IS GRAPHIC ORGANIZERS EFFECTIVE IN DEVELOPING

STUDENTS’ READING SKILL?

I Putu Yudi Sudarmawan
Universitas Dwijendra
[email protected]

ABSTRACT
Reading is probably the most important skill for second language (L2) learners in
academic contexts. Reading is gradually being recognize as a valuable source of
language input, particularly for students in learning environments (as in some EFL
context) In reading, an individual construct meaning through a transaction with
written text that has been created by symbols that represent language. Considering
the important role of reading, the process of reading should be given a serious
attention in the teaching and learning process. Although the processes of reading
are often too dynamic and varied for different readers with the strategy applied on
different texts to be investigated, it is generally accepted that the interaction
between readers, reading strategy, and text variables is key to understanding the
reading process. As a result, it has become common practice to divide reading
related research into three separate factors: the reader, the strategy, and the text.
Therefore, this study intends to find out whether graphic organizers strategy is
effective in developing students’ reading competency.
Keywords: reading comprehension, text types, graphic organizers

1. INTRODUCTION
The government policy in determining English as a compulsory subject in school is
due to the practical consideration that English is formally acknowledge as an
international means of communication, and the major goal of teaching English is
enable students to develop their communicative competence in the four language
skills; listening, speaking, reading, and writing. Among all of the four language skills
above, reading is one of the four basic skills in English that should be mastered by
students. Through reading, students can enlarge their knowledge and experiences;
they would be able to understand written text in target language if they have a
good competency in reading.
Reading is gradually being recognize as a valuable source of language input,
particularly for students in learning environments (as in some EFL context) in which
fluent speakers of English are generally not available to provide other kinds of
language input. In reading, an individual construct meaning through a transaction
with written text that has been created by symbols that represent language. The
transaction involves the reader’s acting on or interpreting the text, and the
interpretation is influenced by the reader’s past experiences, background
knowledge as well as the reader’s purpose for reading (Sudarmawan, 2014).
However, the expectation and intention when reading are to comprehend what we
read. In addition, Grabe (2009) states that reading is a selective process. It means
that reading is a process in which the information is made to be confirmed,
rejected, or refined by the readers as reading progress.
Considering the important role of reading, the process of reading should be given a
serious attention in the teaching and learning process since it has also become
one of the language skills that should be mastered by the students in order to be
able to perform target language well and to be competent (Sudarmawan, 2020). As
a matter of fact, stated by National Reading panel in 2000, even though the
teaching of reading has been developed in a longer period of time, it is still

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considered a difficult problem in teaching at school. It can be proven by the

students’ limited ability and strategy in reading; they are not being able to
comprehend the text they read. Therefore, it can be concluded that the students
fail to perform the basic competency and indicator in order to administer the target
language well.
Up to this point, it is obvious that the students’ competency in reading
comprehension should be improved because they could not be able to apply their
knowledge in the target language appropriately; they do not have the ability to
obtain general and specific information from the written text, they could not
recognize the main idea and specific ideas in the text explicitly and/or implicitly,
they could not guess the meaning of the words, phrases, or sentences based on
the context, they could not make references, and the most important thing is that
they unable to make use of their prior knowledge and experience to create a
connection with the text they read.
In 2000, the National Reading Panel (NRP) reviewed 204 CSI (Cognitive Strategy
Instruction) studies with students and concluded that there was enough evidence
to recommend seven strategies: question generation, comprehension monitoring,
summarizing, question answering, graphic organizers (diagrams), semantic
mapping and multiple strategy approaches (NRP, 2000 as cited in Sudarmawan,
2020). More oddly, Rosenshine (1997) in (Dole, et al,.2008) mention several
cognitive strategies which can be applied to activate prior knowledge, they are
Class Discussion, Semantic Mapping, Pre-questions, Visual Aids, and Graphic
Organizers. There are more than enough evidences for the experts stated above to
recommend graphi corganizers as suitable strategy to be applied in teaching
reading comprehension. Besides, graphi corganizers is also a cognitive strategy
proposed by McKnight (2010) which is beneficial for enabling students to literally
see connections and relationships between facts, information, and terms,
remembering and connecting information, and facilitating the integration of long-
term memory and new learning.
Graphic organizers are important and effective pedagogical tools for organizing
content and ideas and facilitating learners’ comprehension of newly acquired
information. Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences (2006) as cited in
Sudarmawan (2014), posits that students are better able to learn and internalize
information when more than one learning modality is employed in an instructional
strategy. Because graphic organizers present material through the visual and
spatial modalities (and reinforce what is taught in the classroom), the use of
graphic organizers helps students internalize what they are learning.
Simply put, the application of graphic organizers is widely used during the process
of teaching and learning especially when it comes to reading competency. The
strategy allows the students to use multiple types of charts and designs which ease
them in grasping with the idea of the written text they are reading. Thus, this paper
will focus on finding out whether the application of the graphic organizers strategy
is effective in developing students reading competency.

