Unit 2 Logic of Quantified Statements

Unit 2: Discrete
Mathematics
Course Code: 0UIT404D, Course Type: Compulsory
L – T – P: 3– 0 – 0
Stream: Core, Credits: 3
Prepared By: Dr S C Tamane

Course Outcomes
After learning the course, the students should be able to
1. Verify the correctness of an argument using symbolic logic and truth
tables.
2. Construct mathematical arguments using logical connectives and
quantifiers.
3. Construct proofs using mathematical induction And Solve problems
involving recurrence relations and generating functions
4. Perform operations on discrete structures such as sets, functions,
relations
5. Solve problems using counting techniques on sets and also find
probability
Books
• Text Books:
1. Susanna S. Epp, “Discrete Mathematics with Applications” 4th
Edition.
2. K. H. Rosen, “Discrete Mathematics and Its Applications”, Tata
McGraw Hill Publication, 7 th Edition, 2012.
3. B. Kolman, R. Busby, S. Ross, “Discrete Mathematical Structures”,
Pearson Education, 6 th Edition, 2009.
4. R. K. Bisht, H. S. Dhami, “Discrete Mathematics”, Oxford University
Press, 2015.
Books
• Reference Books:
1. Kenneth H Rosen, “Discrete Mathematics and its Applications”.
2. C L Liu, “Elements of Discrete Mathematics”.
3. Norman L Biggs, “Discrete Mathematics”.
4. Kenneth Bogart and Robert L Drysdale, “Discrete Mathematics for
Computer Science”.
5. R Krishna Kumar, “Discrete Mathematics”.
• E-sources:
NPTEL course on Discrete Mathematics.
Contents
• Unit 2: Logic of Quantified Statements
• Predicates and Quantified Statements, Statements with
Multiple Quantifiers, Arguments with Quantified Statements
• (Chapter 3: The Logic of Quantified Statements from Susanna

S. Epp, “Discrete Mathematics with Applications” 4th
Edition)
Predicates and Quantified Statements
• Predicates:
• “He is a college student”
• is not a statement, because it may be either true or false
• "x + y is greater than 0”
• is not a statement because its truth value depends on the values of the variables x
and y.
• Predicate: refers to the part of a sentence that gives information about the
subject.
• For ex. “James is a student at Bedford College,”
• James: the subject
• Predicate: is a student at Bedford College
• Predicates:
• In logic, predicates can be obtained by removing some or all of the nouns
from a statement.
• For instance, let P: “is a student at Bedford College” and
let Q: “is a student at.”
• Then both P and Q are predicate symbols.
• The sentences “x is a student at Bedford College” and “x is a student at y”
are symbolized as P(x) and as Q(x, y) respectively, where x and y are
predicate variables that take values in appropriate sets.
• When concrete values are substituted in place of predicate variables, a
statement results.
• Definition:
• A predicate is a sentence that contains a finite number of variables
and becomes a statement when specific values are substituted for the
variables. The domain of a predicate variable is the set of all values
that may be substituted in place of the variable.
• Finding truth values of a Predicate:
• Let P(x) be the predicate “x2 > x” with domain the set R of all real numbers.
• Write P(2), P( 1/2 ), and P(−1/2 ), and indicate which of these statements
are true and which are false.
• Solution:
• Solution:
• Solution:
• Definition:
• If P(x) is a predicate and x has domain D, the truth set of P(x) is the
set of all elements of D that make P(x) true when they are substituted
for x. The truth set of P(x) is denoted {x ∈ D | P(x)}.
• Finding the truth Set of a Predicate:
• Let Q(n) be the predicate “n is a factor of 8.” Find the truth set of Q(n)
if
a. the domain of n is the set Z+ of all positive integers
b. the domain of n is the set Z of all integers.
• Solution
a. The truth set is {1, 2, 4, 8} because these are exactly the positive integers
that divide 8 evenly.
b. The truth set is {1, 2, 4, 8,−1,−2,−4,−8} because the negative
integers−1,−2,−4, and −8 also divide into 8 without leaving a remainder.
The Universal Quantifier: ∀
• One way to change predicates into statements is to assign specific values
to all their variables.
• For example, if x represents the number 35, the sentence “x is (evenly)
divisible by 5” is a true statement since 35 = 5· 7.
• Another way to obtain statements from predicates is to add quantifiers.
• Quantifiers are words that refer to quantities such as “some” or “all” and
tell for how many elements a given predicate is true.
• The symbol ∀ denotes “for all” and is called the universal quantifier.
• For example, “All human beings are mortal” is same as ∀ human beings x,
x is mortal.
• Some other expressions that can be used instead of for all are for every, for
arbitrary, for any, for each, and given any.
The Universal Quantifier: ∀
• Definition
• Let Q(x) be a predicate and D the domain of x. A universal statement
is a statement of the form “∀x ∈ D, Q(x).” It is defined to be true if,
and only if, Q(x) is true for every x in D. It is defined to be false if, and
only if, Q(x) is false for at least one x in D. A value for x for which Q(x)
is false is called a counterexample to the universal statement.
Truth and Falsity of Universal Statements
a. Let D = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, and consider the statement ∀x ∈ D, x2 ≥ x.
Show that this statement is true.
b. Consider the statement ∀x ∈ R, x2 ≥ x.
Find a counterexample to show that this statement is false.
Solution
a. Check that “x2 ≥ x” is true for each individual x in D.
12 ≥ 1, 22 ≥ 2, 32 ≥ 3, 42 ≥ 4, 52 ≥ 5.
Hence “∀x ∈ D, x2 ≥ x” is true.
Truth and Falsity of Universal Statements
• b. Counterexample: Take x = ½. Then x is in R (since ½ is a
real number) and
(½)2 = ¼ (not) ≥ ½.
• Hence “∀x ∈ R, x2 ≥ x” is false.
• The technique used to show the truth of the universal
statement in above Example (a) is called the method of
exhaustion.
• It consists of showing the truth of the predicate
separately for each individual element of the domain.
The Existential Quantifier: ∃
• The symbol ∃ denotes “there exists” and is called the existential
quantifier.
• For example, the sentence “There is a student in Math 140” can be written
as
• ∃ a person p such that p is a student in Math 140,
• or, more formally,
• ∃p ∈ P such that p is a student in Math 140,
• where P is the set of all people.
• The words such that are inserted just before the predicate.
• Some other expressions that can be used in place of there exists are there
is a, we can find a, there is at least one, for some, and for at least one.
The Existential Quantifier: ∃
• Definition
• Let Q(x) be a predicate and D the domain of x. An existential
statement is a statement of the form “∃x ∈ D such that Q(x).” It is
defined to be true if, and only if, Q(x) is true for at least one x in D. It is
false if, and only if, Q(x) is false for all x in D.
