to close dimensional tolerances.
• The billet is generally pre-shaped by open die forging.
• The preshaped billet is then placed in the cavity of the
blocking die and rough forged to close to the final step.
• In the finishing die, it is forged to the final shape and
dimensions.
• For complex shapes, more than one pre-forming or
blocking operation is required.
• It is important to use enough metal in the billet so that
the die cavity is completely filled.
• It is usual to use some excess material.
• When the dies come together for finishing step, the
excess metal escapes out of the cavity as a thin ribbon of
metal called flash.
• In order to prevent the formation of a wide flash, a flash
gutter is usually provided.
• The final step in making a closed die forging is trimming
of the flash.

Flash formation in impression die forging

• Proper die design is important in the success of a
forging operation.
Terminology in an impression die
Parting line: the plane that divides the upper die from the
lower die.
• Its selection by the designer affects grain flow in the
part, required load, and flash formation.
Draft: the amount of taper on the sides of the part required
to remove it from the die.
• The term also applies to the taper on the sides of the die
cavity.
• Typical draft angles are 30 on aluminum and magnesium
parts and 50 to 70 on steel parts.
• Draft angles on precision forgings are near zero.
Webs and ribs: A web is a thin portion of the forging
that is parallel to the parting line, while a rib is a thin
portion that is perpendicular to the parting line.
These part features cause difficulty in metal flow as
they become thinner.
Fillet and corner radii: Small radii tend to limit metal
flow and increase stresses on die surfaces during
forging.
Flash: Flash formation plays a critical role in
impression-die forging by causing pressure buildup
inside the die to promote filling of the cavity.
• This pressure buildup is controlled by designing a
flash land and gutter into the die.
• The land determines the surface area along which lateral
flow of metal occurs, thereby controlling the pressure
increase inside the die.
• The gutter permits excess metal to escape without
causing the forging load to reach extreme values.

Variation of load in
impression die forging
 Analysis of Open Die Forging

Actual deformation of a cylindrical workpart in open die

forging, showing pronounced barreling: (1) start of process,
(2) partial deformation and (3) final shape.
• The true strain experienced by the work during the process:
• The force required to continue the compression
F = σA
where F=force(N); A=cross sectional area of the part,
(mm2) ; and σ = flow stress (Mpa)
• Area continuously increases during the operation as
height is reduced.
• When the metal is deformed, its strength increases due
to strain hardening.
• The stress required to continue deformation must be
increased to match this increase in strength.
• Flow stress is the instantaneous value of the stress
required to continue deforming the metal.
 Strain hardening
• It is a phenomenon by which metals harden due to
deformation at room temperature (cold working).
• The strength and hardness of a metal increases with
increase in strain.
• As a result for continuous plastic flow, higher
energy is required. So the stress required to cause
further plastic flow increases.
n=strain hardening exponent
K=strength coefficient and it is the true
stress value at a true strain value of 1.
If portion of the true stress-strain curve
representing the plastic region is plotted on a
log-log scale, the result would be a linear r/s.
• Friction opposes the flow of workmetal at the die surfaces.
• This creates the barreling effect.
• When performed on a hot workpart with cold dies, the
barreling effect is even more pronounced.
• This results from a higher coefficient of friction typical in
hot working and heat transfer at and near the die surfaces,
which cools the metal and increases its resistance to
deformation.
• The hotter metal in the middle of the part flows more
readily than the cooler metal at the ends.
• These effects are more significant as the diameter to height
ratio of the work part increases, due to the greater contact
area at the work–die interface.
• All of these factors cause the actual upsetting force to
be greater.
• As an approximation, we can apply a shape factor to
account for effects of the D/h ratio and friction:
F = Kf σ A
where Kf is the forging shape factor, defined as