2. DISCUSSION
2.1 The Nature of Reading
Most of us think that reading is simple. For many students, it is simply an act of
sounding out words to their teacher or to themselves depending on whether they
are reading orally or silently (Byrnes, 2009) They do not have learned that reading
is an exchange of ideas the author and them. In opposite, actually reading is a very
complex process. Adams and Collins as Cited in Sudarmawan (2014) say that at
one level, reading can be described as the process of translating grapheme strings
into spoken words. However, what we really mean by reading is not the ability to
decode words but the ability to extract the meaning both explicit and implicit from
the written text.

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Reading comes easily to some children, but most struggle with some part of the
complex process that begins with phonemes and continues to comprehension of
complex text. Reading is not a natural part of human development. Unlike spoken
language, reading does not follow from observation and imitation of other people
(Willis, 2008). Specific regions of the brain are devoted to processing oral
communication, but there are no specific regions of the brain dedicated to reading.
The complexity of reading requires multiple areas of the brain to operate together
through networks of neurons. This means there are many potential brain
dysfunctions that can interfere with reading.
Within the complex process of reading, six general component skills and
knowledge areas have been identified (Grabe, 1991 as cited in Celce & Murcia,
2001).
1. Automatic recognition skills; a virtually unconscious ability, ideally requiring
little mental processing to recognize text, especially for word identification
2. Vocabulary and structural knowledge; a sound understanding of language
structure and a large recognition vocabulary
3. Formal discourse structure knowledge; an understanding of how texts are
organized and how information is put together into various genre of text
4. Content/world background knowledge; prior knowledge of text related
information and a shared understanding of the cultural information involved in
the text
5. Synthesis and evaluation skills/strategies; the ability to read and compare
information from multiple information from multiple source, to think critically
about what one reads, and to decide what information is relevant or useful for
one purpose
6. Metacognitive knowledge and skills monitoring; an awareness of one’s mental
processes and the ability to reflect on what one is doing and the strategies
one is employing while reading.
When fluent readers read, they bring together all of these components into a
complex process. Fluent readers recognize and get meaning from words they see
in print, and use their knowledge of the structure of the language to begin forming
the mental notion of the topic. They use the semantic and syntactic information
from the text together with what they know from personal experience and
knowledge of the topic to form hypotheses or prediction about what they are
reading and what they are about to read.
2.2 Reading Competency
Grabe (2009) strongly argues that reading is process of communication from the
writer to the reader. It involves the recognition of letters, words, phrases, and
clauses and in some respect; it can be considered a simpler process rather than
comprehension. Comprehension, on the other hand, is a process of negotiating
understanding between the reader and the writer. The reader receives information
from the author via the words, sentences, paragraphs, and so forth and tries to
understand the inners feelings of the writer.
Reading must be about thinking and constructing meaning. It’s much more than
pronouncing words. Researchers today define reading as a complex, recursive
thinking process. David Pearson and several of his colleagues have synthesized
years of research on characteristics of proficient readers and isolated seven
strategies used by successful readers of all ages (Pearson et al. 1992) in Tovani
(2000):
• They use existing knowledge to make sense of new information.
• They ask questions about the text before, during, and after reading.
• They draw inferences from the text.
• They monitor their comprehension.

