Saturn

Saturn

Saturn and its prominent rings, as captured by the Cassini orbiter

Designations

/ˈsætərn/ ⓘ[1]
Pronunciation

Named after Saturn

Adjectives Saturnian /səˈtɜːrniən/,[2] Cronian[3] /

Kronian[4] /ˈkroʊniən/[5]

Symbol

Orbital characteristics[6]

Epoch J2000.0

Aphelion 1,514.50 million km (10.1238 AU)

Perihelion 1,352.55 million km (9.0412 AU)

Semi-major axis 1,433.53 million km (9.5826 AU)

Eccentricity 0.0565

Orbital period  29.4475 yr

(sidereal)
 10,755.70 d

 24,225 Saturnian solar days[7]

Orbital period 378.09 days

(synodic)

Average orbital speed 9.68 km/s (6.01 mi/s)

Mean anomaly 317.020°[8]

Inclination  2.485° to ecliptic[8]

 5.51° to Sun's equator[8]

 0.93° to invariable plane[9]

Longitude of 113.665°
ascending node

Time of perihelion 2032-Nov-29[10]

Argument of 339.392°[8]
perihelion

Known satellites 146 with formal designations; innumerable

additional moonlets.[11][12]

Physical characteristics[6]

Mean radius 58,232 km (36,184 mi)[a]

9.1402 Earths

Equatorial radius  60,268 km (37,449 mi)[a]

 9.449 Earths

Polar radius  54,364 km (33,780 mi)[a]

 8.552 Earths

Flattening 0.09796

Circumference 365882.4 km (227348.8 mi) (equatorial)[13]

Surface area  4.27×1010 km2 (1.65×1010 sq mi)[14][a]

 83.703 Earths

Volume  8.2713×1014 km3 (1.9844×1014 cu mi)

[a]

 763.59 Earths

Mass  5.6834×1026 kg

 95.159 Earths

Mean density 0.687 g/cm3 (0.0248 lb/cu in)[b]

0.1246 Earths

Surface gravity  10.44 m/s2 (34.3 ft/s2)[a]

 1.065 g
Moment of inertia 0.22[15]
factor

Escape velocity 35.5 km/s (22.1 mi/s)[a]

Synodic rotation 10 h 32 m 36 s;
period
10.5433 hours,[16] 10 h 39 m;

10.7 hours[7]

Sidereal rotation 10h 33m 38s + 1 m 52s

period [17][18]
m s
− 1 19

Equatorial 9.87 km/s (6.13 mi/s; 35,500 km/h)[a]

rotation velocity

Axial tilt 26.73° (to orbit)

North pole right 40.589°; 2h 42m 21s

ascension

North pole declinatio 83.537°

n

Albedo  0.342 (Bond)[19]

 0.499 (geometric)[20]

Surface temp. min mean max

1 bar 134 K
0.1 bar 88 K[21] 97 K[22] 151 K[21]

Apparent magnitude −0.55[23] to +1.17[23]

Absolute −9.7[24]
magnitude (H)

Angular diameter 14.5″ to 20.1″ (excludes rings)

Atmosphere[6]

Surface pressure 140 kPa[25]

Scale height 59.5 km (37.0 mi)