where µ = coefficient of friction; D= workpart diameter or other

dimension representing contact length with die surface (mm);
and h = workpart height(mm)
Impression die forging products
Forging Equipment
Forging dies, Hammers and Presses
• Equipments used for forging consists of:
Forging machines: classified as forging hammers
and forging presses
Forging Dies: are special tooling used in forging
machines.
• Auxiliary forging equipments include:
 Furnaces to heat the work
 Mechanical devices to load and unload the work
 Trimming stations to cut away the flash
Smith Forging
• Smith forging is done by using hand hammers and
anvils, and it requires considerable skill.
• Labour intensive and cannot be used for precision
forgings and high productions.
Drop Forging
• Forging hammers – Drop hammers and power hammers:
force is applied by a falling weight or ram. (energy
restricted machines– kinetic energy of the ram).
• Entire energy is delivered in a very short time (impact
load).
• Causes shock and vibration.
• Very fast action, poor control over the process.
Press Forging
• Press forging is characterized by gradual application of
load.
• Mechanical, hydraulic and pneumatic presses are used.
• Good control over the process, better dimensional
accuracy.
• Slow acting.
Die materials: alloyed steels (with Cr, Mo, W, V), tool
steels, cast steels or cast iron. (Heat treatments such are
nitriding or chromium plating are required to improve die
life)
Die materials required properties:
 Thermal shock resistance
 Thermal fatigue resistance
 High temperature strength
 High wear resistance
 High toughness and ductility
 High hardenability
 High dimensional stability during hardening
 High machinability
Rolling
• Reducing thickness or changing the cross section of a long
work piece by compressive forces applied through a set of
power driven rolls.
• The most widely used metal working process because of
high production rate and close control of the final product.
• Common products are flat sheets and strips of large length.
• Circular or hexagonal cross-sections, I beams, rails etc. can
also be produced.
• A machine used for rolling metal is called rolling mill.
• Rotating rolls perform two main functions:
 Pull the work into the gap between them by friction
between workpart and rolls.
 Simultaneously squeeze the work to reduce its cross
section.
Hot Rolling
• The initial breakdown of the ingot into billets and
blooms is done by hot rolling, to have a large amount of
deformation required.
• Surface has a characteristic of oxide scale formation.
• Blooms, slabs and billets are semi finished products,
these are further rolled into plates, sheets and stripes of
large length.
Cold Rolling
• The hot rolled sheets are cold rolled to produce final
sheet/strip with desired thickness and surface finish.
• Thickness reduction is low.
• Better dimensional control.
• Better surface finish.
• The first hot-working operation for
most steel products is done on the
primary roughing mill (blooming,
slabbing or cogging mills).
• These mills are normally two-high
reversing mills with 0.6-1.4m
diameter rolls (designated by size).
• The objective is to breakdown the cast ingot into
blooms or slabs for subsequent finishing into bars,
plate or sheet.
• Flat plate of large thickness (10-50 mm) is passed
through different set of working rolls, while each set
consecutively reduces thickness.
• Hot strip is coiled to reduce its increasing length due
to a reduction of thickness.
• The starting material for cold-
rolled steel sheet is pickled hot-
rolled breakdown coil from the
continuous hot-strip mill.
Some of the steel products made in a rolling mill
Rolling of different shapes
Flat rolling and its analysis
• Flat rolling involves the rolling of slabs, strips, sheets, and
plates - workparts of rectangular cross section in which the
width is greater than the thickness.
• The work is squeezed between two rolls so that its
thickness is reduced by an amount called the draft:
d = to – tf
• Draft is sometimes expressed as a fraction of the starting
stock thickness, called the reduction.
r = d/ to
• When a series of rolling operations are used, reduction is
taken as the sum of the drafts divided by the original
thickness.
• In addition to thickness reduction, rolling usually
increases work width.
• This is called spreading, and it tends to be most
pronounced with low width-to-thickness ratios and low
coefficients of friction.
• Conservation of matter is preserved, so the volume of
metal exiting the rolls equals the volume entering
towoLo = tf wf Lf
• Similarly, before and after volume rates of material flow
must be the same, so the before and after velocities can
be related:
towovo = tf wf vf
• The rolls contact the work
along an arc defined by the
angle θ.
• Each roll has radius R, and
its rotational speed gives it
a surface velocity vr.
• This velocity is greater
than the entering speed of
the work vo and less than
its exiting speed vf.
• Since the metal flow is
continuous, there is a
gradual change in velocity
of the work b/n the rolls.
• There is one point along the arc where work velocity
equals roll velocity.
• This is called the no-slip point, also known as the
neutral point.
• On either side of this point, slipping and friction occur
between roll and work.
• The amount of slip between the rolls and the work can
be measured by means of the forward slip, a term used
in rolling that is defined:

where s = forward slip; vf = final (exiting) work velocity,

(m/s); and vr = roll speed (m/s)
• The true strain experienced by the work in rolling is
based on before and after stock thicknesses.