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• They use “fix-up” strategies when meaning breaks down.

• They determine what is important.
• They synthesize information to create new thinking.
In addition, they also agree with the term “Reading Is Thinking”. When readers
construct meaning, they do so by way of deliberate, thoughtful cognition. They
must do more than decode words. Decoding is important, but it is only one part of
the process by which readers comprehend. They must also understand concepts
and register subtleties. They need to determine what is important as well as
connect their knowledge and experience to what they read (Tovani, 2000). As an
expert in reading, he also mentioned several factors which makes Text becomes
inaccessible.
Text becomes inaccessible when students:
• Don’t have the comprehension strategies necessary to unlock meaning.
Students who have only one or two strategies for making meaning struggle
to understand difficult text.
• Don’t have sufficient background knowledge.
Students who don’t already know something about what they are reading
can’t make connections. What they read seems disconnected and
unimportant.
• Don’t recognize organizational patterns.
Students who don’t understand how text is organized usually don’t know
what is important. They can’t prioritize and therefore don’t establish a
cognitive framework. They have no way to organize and store their thinking.
• Lack purpose.
Students who don’t have a purpose when they read usually lose interest in
what they are reading and fail to construct meaning. It’s hard to glean
anything from the text when you don’t know why you’re reading it.
However, Keene and Zimmermann in their book Mosaic of Thought (1997) as cited
in Seravallo (2010) synthesized a great deal of research and distilled all of the
reading skills mentioned down to the following seven.
1. Activating prior knowledge before, during, and after reading a text. Proficient
readers think about what they already know about a text’s structure or topic
before they read; they make connections to their lives, other books, and the
world as they read; and they think about these connections after they are
finished reading.
2. Determining the most important ideas and themes in a text. Proficient
readers understand the most significant events in a fiction story and use the
significant events to retell, and when reading nonfiction can determine the
main idea of a passage, section, or chapter.
3. Creating visual and sensory images before, during, and after reading a text.
Proficient readers have a “lost-in-a-book” feeling when reading and are able
to describe the multisensory experiences they have across the course of
reading the text. It is not simply about visualizing, but also hearing, seeing,
smelling, and feeling what is described in the text.
4. Asking questions. Proficient readers read with curiosity. They question the
text, often including the characters’ actions or motivations, their own
reactions to what’s in the book, and even the author’s decisions of what to
include and what not to include.
5. Drawing inferences. Proficient readers constantly read beyond what’s
literally in the text. They are able to form judgments, make predictions, and
determine the theme or message of a story, and they have their own ideas
and critiques about a text.

