CHAPTER 1

Types of Applications of
Measurement Instrumentation

1.1 WHY STUDY MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS?

T
he study of any subject matter in engineering should be motivated by an ap­
preciation of the uses to which the material might be put in the everyday
.
practice of the profession. Measurement systems are used for many detailed
purposes in a wide variety of application areas. Our approach will be to start with
some specific applications in a specific industry and then generalize this picture by
developing classification schemes that apply to all possible situations.
While measurement is used in many contexts, I want to introduce some basic
ideas using the automotive industry as an example. This industry employs measure­
ment in many ways and is thus a good choice for exploring the various uses of
measurement tools. In the text title, the term "measurement system" is meant to in­
clude ail components in a chain of hardware and software that leads from the mea­
sured variable to processed data. Let us start examining the use of measurement
in the automotive industry "at the beginning," that is, with the conceptual design
process, where a new automobile or truck is first conceived and the basic configu­
ration developed. Because a modern automobile uses as many as 40 or 50 sensors
(measuring devices) in implementing various functions necessary to the operation
of the car, an automobile designer must be aware of tl:j.e instruments available for the
various measurements and how they operate and interface with other parts of the
system. As new sensors are invented, designers must keep up with such develop­
ments since they may allow improvements in car design and operation. Lack of
such sensor knowledge can severely restrict the range of designs that one can
conceive, thus limiting improvements in overall car performance. While sensor
specialists will at later stages of design consider the measuring devices in great
detail, the conceptual designer must have a basic appreciation of their capabilities,
so that the initial design does not neglect any useful possibilities.

3
4 PA R T 1 General Concepts

Once the conceptual stage of design is well underway, measurement system

considerations arise in new contexts. Many engineered products are nowadays de­
signed using the methods of concurrent engineering where design and manufactur­
ing are integrated, rather than being considered sequentially, as was often the case
in earlier times. Before concurrent engineering became common, design was gen­
erally completed .first, manufacturing considerations addressed only later, and costly
revisions and delays (or poor designs) were often the result. With concurrent engi­
neering, product design concepts are not "frozen" until both function and manufac­
turability have been reconciled. That is, the design and manufacturing engineers
work in coordinated teams, blending their expertise right from the beginning of
the design process. Both functionality and manufacturability considerations often
require the design process to include laboratory testing of one kind or another. For
example, if a new material is being considered, we may need to run strength tests to
develop data needed by the design engineers. Or, .a new or revised manufacturing
1·
process may require statistical response surface experiments to find the effects of
process variables on performance and/or cost. Finally, availability from suppliers
of new components, such as improved shock absorbers, may require performance
testing to decide whether their use is warranted in the new design. We see that
laboratory testing and the associated measurement systems are thus a vital part of
the design process. ·

As design and development proceed, prototype subsystems and finally entire

vehicles will be produced. These. are used as "test beds" to evaluate performance
and then feed back information to the design/manufacturing teams . That is, initial
designs usually have unsuspected flaws, which are revealed by building and testing
the prototypes. Also, "pencil and paper" or computer-aided designs always are
based on theories that are never exactly correct, · so experimental testing is needed to
verify, or improve, theoretical calculations. We begin to appreciate that design relies
heavily on experimental testing at every stage of the process.
We have seen ,that experimentation is often needed during the design phase to
help in the development of the manufacturing processes for the product. Once the
design has been finalized, then. manufacture of the product in quantity, rather than
the "one of a kind" mode used during development, can commenc� . When we ex­
amine actual production machinery and processes, we often find that these manu­
facturing tools are controlled by a so-called feedback mechanism. In such a scheme,
some quality parameter of the part produced is measured with appropriate sensors.
This measured value is compared with a desired value of the p'irrameter, and if the
desired and measured values do not agree within some allowable tolerance, a
con�roller adjusts the machine or process until the product is "on specification. "
Perhaps the most obvious example of this general situation i s the machining of parts
to specific dimensions .. Here the measuring devices are precision gages that mea­
sure shaft_ diameters, hole sizes, lengths, etc. Robots used to weld, spray paint, or
assemble parts are also usually feedback devices that use motion and force sensors

1E. 0. Doebelin, "Engineering Experimentation," McGraw-Hill, New York, 1995, p. 273.