• The average flow stress 𝜎 applied to the work

𝜎
• There is a limit to the maximum possible draft that can
be accomplished in flat rolling with a given coefficient
of friction, defined by:
dmax = µ2R
• The equation indicates that if friction were zero, draft
would be zero, and it would be impossible to accomplish
the rolling operation.
• Given a coefficient of friction sufficient to perform
rolling, roll force F required to maintain separation
b/n the two rolls can be computed by integrating the
unit roll pressure p over the roll-work contact area.

• An approximation of the results obtained can be

calculated based on the average flow stress
experienced by the work material in the roll gap.
F=𝜎wL
• the product w L is the roll-work contact area.
• Contact length can be approximated by
• The torque in rolling can be estimated by assuming
that the roll force is centered on the work as it passes
b/n the rolls, and that it acts with a moment arm of
one-half the contact length L. Thus, torque for each
roll is
T = 0.5FL
• The power required to drive each roll is the product
of torque and angular velocity.
• Angular velocity is 2πN, where N = rotational speed
of the roll. Thus, the power for each roll is 2πNT.
• A rolling mill consists of two powered rolls; so
P = 2πNFL
Extrusion
• A billet or block of metal is reduced in cross section by
forcing it to flow through a die orifice under high pressure.
• Used to produce rods, bars and hollow tubes, though shapes
of irregular cross section can also be produced.
• The reaction of the billet with the die and the container
results in high compressive stresses.
• Most metals are extruded in hot condition.
• Cold extrusion is possible for very ductile metals.
• The two basic types of extrusion are:
 Direct extrusion or forward extrusion
 Indirect extrusion or backward extrusion
Direct Extrusion/Forward extrusion

Indirect Extrusion(Backward/Reverse Extrusion)

Direct and Indirect extrusions
• In direct extrusion, the direction of the flow of metal
through the die is same as the direction of movement of
ram. In indirect extrusion it is the opposite.
• Since there is no relative motion between billet and
container in indirect extrusion, the frictional forces are
less and hence the total extrusion force is less than in
direct extrusion.
• Because of the requirement of the hollow ram in indirect
extrusion, loads which can be applied are less than that
can be applied in direct extrusion.
• Handling of very long products in indirect extrusion is
difficult.
 Impact extrusion

• Impact extrusion is a process used to produce short

lengths of hollow tubes (by indirect extrusion).
• Usually performed on a high speed mechanical press.
• Restricted to softer metals like Pb, Sn, Al and Cu.
• Considerable heating results high-speed deformation.
Hydrostatic extrusion

• A new process in which a liquid medium is used for the

transmission of the force to the work piece.
Advantages:
 Due to the hydrostatic pressure, uniform stress is
applied and formability of metal is increased.
 Higher length to diameter ratios can be used.
 Since there is no friction between billet and the
container, extrusion force is lower.
 Because of the pressurized fluid, lubrication is very
effective, so the product has good surface finish and
dimensional accuracy.
Disadvantages:
 A practical limit on fluid pressure (because of the
container strength) limits the obtainable extension
ratios (20:1 for MS, 200:1 for Al)
 Production rates are low.
 Not suitable for hot extrusion.
• Complex shape can be extruded from the more readily
extrudable metals such as aluminium.
• The products obtained are also called extrusion.
• Aluminium extrusions are used in commercial and
domestic buildings for window and door frame systems,
prefabricated houses/building structures, roofing and
exterior cladding, curtain walling, shop fronts, etc.
• Furthermore, extrusions are also used in transport for
airframes, road and rail vehicles and in marine
applications.
• Due to the high temperatures and pressures and its
detrimental effect on the die life as well as other
components, good lubrication is necessary.
 Oil and graphite work at lower temperatures, whereas
at higher temperatures glass powder is used.
Extrusion ratio
• The ratio of area of cross section of the billet to the area
of cross section of the product.
R = A0/Af
Where A0= cross-sectional area of the starting billet(mm2)
Af = cross-sectional area of the extruded section (mm2)
• Extrusion ratio up to 40 for steel and 400 for Al can be
achieved.
• Extrusion speed (vf) = Ram velocity (v0)*R
 Extrusion dies
• The die and tools must with stand considerably high
compressive stresses, thermal shock and oxidation.

a) Die angle in direct extrusion; b) effect of die angle on ram force.