Composition by  96.3%±2.4% hydrogen

volume  3.25%±2.4% helium

 0.45%±0.2% methane

 0.0125%±0.0075% ammonia

 0.0110%±0.0058% hydrogen

deuteride
  0.0007%±0.00015% ethane

 Icy volatiles:
o ammonia

o water ice

o ammonium hydrosulfide

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Saturn is the sixth planet from the Sun and the second-largest in the Solar System,
after Jupiter. It is a gas giant with an average radius of about nine-and-a-half times that
of Earth.[26][27] It has only one-eighth the average density of Earth, but is over 95 times
more massive.[28][29][30] Even though Saturn is nearly the size of Jupiter, Saturn has less
than one-third of Jupiter's mass. Saturn orbits the Sun at a distance of
9.59 AU (1,434 million km) with an orbital period of 29.45 years.
Saturn's interior is thought to be composed of a rocky core, surrounded by a deep layer
of metallic hydrogen, an intermediate layer of liquid hydrogen and liquid helium, and
finally, a gaseous outer layer. Saturn has a pale yellow hue due to ammonia crystals in
its upper atmosphere. An electrical current within the metallic hydrogen layer is thought
to give rise to Saturn's planetary magnetic field, which is weaker than Earth's, but which
has a magnetic moment 580 times that of Earth due to Saturn's larger size. Saturn's
magnetic field strength is around one-twentieth of Jupiter's.[31] The outer atmosphere is
generally bland and lacking in contrast, although long-lived features can appear. Wind
speeds on Saturn can reach 1,800 kilometres per hour (1,100 miles per hour).
The planet has a bright and extensive ring system composed mainly of ice particles,
with a smaller amount of rocky debris and dust. At least 146 moons[32] are known to orbit
the planet, of which 63 are officially named; this does not include the hundreds
of moonlets in its rings. Titan, Saturn's largest moon and the second largest in the Solar
System, is larger (while less massive) than the planet Mercury and is the only moon in
the Solar System to have a substantial atmosphere.[33]
Name and symbol
Saturn is named after the Roman god of wealth and agriculture and father of Jupiter.
Its astronomical symbol ( ) has been traced back to the Greek Oxyrhynchus Papyri,
where it can be seen to be a Greek kappa-rho ligature with a horizontal stroke, as an
abbreviation for Κρονος (Cronus), the Greek name for the planet ( ).[34] It later came
to look like a lower-case Greek eta, with the cross added at the top in the 16th century
to Christianize this pagan symbol.
The Romans named the seventh day of the week Saturday, Sāturni diēs ("Saturn's
Day"), for the planet Saturn.[35]
Physical characteristics
Saturn is a gas giant composed predominantly of hydrogen and helium. It lacks a
definite surface, though it is likely to have a solid core.[36] Saturn's rotation causes it to
have the shape of an oblate spheroid; that is, it is flattened at the poles and bulges at
its equator. Its equatorial radius is more than 10% larger than its polar radius:
60,268 km versus 54,364 km.[6] Jupiter, Uranus, and Neptune, the other giant planets in
the Solar System, are also oblate but to a lesser extent. The combination of the bulge
and rotation rate means that the effective surface gravity along the equator, 8.96 m/s2, is
74% of what it is at the poles and is lower than the surface gravity of Earth. However,
the equatorial escape velocity of nearly 36 km/s is much higher than that of Earth.[37]
Saturn is the only planet of the Solar System that is less dense than water—about 30%
less.[38] Although Saturn's core is considerably denser than water, the average specific
density of the planet is 0.69 g/cm3 due to the atmosphere. Jupiter has 318 times Earth's
mass,[39] and Saturn is 95 times Earth's mass.[6] Together, Jupiter and Saturn hold 92% of
the total planetary mass in the Solar System.[40]
Internal structure