Truth and Falsity of Existential Statements
a. Consider the statement ∃m ∈ Z+ such that m2 = m.
Show that this statement is true.
b. Let E = {5, 6, 7, 8} and consider the statement.
∃m ∈ E such that m2 = m. Show that this statement is false
Solution
a. Observe that 12 = 1. Thus “m2 = m” is true for at least one integer m.
Hence “∃m ∈ Z such that m2 = m” is true.
Truth and Falsity of Existential Statements
b. But m2 = m is not true for any integers m from 5
through 8:
52 = 25 ≠ 5
62 = 36 ≠ 6
72 = 49 ≠ 7
82 = 64 ≠ 8
Thus “∃m ∈ E such that m2 = m” is false.
Formal Versus Informal Language
• It is important to be able to:
• translate from formal to informal language when trying
to make sense of mathematical concepts that are new to
you.
• translate from informal to formal language when thinking
out a complicated problem.
Translating from Formal to Informal
Language
• Rewrite the following formal statements in a variety of
equivalent but more informal ways.
• Do not use the symbol ∀ or ∃.
a. ∀x ∈ R, x2 ≥ 0.
b. ∀x ∈ R, x2 ≠ −1.
c. ∃m ∈ Z+ such that m2 = m.
Language
a. ∀x ∈ R, x2 ≥ 0.
• Solution
• All real numbers have nonnegative squares.
• Or: Every real number has a nonnegative square.
• Or: Any real number has a nonnegative square.
• Or: The square of each real number is nonnegative.
Language
b. ∀x ∈ R, x2 ≠ −1.
• Solution
• All real numbers have squares that are not equal to −1.
• Or: No real numbers have squares equal to −1.
• (The words none are or no . . . are are equivalent to the
words all are not.)
Language
c. ∃m ∈ Z+ such that m2 = m.
• Solution
• There is a positive integer whose square is equal to
itself.
• Or: We can find at least one positive integer equal to
its own square.
• Or: Some positive integer equals its own square.
• Or: Some positive integers equal their own squares
Language
• Another way to restate universal and existential
statements informally is to place the quantification at
the end of the sentence.
• For instance, instead of saying “For any real number x,
x2 is nonnegative,” you could say “x2 is nonnegative for
any real number x.”
• In such a case the quantifier is said to “trail” the rest
of the sentence.
Trailing Quantifiers
• Rewrite the following statements so that the quantifier
trails the rest of the sentence.
a. For any integer n, 2n is even.
b. There exists at least one real number x such that x2 ≤ 0.
• Solution
a. 2n is even for any integer n.
b. x2 ≤ 0 for some real number x.
Or: x2 ≤ 0 for at least one real number x.
Translating from Informal to Formal
Language
• Rewrite each of the following statements formally. Use
quantifiers and variables.
a. All triangles have three sides.
b. No dogs have wings.
c. Some programs are structured.
Language
• Rewrite each of the following statements formally.
Use quantifiers and variables.
a. All triangles have three sides.
• Solution
a. ∀ triangles t, t has three sides.
Or: ∀t ∈ T, t has three sides (where T is the set of all
triangles).
Language
b. No dogs have wings.
• Solution
b. ∀ dogs d, d does not have wings.
Or: ∀d ∈ D, d does not have wings (where D is the set of all
dogs).
Language
c. Some programs are structured.
• Solution
c. ∃ a program p such that p is structured.
Or: ∃p ∈ P such that p is structured (where P is the set of all
programs).
Universal Conditional Statements
• A reasonable argument can be made that the most
important form of statement in mathematics is the
universal conditional statement:
• ∀x, if P(x) then Q(x).
• Familiarity with statements of this form is essential if
you are to learn to speak mathematics.
Writing Universal Conditional Statements
Informally
• Rewrite the following statement informally, without quantifiers or
variables.
• ∀x ∈ R, if x > 2 then x2 > 4.
• Solution
• If a real number is greater than 2 then its square is greater than 4.
• Or: Whenever a real number is greater than 2, its square is greater
than 4.
• Or: The square of any real number greater than 2 is greater than 4.
• Or: The squares of all real numbers greater than 2 are greater than 4.
Writing Universal Conditional Statements
Formally
• Rewrite each of the following statements in the form ∀____, if
_____ then _____ .
a. If a real number is an integer, then it is a rational number.
b. All bytes have eight bits.
c. No fire trucks are green.
• Solution
a. ∀ real numbers x, if x is an integer, then x is a rational number
Or: ∀x ∈ R, if x ∈ Z then x ∈ Q.
b. ∀x, if x is a byte, then x has eight bits.
c. ∀x, if x is a fire truck, then x is not green.
• It is common, as in (b) and (c) above, to omit explicit identification of
the domain of predicate variables in universal conditional statements.
Equivalent Forms of Universal and
Existential Statements
• Observe that the two statements
• “∀ real numbers x, if x is an integer then x is rational”
• “∀ integers x, x is rational” mean the same thing.
• Both have informal translations
• “All integers are rational.” In fact, a statement of the form
∀x ∈ U, if P(x) then Q(x)
• can always be rewritten in the form
∀x ∈ D, Q(x)
• by narrowing U to be the domain D consisting of all values of the variable x
that make P(x) true. Conversely, a statement of the form
∀x ∈ D, Q(x)
• can be rewritten as
∀x, if x is in D then Q(x).
Equivalent Forms of Universal Statements
• Rewrite the following statement in the two forms:
• “∀x, if_____ then _____” and
• “∀ _____x, _____ ”:
• Statement: All squares are rectangles.
• Solution
• ∀x, if x is a square then x is a rectangle.
• ∀ squares x, x is a rectangle.
• Similarly, a statement of the form “∃x such that p(x) and
Q(x)” can be rewritten as “∃xεD such that Q(x),” where D is
the set of all x for which P(x) is true.
Equivalent Forms of Existential Statements
• A prime number is an integer greater than 1 whose only positive integer factors
are itself and 1.
• Consider the statement “There is an integer that is both prime and even.”
• Let Prime(n) be “n is prime” and Even(n) be “n is even.”
• Use the notation Prime(n) and Even(n) to rewrite this statement in the following
two forms:
• a. ∃n such that ∧ .
• b. ∃ n such that .
• Solution
• a. ∃n such that Prime(n) ∧ Even(n).
• b. Two answers: ∃ a prime number n such that Even(n).
∃ an even number n such that Prime(n).
Implicit Quantification
• Consider the statement:
• If a number is an integer, then it is a rational number.
• This statement is equivalent to a universal statement.
• This is an example of implicit universal quantification.
• Existential quantification can also be implicit.