• For low angles, surface area of the die is large, leading
to increased friction at the die–billet interface.
• Higher friction results in larger ram force.
• Large die angle causes more turbulence in the metal
flow during reduction, increasing the ram force required.
(Decreasing the die angle increases homogeneity of
deformation but beyond a point frictional force becomes
high due to increase in area of contact).
• Optimum die angle has been found to be 45 to 60
degrees.
Rod/Wire Drawing
• Pulling of metal through a die by means of a tensile
force applied at the exit side of the die.
• Plastic flow is caused by combination of applied
tensile force and the compressive force arising from
the reaction of the metal with the die.
• Diameter of a bar/rod/tube is reduced by successive
drawing operations.
• Generally carried out at room temp. but temp. rises
considerably during the drawing process.
• Principle is same in both rod and wire drawing but
equipment is different for different sized products.
• Rods and tubes which can not be coiled are drawn on
draw benches and wires (small diameter less than
5mm) are produced by block drawing where coiling
is possible.
Rod Drawing
• Draw head is moved either by a chain drive or a
hydraulic mechanism.
• Drawing forces may reach 1MN.
• Draw speeds are in the range 150 to 1500mm/sec.
Wire Drawing
• Block drawing allows generation of large lengths in
smaller floor space.
• If many reductions are required to produce final wire,
(reduction per drawing pass is generally below 30-35%)
multiple block machines with one die and one draw
block are common for each reduction.
• Since velocity and length of wire increase after each pass,
the peripheral velocity of each draw block must increase.
• Multi-pass wire drawing is usually done by stepped cones
driven by one electric motor.
• By proper control of heat treatment and %reduction,
wires can be produced in several tempers (dead soft to
fully hard).
• Heat generation is a major concern in wire drawing.
• Heat generated due to plastic deformation and friction
rise temperatures to several hundred °C during wire
drawing.
• By inter-pass cooling some heat can be removed.
Multi-pass wire drawing
Preparation of the stock
• Should be sufficiently ductile. So the wire may have to be
annealed prior to drawing.
• For easier entry into the die, the front end of the stock is
made pointed to facilitate entry.
• This is made by rotary swaging or by simple hammering.
• Cleaning of the wire to remove any scale and rust present
on the wire, which may affect the die.
• Coating of the wire with ferrous hydroxide, Mn or Fe or
Zn phosphate or electrolytic coating of Cu.
• It makes the lubricant soap to stick to the wire to reduce
friction.
• For high strength materials, Cu or Sn coating is used
(also acts as a lubricant).
Materials for Drawing Die
• Alloy steels-suitable for medium die life, good abrasion
resistance.
• Tungsten Carbide – die life 2 to 3 times that of alloy
steel; for medium size wires and large productions,
excellent abrasion resistance.
• Diamond-for very fine wires with excellent surface
finish.
• In a drawing operation, the change in size of the work is
usually given by the area reduction

where r= area reduction in drawing; Ao=original area of

work(mm2); and Af=final area (mm2).
• Same principals for drawing bars, rods and wire but
equipment is different in sizes depending on products.

Metal rods

• Rods: relatively larger diameter products.

• Wires: small diameter products < 5 mm diameter.
Sheet Metal Forming
• A sheet or a strip usually has a thickness less than 4mm,
with length and width much higher.
• The working of a flat sheet or a blank into useful shapes
is called sheet metal working or forming.
• Typical shapes produced are: parts with single or
multiple curves, contoured part with/without flanges,
cup and box shaped parts with vertical/sloped walls etc.
• Stresses applied in sheet metal forming are primarily
tensile though some compressive stresses are generated.
• The equipment used for sheet metal forming are Presses:
Mechanical, Hydraulic or Pneumatic presses.
Industrial Applications
Main consumers of sheet metal
Typical materials used
• Stainless steel sheets: utensils, pipelines
• Galvanized steel sheets: Roofs, outer panels
• Hot rolled steel sheets: thick walled containers
• Al and Ti alloy sheets: Aerospace applications, beverage
cans etc.
• High strength materials (Ni alloys etc.): turbine blades,
space research, other special purposes.
Basic Sheet metal forming processes
 Deep Drawing
 Stretch forming
 Bending
 Shearing, punching and blanking
• Most sheet stampings are produced by combination two
or more of the above processes.
 Deep Drawing
• A metal working process used to produce cup shaped
components from flat sheets.
Example: Beverage cans, sinks, cooking pots,
automotive body panels
• Blank holder is required to hold
down the sheet with required
force and to prevent wrinkling.
(1) starting blank, and
(2) drawn part.
Symbols: c=clearance, Db=blank diameter,
Dp = punch diameter, Rd = die corner
radius, Rp = punch corner radius, F=
drawing force, Fh = holding force.
• The punch and die must have corner radii, given by Rp
and Rd.
• If the punch and die were to have sharp corners (Rp and
Rd = 0), a hole-punching operation would be
accomplished rather than a drawing operation.
• The sides of the punch and die are separated by a
clearance c.
• This clearance in drawing is about 10% greater than the
stock thickness:
c = 1.1t
Stages in deformation of the work in deep drawing: (1) punch
makes initial contact with work, (2) bending, (3) straightening,
(4) friction and compression, and (5) final cup shape showing
effects of thinning in the cup walls.
Thickness variation
• Significant thickening takes place in the flange due to
compressive stresses.
• Thinning occurs due to bending and unbending over the
die radius.
• Maximum thinning occurs in the unsupported material
which is essentially subjected to stretching to form the
bottom portion of the cup wall.
.• Because of little
deformation in the
bottom, no significant
change in thickness
occurs in this region.
Blank size determination
Thickness is assumed to remain constant.