Diagram of Saturn, to scale

Despite consisting mostly of hydrogen and helium, most of Saturn's mass is not in
the gas phase, because hydrogen becomes a non-ideal liquid when the density is
above 0.01 g/cm3, which is reached at a radius containing 99.9% of Saturn's mass. The
temperature, pressure, and density inside Saturn all rise steadily toward the core, which
causes hydrogen to be a metal in the deeper layers.[40]
Standard planetary models suggest that the interior of Saturn is similar to that of Jupiter,
having a small rocky core surrounded by hydrogen and helium, with trace amounts of
various volatiles.[41] Analysis of the distortion shows that Saturn is substantially more
centrally condensed than Jupiter and therefore contains a significantly larger amount of
material denser than hydrogen near its centre. Saturn's central regions contain about
50% hydrogen by mass, while Jupiter's contain approximately 67% hydrogen.[42]
This core is similar in composition to Earth, but is more dense. The examination of
Saturn's gravitational moment, in combination with physical models of the interior, has
allowed constraints to be placed on the mass of Saturn's core. In 2004, scientists
estimated that the core must be 9–22 times the mass of Earth,[43][44] which corresponds to
a diameter of about 25,000 km.[45] However, measurements of Saturn's rings suggest a
much more diffuse core with a mass equal to about 17 Earths and a radius equal to
around 60% of Saturn's entire radius.[46] This is surrounded by a thicker liquid metallic
hydrogen layer, followed by a liquid layer of helium-saturated molecular hydrogen that
gradually transitions to a gas with increasing altitude. The outermost layer spans
1,000 km and consists of gas.[47][48][49]
Saturn has a hot interior, reaching 11,700 °C at its core, and radiates 2.5 times more
energy into space than it receives from the Sun. Jupiter's thermal energy is generated
by the Kelvin–Helmholtz mechanism of slow gravitational compression, but such a
process alone may not be sufficient to explain heat production for Saturn, because it is
less massive. An alternative or additional mechanism may be the generation of heat
through the "raining out" of droplets of helium deep in Saturn's interior. As the droplets
descend through the lower-density hydrogen, the process releases heat by friction and
leaves Saturn's outer layers depleted of helium.[50][51] These descending droplets may
have accumulated into a helium shell surrounding the core.[41] Rainfalls
of diamonds have been suggested to occur within Saturn, as well as in Jupiter[52] and ice
giants Uranus and Neptune.[53]
Atmosphere
The outer atmosphere of Saturn contains 96.3% molecular hydrogen and 3.25% helium
by volume.[54] The proportion of helium is significantly deficient compared to the
abundance of this element in the Sun.[41] The quantity of elements heavier than helium
(metallicity) is not known precisely, but the proportions are assumed to match the
primordial abundances from the formation of the Solar System. The total mass of these
heavier elements is estimated to be 19–31 times the mass of Earth, with a significant
fraction located in Saturn's core region.[55]
Trace amounts of ammonia, acetylene, ethane, propane, phosphine, and methane have
been detected in Saturn's atmosphere.[56][57][58] The upper clouds are composed of
ammonia crystals, while the lower level clouds appear to consist of either ammonium
hydrosulfide (NH4SH) or water.[59] Ultraviolet radiation from the Sun causes
methane photolysis in the upper atmosphere, leading to a series
of hydrocarbon chemical reactions with the resulting products being carried downward
by eddies and diffusion. This photochemical cycle is modulated by Saturn's annual
seasonal cycle.[58] Cassini observed a series of cloud features found in northern
latitudes, nicknamed the "String of Pearls". These features are cloud clearings that
reside in deeper cloud layers.[60]
Cloud layers
 A global storm girdles the planet in 2011. The storm
passes around the planet, such that the storm's head (bright area) passes its tail.
Saturn's atmosphere exhibits a banded pattern similar to Jupiter's, but Saturn's bands
are much fainter and are much wider near the equator. The nomenclature used to
describe these bands is the same as on Jupiter. Saturn's finer cloud patterns were not
observed until the flybys of the Voyager spacecraft during the 1980s. Since then, Earth-
based telescopy has improved to the point where regular observations can be made.[61]
The composition of the clouds varies with depth and increasing pressure. In the upper
cloud layers, with temperatures in the range of 100–160 K and pressures extending
between 0.5–2 bar, the clouds consist of ammonia ice. Water ice clouds begin at a level
where the pressure is about 2.5 bar and extend down to 9.5 bar, where temperatures
range from 185 to 270 K. Intermixed in this layer is a band of ammonium hydrosulfide
ice, lying in the pressure range 3–6 bar with temperatures of 190–235 K. Finally, the
lower layers, where pressures are between 10 and 20 bar and temperatures are 270–
330 K, contains a region of water droplets with ammonia in aqueous solution.[62]
Saturn's usually bland atmosphere occasionally exhibits long-lived ovals and other
features common on Jupiter. In 1990, the Hubble Space Telescope imaged an
enormous white cloud near Saturn's equator that was not present during
the Voyager encounters, and in 1994 another smaller storm was observed. The 1990
storm was an example of a Great White Spot, a short-lived phenomenon that occurs
once every Saturnian year, roughly every 30 Earth years, around the time of the
northern hemisphere's summer solstice.[63] Previous Great White Spots were observed in
1876, 1903, 1933 and 1960, with the 1933 storm being the best observed.[64] The latest
giant storm was observed in 2010. In 2015, researchers used Very Large
Array telescope to study Saturnian atmosphere, and reported that they found "long-
lasting signatures of all mid-latitude giant storms, a mixture of equatorial storms up to
hundreds of years old, and potentially an unreported older storm at 70°N".[65]
The winds on Saturn are the second fastest among the Solar System's planets, after
Neptune's. Voyager data indicate peak easterly winds of 500 m/s (1,800 km/h).[66] In
images from the Cassini spacecraft during 2007, Saturn's northern hemisphere
displayed a bright blue hue, similar to Uranus. The color was most likely caused
by Rayleigh scattering.[67] Thermography has shown that Saturn's south pole has a
warm polar vortex, the only known example of such a phenomenon in the Solar System.
 Whereas temperatures on Saturn are normally −185 °C, temperatures on the vortex
[68]