• For instance, the statement “The number 24 can be
written as a sum of two even integers” can be
expressed formally as:
• “∃ even integers m and n such that 24 = m + n.”
Implicit Quantification Examples
• In an algebra course in which the letter x is always
used to indicate a real number, the predicate, If x > 2
then x2 > 4 is interpreted to mean the same as the
statement ∀ real numbers x, if x > 2 then x2 > 4.
• Mathematicians often use a double arrow to indicate
implicit quantification symbolically.
• x > 2 ⇒ x2 > 4.
• Notation
• Let P(x) and Q(x) be predicates and suppose the
common domain of x is D.
• The notation P(x) ⇒ Q (x) means that every element in
the truth set of P(x) is in the truth set of Q(x), or,
equivalently, ∀x, P(x) → Q(x).
• The notation P(x) ⇔ Q (x) means that P(x) and Q(x)
have identical truth sets, or, equivalently, ∀x, P(x)
Q(x).
Using ⇒and⇔
• Let
• Q(n) be “n is a factor of 8,”
• R(n) be “n is a factor of 4,”
• S(n) be “n < 5 and n ≠ 3,”
• and suppose the domain of n is Z+, the set of positive
integers.
• Use the ⇒ and ⇔ symbols to indicate true
relationships among Q(n), R(n), and S(n).
Using ⇒and⇔
• Solution
• The truth set of Q(n) is {1, 2, 4, 8} when the domain
of n is Z+.
• By similar reasoning the truth set of R(n) is {1, 2, 4}.
• Thus it is true that every element in the truth set of
R(n) is in the truth set of Q(n), or, equivalently, ∀n in
Z+ , R(n) → Q(n).
• So R(n) ⇒ Q(n), or, equivalently n is a factor of 4 ⇒ n is
a factor of 8.
Using ⇒and⇔
• Solution
• The truth set of S(n) is {1, 2, 4}, which is identical to the
truth set of R(n), or, equivalently, ∀n in Z+, R(n) S(n).
• So R(n) ⇔ S(n), or, equivalently,
• n is a factor of 4 ⇔ n < 5 and n ≠ 3.
• Moreover, since every element in the truth set of S(n) is in
the truth set of Q(n), or, equivalently, ∀n in Z+, S(n) → Q(n),
then S(n) ⇒ Q(n), or, equivalently, n < 5 and n ≠ 3 ⇒ n is a
factor of 8.
Quizzes
1. If P(x) is a predicate with domain D, the truth set of P(x)
is denoted ____. We read these symbols out loud as ____.
Solution: {x ∈ D | P(x)}; the set of all x in D such that P(x)
2. Some ways to express the symbol ∀ in words are____ .
Solution: Possible answers: for all, for every, for any, for each, for
arbitrary, given any
3. Some ways to express the symbol ∃ in words are ____.
Solution: Possible answers: there exists, there exist, there exists
at least one, for some, for at least one, we can find a
Quizzes
4. A statement of the form ∀x ∈ D, Q(x) is true if,
and only if, Q(x) is ____for____.
Solution: true; every x in D (Alternative answers:
all x in D; each x in D)
5. A statement of the form ∃x ∈ D such that Q(x) is
true if, and only if, Q(x) ____is for____.
Solution: true; at least one x in D (Alternative
answer: some x in D)
Exercise 3.1
Q. Let P(x) be the predicate “x > 1/x.”
a. Write P(2), P( 1/2 ), P(−1), P(−1/2 ), and P(−8),
and indicate which of these statements are true
and which are false.
b. Find the truth set of P(x) if the domain of x is R,
the set of all real numbers.
c. If the domain is the set R+ of all positive real
numbers, what is the truth set of P(x)?
Exercise 3.1
a. Write P(2), P( 1/2 ), P(−1), P(−1/2 ), and P(−8), and indicate
which of these statements are true and which are false.
Solution:
P(2): True
P( 1/2 ): False
P(−1): False
P(−1/2 ): True
P(−8): False
Exercise 3.1
b. Find the truth set of P(x) if the domain of x is R,
the set of all real numbers.
Solution:
True for x>1 or –1<x<0
Exercise 3.1
c. If the domain is the set R+ of all positive real
numbers, what is the truth set of P(x)?
Solution:
True for X>1
Exercise 3.1
Q. Let Q(n) be the predicate “n2 ≤ 30.”
a. Write Q(2), Q(−2), Q(7), and Q(−7), and indicate
which of these statements are true and which
are false.
b. Find the truth set of Q(n) if the domain of n is Z,
the set of all integers.
c. If the domain is the set Z+ of all positive
integers, what is the truth set of Q(n)?
Exercise 3.1
a. Write Q(2), Q(−2), Q(7), and Q(−7), and indicate
which of these statements are true and which are
false.
Solution:
Q(2): True
Q(−2): True
Q(7): False
Q(−7): False
Exercise 3.1
b. Find the truth set of Q(n) if the domain of n is Z,
the set of all integers.
Solution:
Truth set is {-5, -4, -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
Exercise 3.1
c. If the domain is the set Z+ of all positive integers,
what is the truth set of Q(n)?
Solution:
Truth set is {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
Exercise 3.1
Q. Let R(m, n) be the predicate “If m is a factor of n2 then m
is a factor of n,” with domain for both m and n being the set
Z of integers.
a. Explain why R(m, n) is false if m = 25 and n = 10.
b. Give values different from those in part (a) for which
R(m, n) is false.
c. Explain why R(m, n) is true if m = 5 and n = 10.
d. Give values different from those in part (c) for which
R(m, n) is true.
Exercise 3.1
Q. Let R(m, n) be the predicate “If m is a factor of n2 then m is a factor of n,” with
domain for both m and n being the set Z of integers.
a. Explain why R(m, n) is false if m = 25 and n = 10.
Solution:
If n = 10 then n2 = 100
Now, calculate the product of 4 and m,
25.4 = 100
Here 25 is a factor of 102
The factors of 10 are 1,2,5,10.
Hence, 25 is not a factor of 10.
Here m is a factor of n
Therefore, R(m, n) is false.
Exercise 3.1
Q. Let R(m, n) be the predicate “If m is a factor of n2 then m is a factor of
n,” with domain for both m and n being the set Z of integers.
b. Give values different from those in part (a) for which R(m, n) is false.
Solution:
The other such values can be,
M = 24, n = 12, m = 25, n = 15
Now, calculate the product of 6 and m = 24
24.6 = 144
So, 24 is a factor of 122.
The factors of 12 are 1,2,3,4,6,12
Hence, 24 is not a factor of 12
Exercise 3.1
b. Give values different from those in part (a) for which R(m, n) is false.