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6. Retelling and synthesizing. Proficient readers can figure out how parts of a
text fit together. One way to use that knowledge is to retell a text in
sequence, chronicling what happened first, next, and finally. Readers can
also put parts of the text together to understand cause and effect, character
change, or how all of the nonfiction features on one page fit together under a
single main idea.
7. Using fix-up strategies when comprehension breaks down. Proficient readers
monitor their own understanding as they read and have strategies to fix
confusion as it arises. These strategies include the ability to understand new
vocabulary.
It is often so challenging to assess comprehension because it is invisible— without
a student writing down what is going through their head, or talking to another about
what they are thinking; it becomes challenging to see the reader’s processing.
Comprehension skill assessment is also so complicated because none of these
seven skills is static. The way in which a reader uses each of these skills depends
upon so many variables including but not limited to genre, text level/ difficulty, the
reader’s prior experience with the topic, and the text structure.
Shahin in 2006 in his article has examined tips and guidelines for implementing a
theory of reading which will help to develop the learner's abilities.
• Text characteristics
• Pre-reading tips
• During-reading tips
• After-reading tips
These tips can be viewed in three consecutive stages: before reading, during
reading, and after reading. For instance, before starting to read a text it is natural to
think of the purpose of reading the text. As an example of the during-reading
techniques, re-reading for better comprehension can be mentioned. And filling out
forms and charts can be referred to as an after-reading activity. These tasks and
ideas can be used to enhance reading comprehension.
• Text characteristics
Good readers expect to understand what they are reading. Therefore, texts should
contain words and grammatical structures familiar to the learners (Van Duzer, 1999
in Shahin, 2006). In texts where vocabulary is not familiar, teachers can introduce
key vocabulary in pre-reading activities that focus on language awareness, such as
finding synonyms, antonyms, derivatives, or associated words (Hood et al., 1996;
cited in Sudarmawan, 2014). The topics of texts chosen should be in accordance
with the age range, interests, sex, and background culture of the students for
whom they are intended. Pre-reading activities that introduce the text should
encourage learners to use their background knowledge. Class members can
brainstorm ideas about the meaning of a title or an illustration and discuss what
they know.
• Pre-reading Tips
Before the actual act of reading a text begins, some points should be regarded in
order to make the process of reading more comprehensible. It is necessary to
provide the necessary background information to the reader to facilitate
comprehension. In addition, as stated by Lebauer (1998 in Shahin, 2006)), pre-
reading activities can lighten students' cognitive burden while reading because
prior discussions will have been incorporated.

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• During-Reading Tips
Several tips during reading are summarizing, reacting, questioning, arguing,
evaluating, and placing a text within one's own experience. These processes may
be the most complex to develop in a classroom setting; most attention is often paid
to dictionaries, the text, and the teacher. Interrupting this routine and encouraging
students to dialogue with what they are reading without coming between them and
the text, presents a challenge to the EFL teacher. Duke and Pearson (2001) in
Shahin (2006) have stated that good readers are active readers. Hence, they use
the following strategies:
• Making predictions: The readers should be taught to be on the watch to
predict what is going to happen next in the text to be able to integrate and
combine what has come with what is to come.
• Making selections: Readers who are more proficient read selectively,
continually making decisions about their reading.
• Integrating prior knowledge: The schemata that have been activated in the
pre-reading section should be called upon to facilitate comprehension.
• Skipping insignificant parts: A good reader will concentrate on significant
pieces of information while skipping insignificant pieces.
• Re-reading: Readers should be encouraged to become sensitive to the
effect of reading on their comprehension.
• Making use of context or guessing: Readers should not be encouraged to
define and understand every single unknown word in a text. Instead they
should learn to make use of context to guess the meaning of unknown
words.
• Breaking words into their component parts: To keep the process of
comprehension ongoing, efficient readers break words into their affixes or
bases. These parts can help readers guess the meaning of a word.
• Reading in chunks: To ensure reading speed, readers should get used to
reading groups of words together. This act will also enhance comprehension
by focusing on groups of meaning-conveying symbols simultaneously.
• Pausing: Good readers will pause at certain places while reading a text to
absorb and internalize the material being read and sort out information.
• Paraphrasing: While reading texts it may be necessary to paraphrase and
interpret texts subvocally in order to verify what was comprehended.
• Monitoring: Good readers monitor their understanding to evaluate whether
the text, or the reading of it, is meeting their goals.
• After-reading Tips
It is necessary to state that post-reading activities almost always depend on the
purpose of reading and the type of information extracted from the text. Barnett
(1988) in Shahin (2006) has stated that post-reading exercises first check students'
comprehension and then lead students to a deeper analysis of the text. In the real
world the purpose of reading is not to memorize an author's point of view or to
summarize text content, but rather to see into another mind, or to mesh new
information into what one already knows. Group discussion will help students focus
on information they did not comprehend, or did comprehend correctly. Accordingly,
attention will be focused on processes that lead to comprehension or
miscomprehension. Generally speaking, post-reading can take the form of various
activities as presented below:
• Discussing the text: Written/Oral
• Summarizing: Written/Oral
• Making questions: Written/Oral