often reach as high as −122 °C, suspected to be the warmest spot on Saturn.[68]
Hexagonal cloud patterns
Main article: Saturn's hexagon

Saturn's north and south pole in infrared

A persisting hexagonal wave pattern around the north polar vortex in the atmosphere at
about 78°N was first noted in the Voyager images.[69][70][71] The sides of the hexagon are
each about 14,500 km (9,000 mi) long, which is longer than the diameter of the Earth.
[72]
The entire structure rotates with a period of 10h 39m 24s (the same period as that of the
planet's radio emissions) which is assumed to be equal to the period of rotation of
Saturn's interior.[73] The hexagonal feature does not shift in longitude like the other
clouds in the visible atmosphere.[74] The pattern's origin is a matter of much speculation.
Most scientists think it is a standing wave pattern in the atmosphere. Polygonal shapes
have been replicated in the laboratory through differential rotation of fluids.[75][76]
HST imaging of the south polar region indicates the presence of a jet stream, but no
strong polar vortex nor any hexagonal standing wave.[77] NASA reported in November
2006 that Cassini had observed a "hurricane-like" storm locked to the south pole that
had a clearly defined eyewall.[78][79] Eyewall clouds had not previously been seen on any
planet other than Earth. For example, images from the Galileo spacecraft did not show
an eyewall in the Great Red Spot of Jupiter.[80]
The south pole storm may have been present for billions of years.[81] This vortex is
comparable to the size of Earth, and it has winds of 550 km/h.[81]
Magnetosphere
Main article: Magnetosphere of Saturn

Auroral lights at Saturn's north pole

Saturn has an intrinsic magnetic field that has a simple, symmetric shape—a
magnetic dipole. Its strength at the equator—0.2 gauss (µT)—is approximately one
twentieth of that of the field around Jupiter and slightly weaker than Earth's magnetic
field.[31] As a result, Saturn's magnetosphere is much smaller than Jupiter's.
[82]
When Voyager 2 entered the magnetosphere, the solar wind pressure was high and
the magnetosphere extended only 19 Saturn radii, or 1.1 million km (712,000 mi),
[83]
although it enlarged within several hours, and remained so for about three days.
[84]
Most probably, the magnetic field is generated similarly to that of Jupiter—by currents
in the liquid metallic-hydrogen layer called a metallic-hydrogen dynamo.[82] This
magnetosphere is efficient at deflecting the solar wind particles from the Sun. The moon
Titan orbits within the outer part of Saturn's magnetosphere and contributes plasma
from the ionized particles in Titan's outer atmosphere.[31] Saturn's magnetosphere,
like Earth's, produces aurorae.[85]
Orbit and rotation