Solution:
Again, calculate the product of 9 and m = 25
25.9 = 225
So, 25 is a factor of 152 .
The factors of 15 are 1, 3, 5, 15 .
Hence, 25 is not a factor of 15.
Therefore, other such values are m = 24, n = 12; m = 25, n =15
Exercise 3.1
c. Explain why R(m, n) is true if m = 5 and n = 10.
Solution:
If n = 10 then n2 = 100
5. 20 = 100
The factors of 10 are 1, 2, 5, 10.
Hence, 5 is a factor of 10.
Therefore, R(m,n) is true.
Exercise 3.1
Q. Let R(m, n) be the predicate “If m is a factor of n2 then m is a factor of n,” with
domain for both m and n being the set Z of integers.
d. Give values different from those in part (c) for which R(m, n) is true.
Solution:
The other such values can be,
M = 4, n = 12, m = 5, n = 15
4.36 = 144
The factors of 12 are 1,2,3,4,6,12
Hence, 4 is a factor of 12
Exercise 3.1
d. Give values different from those in part (c) for which R(m, n) is true.
Solution:
Again, calculate the product of 45 and m = 5
5.45 = 225
The factors of 15 are 1, 3, 5, 15.
Hence, 5 is a factor of 15.
Therefore, other such values are m = 4, n = 12; m = 5, n =15
Exercise 3.1
Q. Find the truth set of each predicate.
a. predicate: 6/d is an integer, domain: Z
b. predicate: 6/d is an integer, domain: Z+
c. predicate: 1 ≤ x2 ≤ 4, domain: R
d. predicate: 1 ≤ x2 ≤ 4, domain: Z
Exercise 3.1
a. predicate: 6/d is an integer, domain: Z
Solution:
The value of d for which 6/d is an integer are
-6, -3, -2, -1, 1, 2, 3, 6.
The domain is the set of all integers.
Therefore, the truth set is {-6, -3, -2, -1, 1, 2, 3, 6}
Exercise 3.1
b. predicate: 6/d is an integer, domain: Z+
Solution:
The value of d for which 6/d is an integer are
-6, -3, -2, -1, 1, 2, 3, 6.
Therefore, the truth set is {1, 2, 3, 6}
Exercise 3.1
c. predicate: 1 ≤ x2 ≤ 4, domain: R
Solution:
The inequality can be written as,
1 ≤ x2 ≤ 4
±1 ≤ x ≤ ±2
That is –1 ≤ x ≤ -2 and 1 ≤ x ≤ 2
The value of x for which 1 ≤ x2 ≤ 4 will lie between –2 and –1 inclusive
together with those between 1 and 2 inclusive.
The domain is the set of all real numbers.
Therefore, the truth set is –2 ≤ x ≤ -1 or 1 ≤x ≤2
Exercise 3.1
d. predicate: 1 ≤ x2 ≤ 4, domain: Z
Solution:
The inequality can be written as,
1 ≤ x2 ≤ 4
±1 ≤ x ≤ ±2
That is –1 ≤ x ≤ -2 and 1 ≤ x ≤ 2
The value of x for which 1 ≤ x2 ≤ 4 will lie between –2 and –1
inclusive together with those between 1 and 2 inclusive.
Therefore, the truth set is {–2,-1,1,2)
Exercise 3.1
Q. Consider the following statement:
∃x ∈ R such that x2 = 2.
Which of the following are equivalent ways of expressing this
statement?
a. The square of each real number is 2.
b. Some real numbers have square 2.
c. The number x has square 2, for some real number x.
d. If x is a real number, then x2 = 2.
e. Some real number has square 2.
f. There is at least one real number whose square is 2.
Exercise 3.1
Which of the following are equivalent ways of
expressing this statement?
a. The square of each real number is 2.
Solution:
False
Exercise 3.1
b. Some real numbers have square 2.
Solution:
True
Exercise 3.1
c. The number x has square 2, for some real
number x.
Solution:
True
Exercise 3.1
d. If x is a real number, then x2 = 2.
Solution:
False
Exercise 3.1
e. Some real number has square 2.
Solution:
True
Exercise 3.1
f. There is at least one real number whose square is
2.
Solution:
True
Exercise 3.1
Q. Rewrite each of the following statements in the form
“∀______ x,______ .”
a. All dinosaurs are extinct.
b. Every real number is positive, negative, or zero.
c. No irrational numbers are integers.
d. No logicians are lazy.
e. The number 2,147,581,953 is not equal to the square of
any integer.
f. The number −1 is not equal to the square of any real
number.
Exercise 3.1
Q. Rewrite each of the following statements in the
form “∀______ x,______ .”
a. All dinosaurs are extinct.
Solution:
∀ dinosaurs x, x is extinct.
Exercise 3.1
form “∀______ x,______ .”
Solution:
∀ real number x, x is positive, negative, or zero.
Exercise 3.1
form “∀______ x,______ .”
c. No irrational numbers are integers.
Solution:
∀ irrational numbers x, x is not an integer.
Exercise 3.1
form “∀______ x,______ .”
d. No logicians are lazy.
Solution:
∀ logicians x, x is not lazy.
Exercise 3.1
form “∀______ x,______ .”
e. The number 2,147,581,953 is not equal to the
square of any integer.
Solution:
∀ integers x, x2 is not equal to 2,147,581,953.
Exercise 3.1
form “∀______ x,______ .”
f. The number −1 is not equal to the square of any
real number.
Solution:
∀ real numbers x, x2 is not equal to –1.
Exercise 3.1
Q. Rewrite the following statements in the two
forms “∃ ____x such that ____” and “∃x such that
____and ____.”
a. Some hatters are mad.
b. Some questions are easy
Exercise 3.1
Q. Rewrite the following statements in the two forms
“∃ ____x such that ____” and “∃x such that ____and
____.”
a. Some hatters are mad.
Solution:
Let P(x): x is a hatter and Q(x): x is mad.
The statement can be written as:
“∃ a hatter x such that x is mad.”
“∃x such that x is hatter and x is mad.”
Exercise 3.1
Q. Rewrite the following statements in the two forms
“∃ ____x such that ____” and “∃x such that ____and
____.”
b. Some questions are easy
Solution:
Let P(x): x is a question and Q(x): x is easy.
The statement can be written as:
“∃ a question x such that x is easy.”
“∃x such that x is question and x is easy.”
Exercise 3.1
Q. Consider the statement “All integers are rational
numbers but some rational numbers are not
integers.”
a. Write this statement in the form “∀x, if ___then
___, but ∃ ____ x such that .”
b. Let Ratl(x) be “x is a rational number” and Int(x) be
“x is an integer.” Write the given statement formally
using only the symbols Ratl(x), Int(x), ∀, ∃, ∧, ∨, ∼,
and→.