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• Answering questions: Written/Oral

• Filling in forms and charts
• Writing reading logs
• Completing a text
• Listening to or reading other related materials
• Role-playing
2.3 Graphic Organizers
One way to help make a curriculum more supportive of students and teachers is to
incorporate graphic organizers. Graphic organizers come in many varieties and
have been widely researched for their effectiveness in improving learning
outcomes for various students (Hall and Strangman, 2002). Graphic organizers are
a visual representation of the material a student is learning. The organizer assists
the student in brainstorming and/or organizing information to make it easier to
understand how ideas connect. Organizers also create a connection between
different ideas, allowing a student to grasp how large concepts work together. Hall
and Strangman in 2002 have stated that a graphic organizer is a visual and graphic
display that depicts the relationships between facts, terms, and or ideas within a
learning task. Graphic organizers are also sometimes referred to as knowledge
maps, concept maps, story maps, cognitive organizers, advance organizers, or
concept diagrams
Drafke in 1993 defines graphic organizer as a diagram or illustration of a written or
oral statement.Examples include matrices, hierarchies, and continua. The goal in
using graphic organizers is to organize ideas and examine relationships. In doing
so, people engage more of their core thinking skills and process information more
intensely, improving long term recall. Graphic organizers are especially helpful to
average, under-achieving, and struggling learners. The process of reviewing
information and organizing it appears to help learners arrange the material in their
minds.
Graphic organizers are often used to activate preexisting knowledge. In schema
theory it is noted that new information must be connected to prior knowledge. Once
a student has activated his or her prior knowledge he or she will use that
knowledge to help increase the comprehension of new knowledge (McGilL et al,
2010). They argue that many researchers believe that information that is stored in
the students' existing schema is more easily understood, learned, and retained
than information that is not. Teachers can help students learn more information if
he or she can help the student link new information to background knowledge.
Using graphic organizers is a beneficial way to help student make the connection
between prior knowledge and new knowledge.
Graphic organizers are important and effective pedagogical tools for organizing
content and ideas and facilitating learners’ comprehension of newly acquired
information. Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences (1993, 2006) as cited in
McKnight (2010), posits that students are better able to learn and internalize
information when more than one learning modality is employed in an instructional
strategy. Because graphic organizers present material through the visual and
spatial modalities (and reinforce what is taught in the classroom), the use of
graphic organizers helps students internalize what they are learning.
Graphic organizers are great tool teachers and students can use to promote
comprehension. This is an excellent strategy that can be implemented to
encourage the organization of thoughts. It also enables students to make
connections to existing schema. It also gives students reinforcement in making
linking key concepts to deepen comprehension. Teachers can use graphic
organizers to examine the students' thinking and learning. In that vein, for today’s
classroom, nothing is more essential to successful teaching and learning than

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strategy-based instruction. It is through the use of specific teaching strategies and

learning tools that students can be more successful learners. Graphic organizers
are teaching and learning tools; when they’re integrated into classroom
experiences, students are better able to understand new material. Creating a
strong visual picture, graphic organizers support students by enabling them to
literally see connections and relationships between facts, information, and terms.
We know from learning theory that the human mind naturally organizes and stores
information. Our minds create structures to store newly acquired information and
connect it to previous knowledge (Piaget, 1974 in McKnight, 2010). The graphic
organizers featured in this research are visualizations of these mental storage
systems, and serve to support students in remembering and connecting
information.
When students are able to remember and assimilate information, they can delve
into more critical thinking. The visually stimulating nature of graphic organizers
draws the learner’s attention. As learners, we attend to what is novel and visually
intriguing because the brain is more equipped to process images than text.
Because graphic organizers integrate text and visual images, learners are having
more whole-brain experiences (Willis, 2008). He argues that graphic organizers are
used to reinforce the learned pattern.
2.3.1 Design of Graphic Organizers
Mcknight (2010) in his book entitled Big Book of Graphic Organizers presents
about a hundred designs of graphic organizers suit for teaching comprehension
and another study skills. In this research, his design will be used and also take
another design from Dorn and Stoffos (2005) due to the types of text; narrative,
procedure, and recount, since each design of graphic organizers belong to specific
types of text or task.