Animation of Saturn and the Solar System's outer

planets orbiting around the Sun Simulated appearance of

Saturn as seen from Earth (at opposition) during an orbit of Saturn, 2001–2029
The average distance between Saturn and the Sun is over 1.4 billion kilometers (9 AU).
With an average orbital speed of 9.68 km/s,[6] it takes Saturn 10,759 Earth days (or
about 29+1⁄2 years)[86] to finish one revolution around the Sun.[6] As a consequence, it
forms a near 5:2 mean-motion resonance with Jupiter.[87] The elliptical orbit of Saturn is
inclined 2.48° relative to the orbital plane of the Earth.[6] The perihelion and
aphelion distances are, respectively, 9.195 and 9.957 AU, on average.[6][88] The visible
features on Saturn rotate at different rates depending on latitude, and multiple rotation
periods have been assigned to various regions (as in Jupiter's case).
Astronomers use three different systems for specifying the rotation rate of
Saturn. System I has a period of 10h 14m 00s (844.3°/d) and encompasses the Equatorial
Zone, the South Equatorial Belt, and the North Equatorial Belt. The polar regions are
considered to have rotation rates similar to System I. All other Saturnian latitudes,
excluding the north and south polar regions, are indicated as System II and have been
assigned a rotation period of 10h 38m 25.4s (810.76°/d). System III refers to Saturn's
internal rotation rate. Based on radio emissions from the planet detected by Voyager
1 and Voyager 2,[89] System III has a rotation period of 10h 39m 22.4s (810.8°/d).
System III has largely superseded System II.[90]
A precise value for the rotation period of the interior remains elusive. While approaching
Saturn in 2004, Cassini found that the radio rotation period of Saturn had increased
appreciably, to approximately 10h 45m 45s ± 36s.[91][92] An estimate of Saturn's rotation (as
an indicated rotation rate for Saturn as a whole) based on a compilation of various
measurements from the Cassini, Voyager and Pioneer probes is 10h 32m 35s.[93] Studies
of the planet's C Ring yield a rotation period of 10h 33m 38s + 1 52
m s

− 1 19 .
m s [17][18]

In March 2007, it was found that the variation in radio emissions from the planet did not
match Saturn's rotation rate. This variance may be caused by geyser activity on
Saturn's moon Enceladus. The water vapor emitted into Saturn's orbit by this activity
becomes charged and creates a drag upon Saturn's magnetic field, slowing its rotation
slightly relative to the rotation of the planet.[94][95][96]
An apparent oddity for Saturn is that it does not have any known trojan asteroids. These
are minor planets that orbit the Sun at the stable Lagrangian points, designated L4 and
L5, located at 60° angles to the planet along its orbit. Trojan asteroids have been
discovered for Mars, Jupiter, Uranus, and Neptune. Orbital resonance mechanisms,
including secular resonance, are believed to be the cause of the missing Saturnian
trojans.[97]
Natural satellites
Main article: Moons of Saturn

Artist conception of Saturn, its

rings and major icy moons—from Mimas to Rhea
Saturn has 146 known moons, 63 of which have formal names.[12][11] It is estimated that
there are other 100±30 outer irregular moons larger than 3 km (2 mi) in diameter.[98] In
addition, there is evidence of dozens to hundreds of moonlets with diameters of 40–500
meters in Saturn's rings,[99] which are not considered to be true moons. Titan, the largest
moon, comprises more than 90% of the mass in orbit around Saturn, including the rings.
[100]
Saturn's second-largest moon, Rhea, may have a tenuous ring system of its own,
[101]
along with a tenuous atmosphere.[102][103][104]
Many of the other moons are small: 131 are less than 50 km in diameter.[105] Traditionally,
most of Saturn's moons have been named after Titans of Greek mythology. Titan is the
only satellite in the Solar System with a major atmosphere,[106][107] in which a
complex organic chemistry occurs. It is the only satellite with hydrocarbon lakes.[108][109]
On 6 June 2013, scientists at the IAA-CSIC reported the detection of polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons in the upper atmosphere of Titan, a possible precursor for life.[110] On 23
June 2014, NASA claimed to have strong evidence that nitrogen in the atmosphere of
Titan came from materials in the Oort cloud, associated with comets, and not from the
materials that formed Saturn in earlier times.[111]
Saturn's moon Enceladus, which seems similar in chemical makeup to comets,[112] has
often been regarded as a potential habitat for microbial life.[113][114][115][116] Evidence of this
possibility includes the satellite's salt-rich particles having an "ocean-like" composition
that indicates most of Enceladus's expelled ice comes from the evaporation of liquid salt
water.[117][118][119] A 2015 flyby by Cassini through a plume on Enceladus found most of the
ingredients to sustain life forms that live by methanogenesis.[120]
In April 2014, NASA scientists reported the possible beginning of a new moon within
the A Ring, which was imaged by Cassini on 15 April 2013.[121]
Planetary rings
Main article: Rings of Saturn

The rings of Saturn (imaged here by Cassini in 2007) are

the most massive and conspicuous in the Solar System. [48]