Exercise 3.1
numbers but some rational numbers are not
integers.”
a. Write this statement in the form “∀x, if ___then
___, but ∃ ____ x such that .”
Solution:
∀x, if x is an integer, then x is rational, but ∃ some
rational number x such that x is not an integer
Exercise 3.1
numbers but some rational numbers are not integers.”
b. Let Ratl(x) be “x is a rational number” and Int(x) be “x is
an integer.” Write the given statement formally using only
the symbols Ratl(x), Int(x), ∀, ∃, ∧, ∨, ∼, and→.
Solution:
∀x (int(x) → Ratl(x)) ∧ ∃x (Ratl(x) ∧ ∼ int(x))
Exercise 3.1
Q. Let R be the domain of the predicate variable x.
Which of the following are true and which are
false? Give counter examples for the statements
that are false.
a. x > 2 ⇒ x > 1
b. x > 2 ⇒ x2 > 4
c. x2 > 4 ⇒ x > 2
d. x2 > 4 ⇔ |x| > 2
Exercise 3.1
that are false.
a. x > 2 ⇒ x > 1
Solution:
The statement is true because any real number that
is greater than 2 is greater than 1
Exercise 3.1
Which of the following are true and which are false?
Give counter examples for the statements that are
false.
b. x > 2 ⇒ x2 > 4
Solution:
The statement is true because any real number that is
greater than 2 has a square that is greater than 4
Exercise 3.1
Q. Let R be the domain of the predicate variable x. Which
of the following are true and which are false? Give counter
examples for the statements that are false.
c. x2 > 4 ⇒ x > 2
Solution:
This is a false statement
Counter example
Take x = -4
Then, (-4)2 = 16 > 4, but, -4 ≯ 2
Exercise 3.1
that are false.
d. x2 > 4 ⇔ |x| > 2
Solution:
The statement is true because for any real number
r, r2 is greater than 4 if and only if |r| > 2.
• Rules for negating quantified statements;
• An exploration of the relation among ∀, ∃, ∧, and ∨;
• An introduction to the concept of vacuous truth of
universal statements;
• Examples of variants of universal conditional
statements; and
• An extension of the meaning of necessary, sufficient,
and only if to quantified statements.
Negations of Quantified Statements
• Consider the statement “All mathematicians wear
glasses.”
• Negation: “No mathematicians wear glasses,”
• but if even one mathematician does not wear glasses,
then the all mathematicians wear glasses is false.
• So a correct negation is “There is at least one
mathematician who does not wear glasses.”
• The negation of a statement of the form ∀x in D, Q(x)
• ∃x in D such that ∼Q(x). OR
• ∼(∀x ∈ D, Q(x)) ≡ ∃x ∈ D such that ∼Q(x).
• The negation of a universal statement (“all are”)
is logically equivalent to an existential statement
(“some are not” or “there is at least one that is not”).
• The negation of a statement of the form
• ∃x in D such that Q(x)
• ∀x in D,∼Q(x). OR
• ∼(∃x ∈ D such that Q(x)) ≡ ∀x ∈ D,∼Q(x).
• The negation of an existential statement (“some are”) is
logically equivalent to a universal statement (“none are” or
“all are not”).
Negating of Quantified Statements
• Write formal negations for the following statements:
a. ∀ primes p, p is odd.
b. ∃ a triangle T such that the sum of the angles of T
equals 200◦.
• Solution
a. ∃a prime p such that p is not odd.
b. ∀ triangles T, the sum of the angles of T does not
equal 200◦.
More Negations
• Rewrite the following statement formally. Then write
formal and informal negations.
• No politicians are honest.
• Solution
• Formal version: ∀ politicians x, x is not honest.
• Formal negation: ∃ a politician x such that x is honest.
• Informal negation: Some politicians are honest.
Still More Negations
• Write informal negations for the following statements:
a. All computer programs are finite.
• For this statement to be false, there would have to be
at least one computer program that does not satisfy
the property. Thus, the answer is
There is a computer program that is not finite.
Or: Some computer programs are infinite.
b. Some computer hackers are over 40.
• Solution
• For this statement to be false, not a single computer
hacker can have that property. Thus, the negation is
No computer hackers are over 40.
Or: All computer hackers are 40 or under
c. The number 1,357 is divisible by some integer between 1 and 37.
• This statement has a trailing quantifier. Written formally it becomes:
∃ an integer n between 1 and 37 such that 1,357 is divisible by n.
• Its negation is therefore
∀ integers n between 1 and 37; 1,357 is not divisible by n.
• An informal version of the negation is
The number 1,357 is not divisible by any integer between 1 and 37.
Negations of Universal Conditional
Statements
• By definition of the negation of a for all statement,
• ∼(∀x, P(x) → Q(x)) ≡ ∃x such that ∼(P(x) → Q(x)). ------1
• But the negation of an if-then statement is logically equivalent to an
and statement. More precisely,
• ∼(P(x) → Q(x)) ≡ P(x) ∧ ∼Q(x). ------2
• Substituting (2) into (1) gives
• ∼(∀x, P(x) → Q(x)) ≡ ∃x such that (P(x)∧ ∼Q(x)).
• Negation of a Universal Conditional Statement
• ∼(∀x, if P(x) then Q(x)) ≡ ∃x such that P(x) and ∼Q(x).
Negating of Universal Conditional
Statements
• Write a formal negation for statement (a) and an informal negation
for statement (b).
a. ∀ people p, if p is blond then p has blue eyes.
b. If a computer program has more than 100,000 lines, then it
contains a bug.
• Solution
a. ∃ a person p such that p is blond and p does not have blue eyes.
b. There is at least one computer program that has more than 100,000
lines and does not contain a bug.
The Relation among ∀, ∃, ∧ and ∨
• The negation of a for all statement is a there exists
statement, and the negation of a there exists statement is a
for all statement.
• These facts are analogous to De Morgan’s laws, which state
that the negation of an and statement is an or statement
and that the negation of an or statement is an and
statement.
• Universal statements are generalizations of and statements,
and existential statements are generalizations of or
statements.
• If Q(x) is a predicate and the domain D of x is the set {x1, x2, . . . , xn},
then the Statements
• ∀x ∈ D, Q(x) and Q(x1) ∧ Q(x2) ∧ · · · ∧ Q(xn) are logically equivalent.
• Ex., let Q(x) be “x · x = x” and suppose D = {0, 1}.
• Then ∀x ∈ D, Q(x) can be rewritten as
• ∀ binary digits x, x · x = x.
• This is equivalent to
• 0·0 = 0 and 1·1 = 1,
• which can be rewritten in symbols as
• Q(0) ∧ Q(1).
