NUCLEAR MODELS

The nuclear models endeavor to explain the existence and details of the nuclear forces / or how
nucleons interact inside the nucleus. They help us understand various features of nuclear
experimental data and the mechanisms responsible for binding energy

1) Liquid – drop model

 It accounts for the nuclear binding energy and has been quite successful in explaining
nuclear masses as well as nuclear fission.
 These model falls in the category of strong-interaction models in which the nucleons are
viewed as strongly coupled together.
 Was proposed by C. F. von Weizsächer in 1935, and it treats the nucleons as though they
were molecules in a drop of liquid. The nucleons interact strongly with each other and
undergo frequent collisions as they jiggle around within the nucleus. The random motion
analogous to the thermally agitated motions of molecules in a drop of liquid
 According to these model, Three major effects influence the binding energy of the
nucleus:
a) The volume effect. As earlier showed, the binding energy per nucleon is
approximately constant. This indicates that the nuclear force saturates. Therefore, the
total binding energy of the nucleus is proportional to A and to the nuclear volume.
The contribution to the binding energy of this volume effect is,
C1A, where C1 is an adjustable constant.
b) The surface effect. Because nucleons on the surface of the drop have fewer
neighbors than those in the interior, surface nucleons reduce the binding energy by an
amount proportional to the number of surface nucleons. Because the number of
surface nucleons is proportional to the surface area of the nucleus, 4πr 2, and r 2
roA2/3 (r roA1/3), the surface term can be expressed as;

C2A2/3, where C2 is a constant.

c) The Coulomb repulsion effect. Each proton repels every other proton in the nucleus.
The corresponding potential energy per pair of interacting particles is ke2/r (k =
coulomb constant). The total Coulomb energy represents the work required to
assemble Z protons from infinity to a sphere of volume V. This energy is proportional
to the number of proton pairs Z(Z - 1)/2 and inversely proportional to the nuclear
radius. Consequently, the reduction in energy that results from the Coulomb effect is,

C3Z(Z - 1)/A1/3, where C3 is a constant.

Another effect that decreases the binding energy especially for heavy nuclei with large
excesses of neutrons, is that because for a given A value, nuclei with Z = N have the
largest binding energy Eb, therefore the Eb must be corrected by a symmetry term that
favors Z = N and decreases the binding energy symmetrically for N >Z or N < Z. The
symmetry term is generally written as;

C4(N - Z)2/A, where C4 is an adjustable constant.

Adding all the contributing values, we get as the total binding energy;
This equation is also referred to as the Weizsächer semi empirical energy binding formula.
The C1, C2, C3 and C4 are adjustable constants for the formula to fit to experimental data.
For A 15,
C1 = 15.7MeV, C2 = 17.8 MeV, C3 = 0.71MeV, C4 = 23.6MeV

Example
Use the Weizsächer semiempirical binding energy formula to calculate the binding energy per
43
nucleon for 2043Ca the nucleus ( 20 Ca  42.9587763u ) [ans. ]

2) Independent - particle
 In the Independent-particle models, the nucleons move nearly independently in a
common nuclear potential. The shell model has been the most successful of these
models, the reason why generally the independent-particle model is often called the shell
model. Assumptions in this model differ greatly from those made in the liquid-drop
model
 It was developed independently by Maria Goeppert-Mayer (1906–1972, German-
American physicist) and Hans Jensen (1907–1973, German physicist). Both shared the
Nobel Prize in 1963 for this work.
 The shell model is based upon the assumption that each nucleon moves in a well-defined
orbital state within the nucleus in an average field produced by the other nucleons. This
model is similar to the shell model of the atom except for the character of the force
term.
 In this model, the nucleons exist in quantized energy states, and there are few collisions
between nucleons. Each quantized orbital state for a proton or neutron is analogous to
one of the orbital states of an electron in an atomic subshell, with the exception that the
ordering of nuclear states in energy is more closely modeled by a spherical-well
potential than by the Coulomb potential that is appropriate for atomic electrons.
 Figure 4 is a representation of the nuclear potential felt by the neutron and the proton.
Because

Figure 4: a diagram of nuclear potential wells as felt by

neutrons and protons. Neutrons are more strongly bound
than protons because of the Coulomb potential. All levels
below the Fermi energy EF are filled.