Saturn is probably best known for the system of planetary rings that makes it visually
unique.[48] The rings extend from 6,630 to 120,700 kilometers (4,120 to 75,000 mi)
outward from Saturn's equator and average approximately 20 meters (66 ft) in
thickness. They are composed predominantly of water ice, with trace amounts
of tholin impurities and a peppered coating of approximately 7% amorphous carbon.
[122]
The particles that make up the rings range in size from specks of dust up to 10 m.
 While the other gas giants also have ring systems, Saturn's is the largest and most
[123]

visible.
There are two main hypotheses regarding the origin of the rings. One hypothesis is that
the rings are remnants of a destroyed moon of Saturn, for which a research team at MIT
has proposed the name "Chrysalis".[124] The second hypothesis is that the rings are left
over from the original nebular material from which Saturn was formed. Some ice in the
E ring comes from the moon Enceladus's geysers.[125][126][127][128] The water abundance of the
rings varies radially, with the outermost ring A being the most pure in ice water. This
abundance variance may be explained by meteor bombardment.[129]
Beyond the main rings, at a distance of 12 million km from the planet is the sparse
Phoebe ring. It is tilted at an angle of 27° to the other rings and, like Phoebe, orbits
in retrograde fashion.[130]
Some of the moons of Saturn, including Pandora and Prometheus, act as shepherd
moons to confine the rings and prevent them from spreading out.
[131]
Pan and Atlas cause weak, linear density waves in Saturn's rings that have yielded
more reliable calculations of their masses.[132]
In September 2023, astronomers reported studies suggesting that the rings of Saturn
may have resulted from the collision of two moons "a few hundred million years ago".[133]
[134]

Natural-color mosaic of Cassini narrow-angle camera images of the unilluminated side of Saturn's D, C, B, A
and F rings (left to right) taken on May 9, 2007 (distances are to the planet's center).

History of observation and exploration

The observation and exploration of Saturn can be divided into three phases: (1) pre-
modern observations with the naked eye, (2) telescopic observations from Earth
beginning in the 17th century, and (3) visitation by space probes, in orbit or on flyby. In
the 21st century, telescopic observations continue from Earth (including Earth-
orbiting observatories like the Hubble Space Telescope) and, until its 2017 retirement,
from the Cassini orbiter around Saturn.
Pre-telescopic observation
See also: Saturn (mythology) and Planets in astrology § Saturn
Saturn has been known since prehistoric times,[135] and in early recorded history it was a
major character in various mythologies. Babylonian astronomers systematically
observed and recorded the movements of Saturn.[136] In ancient Greek, the planet was
known as Φαίνων Phainon,[137] and in Roman times it was known as the "star of Saturn".
[138]
In ancient Roman mythology, the planet Phainon was sacred to this agricultural god,
from which the planet takes its modern name.[139] The Romans considered the god
Saturnus the equivalent of the Greek god Cronus; in modern Greek, the planet retains
the name Cronus—Κρόνος: Kronos.[140]
The Greek scientist Ptolemy based his calculations of Saturn's orbit on observations he
made while it was in opposition.[141] In Hindu astrology, there are nine astrological
objects, known as Navagrahas. Saturn is known as "Shani" and judges everyone based
on the good and bad deeds performed in life.[139][141] Ancient Chinese and Japanese
culture designated the planet Saturn as the "earth star" (土星). This was based on Five
Elements which were traditionally used to classify natural elements.[142][143][144]
In ancient Hebrew, Saturn is called Shabbathai.[145] Its angel is Cassiel. Its intelligence or
beneficial spirit is 'Agȋȇl (Hebrew: ‫אגיאל‬, romanized: ʿAgyal),[146] and its darker spirit (demon)
is Zȃzȇl (Hebrew: ‫זאזל‬, romanized: Zazl).[146][147][148] Zazel has been described as a great
angel, invoked in Solomonic magic, who is "effective in love conjurations".[149]
[150]
In Ottoman Turkish, Urdu, and Malay, the name of Zazel is 'Zuhal', derived from
the Arabic language (Arabic: ‫زحل‬, romanized: Zuhal).[147]
Telescopic pre-spaceflight observations