 CHAPTE R 1 Types of Applications of M easu rement I n strumentation 5

to controf the robots' operation. A gain it is clear that measurement plays a signifi­
cant role in almost every manufacturing enterprise.
Turning now to the final product, a modem automobile, as mentioned earlier,
relies on a multitude of sensors for its optimum operation. Some of these play es­
sentially a "monitoring" role, that is, they measure and display to the driver, infor­
mation useful for safe and efficient operation of the car. Speedometers tell us the
vehicle's speed, while tachometers display engine RPM. Fuel gages keep track of
the gas supply, and temperature sensors warn of overheating. Recent developments
include use of the Global Positioning System (based on satellites) to locate'the car
on an electronic map and guide the driver to a desired destinatio:t?-. Many other sen­
sors are part of feedback controls that optimize engine opetation by measuring such
variables as atmospheric pressure, air flow rate, fuel/air ratio, engine temperatures,
etc. A cceleration sensors (accelerometers) measure vehicle motion during a crash
and signal air bags to deploy if the crash is sufficiently severe. Brake-cylinder pres­
sure and wheel-speed sensors control the antilock braking system to give better
driver control on slippery surfaces. To keep costs down, many automotive sensors
use micro-electro-mechanical systems (MEMS). Using manufacturing techniques
borrowed from integrated-circuit technology, miniature sensors are mass produced
at low cost from materials such as silicon. A recent example is the GyroChip, a
replacement for the classical gyroscopic instrument used to measure angular
velocity. This sensor is being used in cars to augment vehicle stability during sev�re
or emergency maneuvers.

1.2 CLASSIFICATION OF TYPES OF

MEASUREMENT APPLICATIONS
I used the automotive industry as a familiar example to introduce you to the varied
applications of measurement in engineering. To help you organize your thinking on
this subject I now want to generalize the topic of measurement applications. Fortu­
nately, all the specific examples !gave from the auto industry, and in fact, examples
from any industry, can be classified into only three major categories:
1. Monitoring of processes and operations.
2. Control of processes and operations. -
3. Experimental engineering analysis.

That is, I suggest that every application of measurement, including those not yet
"invented," can be put into one of the three groups just listed or some combination
of them. Let us now explore this scheme of classification in genera:l terms and also
relate it to our earlier automotive examples. .
Monitoring of processes and operations refers to situations where the mea- ·

suring device is being used to keep track of some quantity.. The thermometers,
barometers, radars, and anemometers used by the weather bureau fit this definition.
They simply indicate the condition of the environment, and their readings do not
serve any control functions in the ordinary sense. Similarly, water, gas, and electric
6 PA R T 1 General Concepts

Disturbances

Control led
variable

Desired va lue of
controlled variable

Figure 1.1 Feedback-control system.

meters in the home keep track of the quantity of the commodity used so that the cost
to the user can be computed. In our automotive illustration, the speedometer, fuel
gage, outdoor temperature sensor, and compass would belong to this monitoring
class of applications.
Control 2 ofprocesses and operations is one of the most important classes of
measurement application. This usually refers to an automatic feedback control sys­
tem, as diagramed in generic terms in Fig. 1 . 1 . This type of application is suffi­
ciently important that most undergraduate curricula in mechanical, aerospace,
electrical, chemical, and industrial engineering will include a required course (and
several electives) in control systems.
The subject of feedback control is pertinent to this text on measurement
systems in two basic ways, one of which is the use of sensors in feedback control
systems, as just mentioned. The other relates to the fact that many measurement sys­
tems themselves use feedback principles in their operation. One could in tact say
that sensors are used in feedback systems and feedback systems are used in sensors.
Of the many possible examples of the latter, we mention the hot-wire anemometer,
a device for measuring rapidly varying fluid velocity. Without feedback, the hot
wire used in the instrument is accurate only for velocity fluctuations of frequency
less than about 1 00 Hz. By redesigning the instrument to use feedback, this limit is
extended to about 30,000 Hz, making the instrument much more useful.
The operation of systems such as that of Fig. 1 . 1 is briefly described as follows :
We want t o control some "process," such a s the heating o f our house; t o b e specific,
we want to keep the temperature near some desired value, such as 70° F. The
process is influenced by various "disturbances" (such as the outdoor temperature)
that we can not control and also by an input of energy and/or material that we are
able to manipulate, u sing some "final control element" (the gas valve in our fur­
nace). The design principle of all feedback control systems says that we should