 Because of the Coulomb interaction, the shape and depth of the proton potential is
somewhat different than that of the neutron. E.g, typical depths are about 43 MeV for
neutrons but only 37 MeV for protons. Energy levels, which represent states that can be
 filled by the nucleons, are shown inside the potential. The nuclei have a Fermi energy
level, just as do atoms, (which is the highest energy level filled in the nucleus). A typical
Fermi energy level has a depth of about 8 MeV. In the ground state of a nucleus, all the
energy levels below the Fermi level are filled, but when a nucleus becomes excited, one
or more of the nucleons is raised to one of the previously unoccupied levels above the
Fermi level. Nuclei are formed by a collection of nucleons, which sort themselves into
the lowest possible energy levels.
 Figure 5 exhibits energy-level diagrams for several possible nuclides between C-12 and
O-16. These energy-level diagrams assume the zero of the energy scale to be the bottom
of the nuclear potential, so we can deal with positive energy values. Both C-12 and O-16
are particularly stable because they are even-even.
 Note that we show the neutron energy levels slightly lower than the proton levels because
of the additional Coulomb repulsion of the protons. If we add one proton to 12C to make
13
7N, we find it is unstable; whereas if we add a neutron to make C-13, we find it to be
stable. Even when we add another neutron to produce C-14, we find it is barely unstable.
In this mass region (the nucleus), nature prefers the number of neutrons and protons to be
about equal (N≈Z), but it doesn’t want Z > N. This helps explain why C-13 is stable, but
not N-13; C-14 has too many more neutrons (8) than protons (6) in this mass region to be
stable. When we add a proton to 13C we make 14N, one of the few stable odd-odd
nuclides. If we next add a proton to 14N we obtain the unstable 15O. However, if we add a
neutron to 14N we find stable 15N, again indicating neutron energy levels to be lower in
energy than the corresponding proton ones. Finally, if we add one more proton to 15N, we
pair the extra proton and make the extra-stable 16O. However, if we add a neutron to 15N,
we have the very unstable nuclide 16N. 14N and 15N are the only stable isotopes of
nitrogen.
 The shell model of nuclei takes advantage of the pairing effect and places only two
neutrons or two protons of opposite spin in each shell (or energy level), as required by the
Pauli Exclusion Principle. The ordering of the energy levels is established by angular
momentum rules, which couple the nucleon spins in a prescribed manner (similar to jj
coupling)
Figure 5: Schematic diagram of proton and neutron energy levels for several nuclei between 12C
and 16O. The nuclei 12C and 16O are particularly stable, but the effects of N ≈ Z and the
spin-pairing effect are important in this region

3) Collective model
A third model of nuclear structure, known as the collective model, combines some features of
the liquid-drop model and the independent-particle model. The nucleus is considered to have
some “extra” nucleons moving in quantized orbits in addition to the filled core of nucleons.
The extra nucleons are subject to the field produced by the core, as in the independent-
particle scheme. Deformations can be set up in the core as a result of a strong interaction
between the core and the extra nucleons, thereby initiating vibrational and rotational motions,
as in the liquid-drop model. The collective model has been very successful in explaining
many nuclear phenomena

Questions
1. It is noted that adding a proton to 12C results in an unstable nucleus. Check the resulting
nucleus for all forms of alpha and beta decay.
2. Just as there are atomic shell features, there are also nuclear shell structures. Certain
values of the number of protons Z and neutrons N are called “magic,” because certain
nuclides with these magic numbers are more tightly bound and have enhanced
abundances. These numbers are 2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 82, and 126.
a) Use this fact to explain why 4He and 16O have peaks in the binding energy curve
of Figure 2.
b) Explain why 208Pb is one of the heaviest stable nuclides.
c) Discuss the abundances of the calcium isotopes with respect to their value of N.
3. Use the nuclear shell model of the previous problem to list five stable nuclides that have
magic numbers for both Z and N
NUCLEAR SPIN AND MAGNETIC MOMENT
Just like an electron, a nucleus, has an intrinsic angular momentum associated with its spin. It
arises from relativistic properties. The magnitude of the nuclear angular momentum is

I ( I  1) , where I is a quantum number called the nuclear spin and may be an integer
or a half integer.
Nuclear angular momentum I, is the total angular momentum of all the nucleons including both
orbital and spin angular momentum of each nucleon. The maximum component of the angular
momentum projected along the z-axis is I
The Figure 1 below illustrates the possible orientations of the nuclear angular momentum and its
projections along the z-axis for the case where I = 3/2

Figure 1: The possible orientations of the nuclear angular

momentum and its projections along the z-axis for the case I =
3/2

The nuclear magnetic moment associated with the nuclear

angular momentum is measured in terms of nuclear magneton
µn, given as

where mp is the proton mass. This definition of µn is analogous to

that of the Bohr magneton, µB, which corresponds to the spin
magnetic moment of a free electron

Example
Prove that µn is smaller than µB by a factor of approximately 2000 (attributable mainly to the
large difference in masses of the proton and electron).