Galileo Galilei observed the rings of Saturn in 1610, but was

unable to determine what they were Robert Hooke noted

the shadows (a and b) cast by both the globe and the rings on each other in this
drawing of Saturn in 1666.
Saturn's rings require at least a 15-mm-diameter telescope[151] to resolve and thus were
not known to exist until Christiaan Huygens saw them in 1655 and published about this
in 1659. Galileo, with his primitive telescope in 1610,[152][153] incorrectly thought of Saturn's
appearing not quite round as two moons on Saturn's sides.[154][155] It was not until Huygens
used greater telescopic magnification that this notion was refuted, and the rings were
truly seen for the first time. Huygens also discovered Saturn's moon Titan; Giovanni
Domenico Cassini later discovered four other moons: Iapetus, Rhea, Tethys and Dione.
In 1675, Cassini discovered the gap now known as the Cassini Division.[156]
No further discoveries of significance were made until 1789 when William
Herschel discovered two further moons, Mimas and Enceladus. The irregularly shaped
satellite Hyperion, which has a resonance with Titan, was discovered in 1848 by a
British team.[157]
In 1899 William Henry Pickering discovered Phoebe, a highly irregular satellite that
does not rotate synchronously with Saturn as the larger moons do.[157] Phoebe was the
first such satellite found and it took more than a year to orbit Saturn in a retrograde
orbit. During the early 20th century, research on Titan led to the confirmation in 1944
that it had a thick atmosphere – a feature unique among the Solar System's moons.[158]
Spaceflight missions
Main article: Exploration of Saturn
Pioneer 11 flyby

Pioneer 11 image of Saturn

Pioneer 11 made the first flyby of Saturn in September 1979, when it passed within
20,000 km of the planet's cloud tops. Images were taken of the planet and a few of its
moons, although their resolution was too low to discern surface detail. The spacecraft
also studied Saturn's rings, revealing the thin F-ring and the fact that dark gaps in the
rings are bright when viewed at a high phase angle (towards the Sun), meaning that
they contain fine light-scattering material. In addition, Pioneer 11 measured the
temperature of Titan.[159]
Voyager flybys
In November 1980, the Voyager 1 probe visited the Saturn system. It sent back the first
high-resolution images of the planet, its rings and satellites. Surface features of various
moons were seen for the first time. Voyager 1 performed a close flyby of Titan,
increasing knowledge of the atmosphere of the moon. It proved that Titan's atmosphere
is impenetrable at visible wavelengths; therefore no surface details were seen. The flyby
changed the spacecraft's trajectory out of the plane of the Solar System.[160]
Almost a year later, in August 1981, Voyager 2 continued the study of the Saturn
system. More close-up images of Saturn's moons were acquired, as well as evidence of
changes in the atmosphere and the rings. Unfortunately, during the flyby, the probe's
turnable camera platform stuck for a couple of days and some planned imaging was
lost. Saturn's gravity was used to direct the spacecraft's trajectory towards Uranus.[160]
The probes discovered and confirmed several new satellites orbiting near or within the
planet's rings, as well as the small Maxwell Gap (a gap within the C Ring) and Keeler
gap (a 42 km-wide gap in the A Ring).
Cassini–Huygens spacecraft
Main article: Cassini–Huygens
 At Enceladus's south pole geysers spray water from
many locations along the tiger stripes. [161]

The Cassini–Huygens space probe entered orbit around Saturn on 1 July 2004. In June
2004, it conducted a close flyby of Phoebe, sending back high-resolution images and
data. Cassini's flyby of Saturn's largest moon, Titan, captured radar images of large
lakes and their coastlines with numerous islands and mountains. The orbiter completed
two Titan flybys before releasing the Huygens probe on 25 December
2004. Huygens descended onto the surface of Titan on 14 January 2005.[162]
Starting in early 2005, scientists used Cassini to track lightning on Saturn. The power of
the lightning is approximately 1,000 times that of lightning on Earth.[163]
In 2006, NASA reported that Cassini had found evidence of liquid water reservoirs no
more than tens of meters below the surface that erupt in geysers on Saturn's
moon Enceladus. These jets of icy particles are emitted into orbit around Saturn from
vents in the moon's south polar region.[164] Over 100 geysers have been identified on
Enceladus.[161] In May 2011, NASA scientists reported that Enceladus "is emerging as
the most habitable spot beyond Earth in the Solar System for life as we know it".[165][166]