• Similarly, if Q(x) is a predicate and D = {x1, x2, . . . , xn}, then the
statements
• ∃x ∈ D such that Q(x) and Q(x1) ∨ Q(x2) ∨ · · · ∨ Q(xn) are logically
equivalent.
• Ex., let Q(x) be “x + x = x” and suppose D = {0, 1}.
• Then ∃x ∈ D such that Q(x) can be rewritten as
• ∃ a binary digit x such that x + x = x.
• This is equivalent to
• 0 + 0 = 0 or 1 + 1 = 1,
• which can be rewritten in symbols as
• Q(0) ∨ Q(1).
Vacuous Truth of Universal Statements
• Suppose a bowl sits on a table and next to the bowl is a pile
of five blue and five gray balls, any of which may be placed in
the bowl.
• If three blue balls and one gray ball are placed in the bowl, as
shown in Figure (a),
• the statement “All the balls in the bowl are blue”
• would be false (since one of the balls in the bowl is gray).
• Now suppose that no balls at all are placed in the bowl, as
shown in Figure (b).
• Consider the statement-- All the balls in the bowl are blue.
• Is this statement true or false?
• The statement is false if, and only if, its negation is true.
• And its negation is
• There exists a ball in the bowl that is not blue.
• But the only way this negation can be true is for there actually to be a
nonblue ball in the bowl.
• And there is not! Hence the negation is false, and so the statement is
true “by default.”
• But for the statement "All the balls in the bowl are blue" and
its negation "There exists a ball in the bowl that is not blue",
statement is false.
• In general, a statement of the form
• ∀x in D, if P(x) then Q(x) is called vacuously true or true
by default if, and only if, P(x) is false for every x in D.
Variants of Universal Conditional
Statements
• Definition
• Consider a statement of the form:
• ∀x ∈ D, if P(x) then Q(x).
1. Its contrapositive is:
∀x ∈ D, if ∼Q(x) then ∼P(x).
2. Its converse is:
∀x ∈ D, if Q(x) then P(x).
3. Its inverse is:
∀x ∈ D, if ∼P(x) then ∼Q(x).
Contrapositive, Converse, and Inverse of a
Universal Conditional Statement
• Write a formal and an informal contrapositive, converse,
and inverse for the following statement:
• If a real number is greater than 2, then its square is greater
than 4.
• Solution
• The formal version:
• ∀x ∈ R, if x > 2 then x2 > 4.
• Contrapositive:
• ∀x ∈ R, if x2 ≤ 4 then x ≤ 2.
• Or: If the square of a real number is less than or equal to
4, then the number is less than or equal to 2.
Contrapositive, Converse, and Inverse of a
Universal Conditional Statement
• Converse:
• ∀x ∈ R, if x2 > 4 then x > 2.
• Or: If the square of a real number is greater than 4, then
the number is greater than 2.
• Inverse:
• ∀x ∈ R, if x ≤ 2 then x2 ≤ 4.
• Or: If a real number is less than or equal to 2, then the
square of the number is less than or equal to 4.
Necessary and Sufficient Conditions, Only If
• Definition
• “∀x, r(x) is a sufficient condition for s(x)” means
• “∀x, if r(x) then s(x).”
• “∀x, r(x) is a necessary condition for s(x)” means
• “∀x, if ∼r (x) then ∼s(x)” or, equivalently,
• “∀x, if s(x) then r (x).”
• “∀x, r(x) only if s(x)” means
• “∀x, if ∼s(x) then ∼r (x)” or, equivalently,
• “∀x, if r (x) then s(x).”
• Rewrite the following statements as quantified conditional
statements. Do not use the word necessary or sufficient.
• a. Squareness is a sufficient condition for rectangularity.
• Solution
• formal version:
• ∀x, if x is a square, then x is a rectangle.
• informal language:
• If a figure is a square, then it is a rectangle.
• b. Being at least 35 years old is a necessary condition for
being President of the United States.
• Solution:
• formal language
• ∀ people x, if x is younger than 35, then x cannot be
President of the United States.
• Or, by the equivalence between a statement and its
• contrapositive:
• ∀ people x, if x is President of the United States, then x is at
least 35 years old.
• Only If
• Rewrite the following as a universal conditional statement:
• A product of two numbers is 0 only if one of the numbers is 0.
• Solution
• informal language:
• If neither of two numbers is 0, then the product of the numbers is
not 0.
• Or, by the equivalence between a statement and its contrapositive,
• If a product of two numbers is 0, then one of the numbers is 0.
Exercise 3.2, 2
• Q. Which of the following is a negation for “All dogs
are loyal”? More than one answer may be correct.
a. All dogs are disloyal.
b. No dogs are loyal.
c. Some dogs are disloyal.
d. Some dogs are loyal.
e. There is a disloyal animal that is not a dog.
f. There is a dog that is disloyal.
g. No animals that are not dogs are loyal.
h. Some animals that are not dogs are loyal.
Exercise 3.2, 2
a. All dogs are disloyal.
false
b. No dogs are loyal.
false
c. Some dogs are disloyal.
true
d. Some dogs are loyal.
false
Exercise 3.2, 2
e. There is a disloyal animal that is not a dog.
false
f. There is a dog that is disloyal.
true
g. No animals that are not dogs are loyal.
false
h. Some animals that are not dogs are loyal.
false
Exercise 3.2, 3
• Q. Write a formal negation for each of the following
statements:
a. ∀ fish x, x has gills.
b. ∀ computers c, c has a CPU.
c. ∃ a movie m such that m is over 6 hours long.
d. ∃ a band b such that b has won at least 10 Grammy
awards.
Exercise 3.2, 3
statements:
a. ∀ fish x, x has gills.
Solution:
∃ a fish x such that x does not have gills.
Therefore, the answer is ∃ a fish x such that x does not
have gills
Exercise 3.2, 3
statements:
b. ∀ computers c, c has a CPU.
Solution:
∃ a computer c such that c does not have a CPU.
Therefore, the answer is ∃ a computer c such that
c does not have a CPU .
Exercise 3.2, 3
statements:
c. ∃ a movie m such that m is over 6 hours long.
Solution:
∀ movies m, m is less than or equal to 6 hours long.
Therefore, the answer is ∀ movies m, m is less than or
equal to 6 hours long .
Exercise 3.2, 3
statements:
d. ∃ a band b such that b has won at least 10 Grammy
awards.
Solution:
∀ band b, b has won less than 10 Germany awards
Therefore, the answer is ∀ band b, b has won less
than 10 Germany awards
Exercise 3.2, 5
• Write a negation for each of the following statements.
a. Any valid argument has a true conclusion.