πD2/4 = πdh + πd2/4

D2 = d2 + 4dh
Drawability
• Drawability of a sheet is the extent to which a sheet
can be drawn.
• Depth of the cup increases as the initial blank diameter
increases but this also increases the draw ratio. This in
turn requires higher force which may cause failure
when the cup wall can not support the force applied.
• This puts a limit on the allowable draw ratio.
• Drawability is quantitatively measured by limiting
draw ratio (LDR).
• LDR represents the largest blank that can be drawn
into a die without failure/tearing.
• LDR = Domax/Dcup = Domax/Dp
Bending
• It is a process of straining the sheet metal around a
straight axis.
• Bending produces little or no change in the thickness of
the sheet metal.

• The outer surface is subjected to tension and the inner

surface is subjected to compression.
• Bending operations are performed using punch and die
tooling.
• The two common bending methods are:
 V- bend: by using a v- shaped punch and die
 Edge bending: by using a wiping die

Two common bending methods: (a) V-bending and (b) edge

bending; (1) before and (2) after bending.
V- bending
• The sheet metal is bent between a v- shaped punch and
die.
• Used for low production operations.
• V- dies are relatively simple and inexpensive than
wiping dies.
• The sheet metal can be bent from very obtuse to very
acute angles.
Edge bending
• Pressure pad is used to apply a force to hold the base
of the part against the die.
• Edge bending is limited to bends of 900 or less.
• For angles greater than 900 more complicated wiping
dies can be designed.
• Because of the pressure pad wiping dies are more
complicated and costly than v- dies.
• Used for high production work.
Springback in bending
Change in the angle and radius of the bent part caused
by the elastic recovery of the part, when the forming
load is removed from the metal.
Springback ratio: Ks = αf /αi
αf =Final bend angle after spring back
αi = Angle of bend before unloading
Springback compensation
 Over bending
Slight over bending by providing proper allowance
either on the punch or on the die is a common method
of spring back compensation.

 Bottoming
Application of local compressive stress at the end of
the stroke, thus plastically deforming it in the bend
region.
Stretch Forming
Stretch forming
• A sheet is stretched over a tool or a form block by the
application of tensile forces.
• Used most extensively in the aircraft industry for
parts of large radius of curvature.
• Cups with hemispherical bottom are made.
• Most complex automobile components involve a
stretching component.
Shearing, Blanking and Punching
• Involve cutting rather than forming of the sheet metal.
• Shearing, blanking and punching are used to cut large
sheets into small sections for subsequent pressworking
operations.
• Pressworking is the term often applied to sheet metal
operations because the machines used to perform these
operations are presses.
Shearing
• A sheet metal cutting operation along a straight line
between two cutting edges.
• It is performed on machines called power shears or
squaring shears.
• The upper blade of the power shears is often inclined, to
reduce the required cutting force.
• Blanking involves cutting of the sheet metal along a
closed outline in a single step to separate the piece
from the surrounding stoke.
• The part cutout is the desired product in the operation
and is called the blank.
• Punching is similar to blanking except that the piece
that is cut out is scrap, called slug. The remaining
stoke is the desired part.

(a) Blanking and

(b) punching.
• The punch and die sizes for a round blank of diameter
Db are determined as
Blanking punch diameter = Db -2c
Blanking die diameter = Db
• The punch and die sizes for a round hole of diameter Dh
are determined as
Hole punch diameter = Dh
Hole die diameter = Dh+2c

Die size determines blank size Db;

Punch size determines hole size Dh.;
c = clearance.