Saturn eclipses the Sun, as seen from Cassini. The rings

are visible, including the F Ring.
Cassini photographs have revealed a previously undiscovered planetary ring, outside
the brighter main rings of Saturn and inside the G and E rings. The source of this ring is
hypothesized to be the crashing of a meteoroid off Janus and Epimetheus.[167] In July
2006, images were returned of hydrocarbon lakes near Titan's north pole, the presence
of which were confirmed in January 2007. In March 2007, hydrocarbon seas were found
near the North pole, the largest of which is almost the size of the Caspian Sea.[168] In
October 2006, the probe detected an 8,000 km diameter cyclone-like storm with an
eyewall at Saturn's south pole.[169]
From 2004 to 2 November 2009, the probe discovered and confirmed eight new
satellites.[170] In April 2013 Cassini sent back images of a hurricane at the planet's north
pole 20 times larger than those found on Earth, with winds faster than 530 km/h
(330 mph).[171] On 15 September 2017, the Cassini-Huygens spacecraft performed the
"Grand Finale" of its mission: a number of passes through gaps between Saturn and
Saturn's inner rings.[172][173] The atmospheric entry of Cassini ended the mission.
Possible future missions
The continued exploration of Saturn is still considered to be a viable option for NASA as
part of their ongoing New Frontiers program of missions. NASA previously requested for
plans to be put forward for a mission to Saturn that included the Saturn Atmospheric
Entry Probe, and possible investigations into the habitability and possible discovery of
life on Saturn's moons Titan and Enceladus by Dragonfly.[174][175]
Observation

Amateur telescopic view of Saturn

Saturn is the most distant of the five planets easily visible to the naked eye from Earth,
the other four being Mercury, Venus, Mars and Jupiter. (Uranus, and occasionally 4
Vesta, are visible to the naked eye in dark skies.) Saturn appears to the naked eye in
the night sky as a bright, yellowish point of light. The mean apparent magnitude of
Saturn is 0.46 with a standard deviation of 0.34.[23] Most of the magnitude variation is due
to the inclination of the ring system relative to the Sun and Earth. The brightest
magnitude, −0.55, occurs near in time to when the plane of the rings is inclined most
highly, and the faintest magnitude, 1.17, occurs around the time when they are least
inclined.[23] It takes approximately 29.4 years for the planet to complete an entire circuit
of the ecliptic against the background constellations of the zodiac. Most people will
require an optical aid (very large binoculars or a small telescope) that magnifies at least
30 times to achieve an image of Saturn's rings in which clear resolution is present.[48]
[151]
When Earth passes through the ring plane, which occurs twice every Saturnian year
(roughly every 15 Earth years), the rings briefly disappear from view because they are
so thin. Such a "disappearance" will next occur in 2025, but Saturn will be too close to
the Sun for observations.[176]
Saturn and its rings are best seen when the planet is at, or near, opposition, the
configuration of a planet when it is at an elongation of 180°, and thus appears opposite
the Sun in the sky. A Saturnian opposition occurs every year—approximately every 378
days—and results in the planet appearing at its brightest. Both the Earth and Saturn
orbit the Sun on eccentric orbits, which means their distances from the Sun vary over
time, and therefore so do their distances from each other, hence varying the brightness
of Saturn from one opposition to the next. Saturn also appears brighter when the rings
are angled such that they are more visible. For example, during the opposition of 17
December 2002, Saturn appeared at its brightest due to a favorable orientation of its
rings relative to the Earth,[177] even though Saturn was closer to the Earth and Sun in late
2003.[177]
From time to time, Saturn is occulted by the Moon (that is, the Moon covers up Saturn in
the sky). As with all the planets in the Solar System, occultations of Saturn occur in
"seasons". Saturnian occultations will take place monthly for about a 12-month period,
followed by about a five-year period in which no such activity is registered. The Moon's
orbit is inclined by several degrees relative to Saturn's, so occultations will only occur
when Saturn is near one of the points in the sky where the two planes intersect (both
the length of Saturn's year and the 18.6-Earth year nodal precession period of the
Moon's orbit influence the periodicity).[178]