• Solution:
a. At least one valid argument does not have a true
conclusion.
b. Some real number is not positive, not negative and
not zero.
Exercise 3.2, 6
• Write a negation for each of the following statements.
a. Sets A and B do not have any points in common.
b. Towns P and Q are not connected by any road on
the map.
Solution:
a. Set A and B have at least one point in common.
b. Towns P and Q are connected by at least one road
on the map.
Exercise 3.2, 15
• Let D = {−48, −14, −8, 0, 1, 3, 16, 23, 26, 32, 36}. Determine
which of the following statements are true and which are
false. Provide counterexamples for those statements that
are false.
• a. ∀x ∈ D, if x is odd then x > 0.
• b. ∀x ∈ D, if x is less than 0 then x is even.
• c. ∀x ∈ D, if x is even then x ≤ 0.
• d. ∀x ∈ D, if the ones digit of x is 2, then the tens digit is 3
or 4.
• e. ∀x ∈ D, if the ones digit of x is 6, then the tens digit is 1
or 2.
Exercise 3.2, 15
• Let D = {−48, −14, −8, 0, 1, 3, 16, 23, 26, 32, 36}.
Determine which of the following statements are true
and which are false. Provide counterexamples for
those statements that are false.
• a. ∀x ∈ D, if x is odd then x > 0.
• Solution:
• True
• All odd numbers in D are positive
Exercise 3.2, 15
• Let D = {−48, −14, −8, 0, 1, 3, 16, 23, 26, 32, 36}.
• b. ∀x ∈ D, if x is less than 0 then x is even.
• Solution:
• True
• All negative numbers in D are even
Exercise 3.2, 15
• Let D = {−48, −14, −8, 0, 1, 3, 16, 23, 26, 32, 36}.
• c. ∀x ∈ D, if x is even then x ≤ 0.
• Solution:
• False
• X = 16, 26, 32, 36 are counter examples
Exercise 3.2, 15
• Let D = {−48, −14, −8, 0, 1, 3, 16, 23, 26, 32, 36}.
• d. ∀x ∈ D, if the ones digit of x is 2, then the tens digit
is 3 or 4.
• Solution:
• True
• The ones digit of 32 is 2 and the tens digit is 3
Exercise 3.2, 15
• Let D = {−48, −14, −8, 0, 1, 3, 16, 23, 26, 32, 36}.
• e. ∀x ∈ D, if the ones digit of x is 6, then the tens digit
is 1 or 2.
• Solution:
• False
• X = 36 is the counter example
Interpreting Multiply-Quantified∗
Statements
• A college cafeteria line has four stations: salads, main
courses, desserts, and beverages.
• The salad station offers a choice of green salad or fruit
salad; the main course station offers spaghetti or fish; the
dessert station offers pie or cake; and the beverage
station offers milk, soda, or coffee. Three students, Uta,
Tim, and Yuen, go through the line and make the following
choices:
• Uta: green salad, spaghetti, pie, milk
• Tim: fruit salad, fish, pie, cake, milk, coffee
• Yuen: spaghetti, fish, pie, soda
Statements
• Write each of following
statements informally and
find its truth value.
a. ∃ an item I such that ∀
students S, S chose I .
b. ∃ a student S such that ∀
items I, S chose I .
c. ∃ a student S such that ∀
stations Z, ∃ an item I in
Z such that S chose I .
d. ∀ students S and ∀
stations Z, ∃ an item I in
Z such that S chose I .
Statements
a. ∃ an item I such that
∀ students S, S chose I .
Solution:
a. There is an item
that was chosen by
every student. This
is true; every
student chose pie.
Statements
b. ∃ a student S such
that ∀ items I, S chose I.
• Solution:
• There is a student who
chose every available
item. This is false; no
student chose all nine
items.
Statements
c. ∃ a student S such that
∀ stations Z, ∃ an item I
in Z such that S chose I .
• Solution:
• There is a student who
chose at least one item
from every station. This
is true; both Uta and
Tim chose at least one
item from every station.
Statements
d. ∀ students S and
∀ stations Z, ∃ an
item I in Z such that
S chose I .
• Solution:
• Every student chose at least
one item from every station.
This is false; Yuen did not
choose a salad.
There Is a Smallest Positive Integer
• Every integer is a real number and that real numbers are of three types:
positive, negative, and zero (zero being neither positive nor negative).
• Consider the statement “There is a smallest positive integer.”
• Write this statement formally using both symbols ∃ and ∀.
• Solution There is a positive integer m with the property that no matter what positive
integer n a person might pick, m will be less than or equal to n:
• ∃ a positive integer m such that ∀ positive integers n, m ≤ n.
• This is true.
There Is No Smallest Positive Integer
• Imagine any positive real number x on the real number line (right of 0).
• Observe that no matter how small x is, the number x/2 will be both
positive and less than x.∗
• Thus the following statement is true: “There is no smallest positive real

number.”
• Write this statement formally using both symbols ∀ and ∃.
• Solution ∀ positive real numbers x, ∃ a positive real number y such that y
< x.
Negations of Multiply-Quantified
Statements
• You can use the same rules to negate multiply-quantified statements that
you used to negate simpler quantified statements.
• Recall that ∼(∀x in D, P(x)) ≡ ∃x in D such that ∼P(x).
• and
• ∼(∃x in D such that P(x)) ≡ ∀x in D,∼P(x).
• We apply these laws to find
• ∼(∀x in D, ∃y in E such that P(x, y))
• by moving in stages from left to right along the sentence.
Negations of Multiply-Quantified
Statements
• First version of negation: ∃x in D such that ∼(∃y in E such that P(x, y)).
• Final version of negation: ∃x in D such that ∀y in E,∼P(x, y).
• Similarly, to find
• ∼(∃x in D such that ∀y in E, P(x, y)),
• we have
• First version of negation: ∀x in D,∼(∀y in E, P(x, y)).
• Final version of negation: ∀x in D, ∃y in E such that ∼P(x, y).
• These facts can be summarized as follows:
Arguments with Quantified Statements
• The rule of universal instantiation:
• If some property is true of everything in a set, then it is true of any
particular thing in the set.
• Ex:
• All men are mortal.
• Socrates is a man.
• ∴ Socrates is mortal.
• Universal instantiation: simplify rk+1·r, where r is a particular real number
and k is a particular integer.
1. For all real numbers x and all integers m and n, xm · xn = xm+n.
2. For all real numbers x, x1 = x.
• rk+1·r = rk+1·r1 Step 1
= r(k+1)+1 Step 2
= rk+2 by basic algebra.