Note
1. The magnetic moment of a free proton is approximately 2.7928 µ n. but, there is no
general theory of nuclear magnetism explaining this value.

2. Another surprising point is that a neutron also has a magnetic moment, with a value of -
1.9135 µn. This fact gives evidence that the uncharged neutron has an internal charge
distribution. The minus sign indicates that this moment is opposite the spin angular
momentum of the neutron.

3. For a proton, it spin magnetic moment µ is parallel to its spin angular momentum S
However, µ and S are opposite for a neutron, as would be expected for a negative charge
distribution. These anomalous magnetic moments (the fact that both nucleon members
have spin and magnetic moments normally associated with a charged orbiting particle)
 arise because the proton and neutron aren’t really fundamental particles but are made of
simpler particles called quarks

Nuclear Magnetic Resonance and Magnetic Resonance Imaging

Nuclear magnetic moments (as well as electronic magnetic moments) precess when placed in an
external magnetic field. The frequency at which they precess, called the Larmor precessional
frequency, ωL, is directly proportional to the magnetic field B. A sketch of such precession is as
shown Figure 2a, where the magnetic field is along the z-axis.

Fig. 2

For example, the Larmor frequency of a proton in a 1-T magnetic field is 42.577 MHZ. The
potential energy of a magnetic dipole moment µ in an external magnetic field B is given by - µ x
B. When the magnetic moment µ is lined up with the field as closely as quantum physics allows,
the potential energy of the dipole moment in the field has its minimum value, Emin. When µ is as
antiparallel as possible, the potential energy has its maximum value, Emax. Figure 2b shows these
two energy states for a nucleus with a spin of 1/2.

It is possible to observe transitions between these two spin states through a technique called
nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR). A constant magnetic field B is introduced to align magnetic
moments, along with a second, weak, oscillating magnetic field oriented perpendicular to B.
When the frequency of the oscillating field is adjusted to match the Larmor precessional
frequency, a torque acting on the precessing moments causes them to “flip” between the two spin
states. These transitions result in a net absorption of energy by the spin system, an absorption
that can be detected electronically. Figure 3 is a sketch of the apparatus used in NMR.
The absorbed energy is supplied by the generator producing the oscillating magnetic field.
Nuclear magnetic resonance and a related technique called electron spin resonance are extremely
important methods of studying nuclear and atomic systems and how those systems interact with
their surroundings.
Figure 3: A sketch of the apparatus used in NMR.

A widely used diagnostic technique called magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is based on
nuclear magnetic resonance. Because about two-thirds of the atoms in the human body are
hydrogen, which gives a strong NMR signal, MRI works exceptionally well for viewing internal
tissues. In MRI, the patient is placed inside a large solenoid that supplies a spatially varying
magnetic field. Because of the gradient in the magnetic field, protons in different parts of the
body precess at different frequencies, and so the resonance signal can provide information on the
positions of the protons. A computer is used to analyze the position information to provide data
for the construction of a final image.

Figure 4: A typical NMR spectrum

Advantages of MRI over other imaging techniques

It causes minimal damage to cellular structures. Photons associated with the radio frequency
signals used in MRI have energies of only about 10 -7 eV. Because molecular bond strengths are
much greater (approximately 1 eV), the radio frequency radiation causes little cellular damage.
In comparison, x rays and gamma rays have energies ranging from 10 4 to 106 eV and can cause
considerable cellular damage

Example
Protons are placed in a 2.30-T magnetic field that points in the positive z-direction.
(a) What is the energy difference between states with the z-component of proton spin angular
momentum parallel and antiparallel to the field? (ΔE = 2(2.025*10-7eV) = 4.05*10-7 eV)
(b) A proton can make a transition from one of these states to the other by emitting or
absorbing a photon with the appropriate energy. Find the frequency and wavelength of
such a photon. (f = 97.9 MHz, λ = 3.06 m)