a. Story Plot Terms

CLIMAX

Rising
action
Falling
action

Orientation Resolution

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2.3.2 Syntax of Graphic Organizers

In addition, for all learners, but for adult learners in particular, graphic organizers
facilitate the integration of long-term memory and new learning. Adult learners
generally have more background and long-term knowledge, and graphic organizers
bridge what adult learners already know with what they are learning. Graphic
organizers actually trigger long-term memory and promote synthesis with new
information (Materna, 2007 in McKnight, 2010). In relation to the previous
statement, (Manzo, 2004 in Srianing 2011) is also posits the usefulness of graphic
organizers in reading comprehension; graphic organizers are a visual
representation of the material a student is learning. The organizer assists the
student in brainstorming and/or organizing information to make it easier to
understand how ideas connect. The steps are as follows:
1. The teacher selects the type of text and the topic based on the curriculum
2. The teacher selects the key vocabularies words and concepts in the text
given
3. The teacher arranges the key words into a diagram picture or charts
(based on the type of text) showing how the key words interrelated. In this
step, the teacher only does the chart partially and the rest will be
completed by the students within the teacher’s guide
4. The teacher adds few familiar words (related to the text) to the diagram so
that students can recall their prior knowledge and make connection with
the new information
5. The teacher presents the graphic organizers on the blackboard and then
explains the relationship that comes across in the chart. In this step, the
teacher gives the chance to students to show their idea related to the chart
given
6. Students are encouraged to explain how they think the information is
related (how their prior knowledge connected to the new information)
7. The students read the text referring as needed to graphic organizers
8. After reading, the students may return to graphic organizers to clarify and
elaborate concepts. In this step, they may do it individually or in group
9. Review the students’ graphic organizers. There might be different result on
students’ work. For that reason, the teacher should guide them so that they
will have the same concept / perception about the text.

3. CONCLUSION
The discussion of this paper concerns on whether graphic organizers strategy
effective in developing students’ reading strategy regarding the nature of reading
and the applicability of graphic organizers strategy in dealing with reading activity.
From the elaboration above, we could see that reading is a complex and recursive
thinking process; the students need to determine what is important as well as
connect their knowledge and experience to what they read. When fluent readers
read, they bring together all of these components into a complex process. Fluent
readers recognize and get meaning from words they see in print, and use their
knowledge of the structure of the language to begin forming the mental notion of
the topic. They use the semantic and syntactic information from the text together
with what they know from personal experience and knowledge of the topic to form
hypotheses or prediction about what they are reading and what they are about to
read.
Meanwhile, graphic organizers enable students to make connections to their
existing schema. It also gives students reinforcement in making linking key
concepts to deepen comprehension. By creating a strong visual picture, graphic
organizers support students by enabling them to literally see connections and
relationships between facts, information, and terms. Through the use of specific

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pattern of graphic organizers to catch up with specific text types, students can be
more successful learners and build comprehension of the passage. Thus, Graphic
organizers are teaching and learning tools; when they’re integrated into classroom
experiences, students are better able to understand new material. Up to his point, it
can be concluded that graphic organizers is effective in developing students
reading competency.

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Willis, Judy M.D. 2008. Teaching the Brain to Read; Strategies for Improving
Fluency, Vocabulary, and Comprehension. United States of America. ASCD
[Jenis ref: Buku]

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