• The reasoning behind step 1 and step 2:
• Step 1: For all real numbers x, x1 = x. universal truth
r is a particular real number. particular instance
∴ r1 = r. conclusion
• Step 2: For all real numbers x and all integers
m and n, xm· xn = xm+n. universal truth
r is a particular real number and k + 1
and 1 are particular integers. particular instance
∴ rk+1·r1 = r(k+1)+1. conclusion
Both arguments are examples of universal instantiation.
Universal Modus Ponens
• The rule of universal instantiation can be combined with modus ponens to
obtain the valid form of argument called universal modus ponens.
Recognizing Universal Modus Ponens
• Rewrite the following argument using quantifiers, variables, and predicate
symbols. Is this argument valid? Why?
If an integer is even, then its square is even.
k is a particular integer that is even.
∴ k2 is even.
• Solution
• ∀x, if x is an even integer then x2 is even.
Recognizing Universal Modus Ponens
• Let E(x) be “x is an even integer,” let S(x) be “x2 is even,” and let k stand for
a particular integer that is even. Then the argument has the following
form:
∀x, if E(x) then S(x).
E(k), for a particular k.
∴ S(k).
• This argument has the form of universal modus ponens and is therefore
valid.
Universal Modus Tollens
• Universal modus tollens is the heart of proof of contradiction, which is
one of the most important methods of mathematical argument.
Recognizing the Form of Universal Modus
Tollens
• Rewrite the following argument using quantifiers, variables, and predicate
symbols.
• Write the major premise in conditional form. Is this argument valid? Why?
All human beings are mortal.
Zeus is not mortal.
∴ Zeus is not human.
• Solution The major premise can be rewritten as
• ∀x, if x is human then x is mortal.
Recognizing the Form of Universal Modus
Tollens
• Let H(x) be “x is human,” let M(x) be “x is mortal,” and let Z stand for Zeus.
The argument becomes
∀x, if H(x) then M(x)
∼M(Z)
∴ ∼H(Z).
• This argument has the form of universal modus tollens and is therefore
valid.
Test Yourself
• The rule of universal instantiation says that if some property is
true for ______ in a domain, then it is true for ______.
all elements; any particular element in the domain
(Or: each individual element of the domain)
• If the first two premises of universal modus ponens are
written as “If x makes P(x) true, then x makes Q(x) true”
and “For a particular value of a ______ ,” then the conclusion
can be written as “ ______.”
P(a) is true; Q(a) is true
Test Yourself
• If the first two premises of universal modus tollens are
written as “If x makes P(x) true, then x makes Q(x) true”
and “For a particular value of a ______ ,” then the conclusion
can be written as “ ______.”
Q(a) is false; P(a) is false
• If the first two premises of universal transitivity are written as
“Any x that makes P(x) true makes Q(x) true” and “Any x that
makes Q(x) true makes R(x) true,” then the conclusion can be
written as “______.”
Any x that makes P(x) true makes R(x) true
Exercise 3.4
• Some of the arguments in 7–18 are valid by universal modus
ponens or universal modus tollens; others are invalid and exhibit
the converse or the inverse error. State which are valid and
which are invalid. Justify your answers.
7. All healthy people eat an apple a day.
Keisha eats an apple a day.
∴ Keisha is a healthy person.
Exercise 3.4
Exercise 3.4
• 8. All freshmen must take writing.
• Caroline is a freshman.
• ∴ Caroline must take writing.
Exercise 3.4
• 9. All healthy people eat an apple a day.
• Herbert is not a healthy person.
• ∴ Herbert does not eat an apple a day.
Exercise 3.4
• 10. If a product of two numbers is 0, then at least one of
the numbers is 0.
• For a particular number x, neither (2x + 1) nor (x − 7) equals 0.
• ∴ The product (2x + 1)(x − 7) is not 0.
Exercise 3.4
• 13. For all students x, if x studies discrete mathematics, then x
is good at logic.
• Tarik studies discrete mathematics.
• ∴ Tarik is good at logic.
Exercise 3.4
• 14. If compilation of a computer program produces error
messages, then the program is not correct.
• Compilation of this program does not produce error messages.
• ∴ This program is correct.
Exercise 3.4
• 16. If a number is even, then twice that number is even.
• The number 2n is even, for a particular number n.
• ∴ The particular number n is even.
Exercise 3.4
• 15. Any sum of two rational numbers is rational.
• The sum r + s is rational.
• ∴ The numbers r and s are both rational.
Using a Diagram to Show Validity
• Use diagrams to show the validity of the following syllogism:
Zeus is not mortal.
∴ Zeus is not a human being.
• Solution The major premise is pictured on the left in Figure 3.4.2 by placing a disk labeled “human
beings” inside a disk labeled “mortals.”
• The minor premise is pictured on the right in Figure 3.4.2 by placing a dot labeled “Zeus” outside the
disk labeled “mortals.”
Using a Diagram to Show Validity
• The two diagrams fit together in only one way, as shown in Figure 3.4.3.
• Since the Zeus dot is outside the mortals disk, it is necessarily outside the
human beings disk.
• Thus the truth of the conclusion follows necessarily from the truth of the
premises.
• It is impossible for the premises of this argument to be true and the
conclusion false; hence the argument is valid.
Using a Diagram to Show Invalidity
• Use a diagram to show the invalidity of
the following argument:
Felix is mortal.
∴ Felix is a human being.
• Solution The major and minor premises
are represented diagrammatically in
Figure 3.4.4.
Using a Diagram to Show Invalidity
• All that is known is that the Felix dot is
located somewhere inside the mortals disk.
• Where it is located with respect to the
human beings disk cannot be determined.
• Either one of the situations shown in Figure
3.4.5 might be the case.
• The conclusion “Felix is a human being” is
true in the first case but not in the
second (Felix might, for example, be a cat).
• Because the conclusion does not necessarily
follow from the premises, the argument is
invalid.
An Argument with “No”
• Use diagrams to test the following argument for validity:
• No polynomial functions have horizontal asymptotes.
• This function has a horizontal asymptote.
• ∴ This function is not a polynomial function.
An Argument with “No”
• Solution A good way to represent the major premise diagrammatically is shown in
Figure 3.4.6, two disks—a disk for polynomial functions and a disk for functions with
horizontal asymptotes—that do not overlap at all.
• The minor premise is represented by placing a dot labeled “this function” inside the
disk for functions with horizontal asymptotes.
• The diagram shows that “this function” must lie outside the polynomial functions
disk, and so the truth of the conclusion necessarily follows from the truth of the
premises.
• Hence the argument is valid.

Unit 2 Logic of Quantified Statements

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Unit 2 Logic of Quantified Statements

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Unit 2: Discrete

Prepared By: Dr S C Tamane

• (Chapter 3: The Logic of Quantified Statements from Susanna

• Thus the following statement is true: “There is no smallest positive real

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