2E. 0. Doebelin, "Control System Principles and Design," Wiley, New York, 1985.
 CHAPT E R 1 Types of Applications of Measurement I nstrumentation 7

measure the variable which we want to control, compare it (in a "controller") with
its desired value, and then, based on the "error" between the two, manipulate the fi­
nal control element in such a way as to drive the controlled variable closer to its de­
sired value. We see that this basic design concept means that every feedback control
system will have at least one measuring device as a vital component. Since feed­
back systems are used in literally millions of applications for controlling tempera­
ture, pressure, shaft speed, fluid flow, robot arm position, aircraft speed and altitude,
etc., these control applications are one of the most important uses of measurement
systems.
Returning to our earlier automotive examples, feedback control applications are
found in the car's speed control system, the antilock braking system, the coolant
temperature regulating system, the air-conditioning system, the engine pollutioQ.
controls, and many more. Also, the maj ority of the manufacturing tools and pro"
cesses used to produce the car are under feedback control.
This text is not one on feedback control; however, when feedback is used in the
measurement system itself, we will not avoid discussion of its implications. Fortu­
nately, this can usually be done without requiring that the reader have taken a con­
trols course or be expert in this technology.
Experimental engineering analysis is that part of engineering design, develop­
ment, and research that relies on laboratory testing of one kind or another to answer
questions. That is, as engineers, we have only two basic ways of solving engineer­
ing problems : theory and experimentation. 3 Some (usually simple) problems can be
adequately solved using theory alone. Most problems require a judiciously selected
blend of theory and experiment. It is not unusual for the "lab testing" portion of an
engineering project to consume more than half of the total resources . As a result,
most engineers need to be proficient in planning and conducting this phase of the
effort. The text just referenced addresses the entire process; the current text concen­
trates on that portion intimately related to the measurement system itself.
Since the choice of how much theory and how much experiment to use in a par­
ticular application is difficult and important, we want to provide some guidelines to
help organize your thinking, at least in a general way. Figures 1 .2 and 1 .3 compare
and contrast the features of these two problem-solving methods. If we decide to use
experimentation, it is helpful to realize that all engineering experiments can be put
into a relatively small number of classes. This classification can be accomplished in
several ways, but one which I have found meaningful is given in Fig. 1 .4.

1.3 C OMPUTER-AIDED MACHINES

AND PRO CESSES
In constructing useful machines and processes for society, it is now extremely com­
mon for engineers to include in the design, as dedicated components of an overall
system, computers of various sizes. Inexpensive, compact, and powerful computer
hardware and software can make possible significant advances in productivity,

3E. 0. Doebelin, "Engineering Experimentation," McGraw-Hill, New York, 1995.

8 PA R T 1 General Concepts

1. Often give results that are of general use rather than for restricted
application.
2. Invariably require the application of simplifying assumptions. Thus, not
the actual physical system but rather a simplified "mathematical model"
of the system is studied. - This means the theoretically -predicted behavior
is always different from the real behavior.
3. In some cases, may lead to compli�ated mathematical problems. This has
blocked theoretical treatment of many problems in the past. Today, in­
creasing availability of high-speed computing machines allows theoreti­
cal treatment of many problems that could not be so treated in the past.
4. Require only pencil, paper, computing machines, etc_. Extensive labo­
ratory facilities are not required. (Some computers are· very complex and
expensive, but they can be used for S()lving all kinds qf problems. Much
laboratory equipment, on the other hand, is special-purpose and suited
only to a limited variety of tasks.)
5. No time delay engendered in building models, assembling and checking
·

il}strumentation, and gathering pata.

·· -

Figure 1.2 Features of theoretical method�. ,l

rz J� ;::) ;._

J · .1 J

1. Often give results that apply, only to the specific system being te�ts.
However, techniques such as dimensional analysis may allow some
generalization.
2. No simplifying assumptions necessary if tests are run on an actual system.
The true behavior of the system is revealed.
3. Accurate measurements necessary to give a true picture. This may require
expensive . and complicated equipment. The characteristics of alt the
measuring and recording equipment must be thoroughly understood.
4. A ctual system or a scale model required. If a scale model is used, simi­
larity of all significant features must be preserved.
5. Considerable time required for design, construction, and debugging of
apparatus.

Figure 1.3 Features of experimental methods.

, '

product quality, efficiency, flexibility, and safety. While the nontechnical public
often (wrongly) views the entire system as a "computer," it is important that we not
encourage this misconception. The computer is helpless to control any machine or
process without the sensors that measure critical process variables or the actuators
 CHAPTER 1 Types of Applications of Measurement I n strumentation 9

1. Testing the validity of theoretical predictions based on simplifying

assumptions; improvement of theory, based on measured behavior.
Example: frequency-response testing of mechanical linkage for resonant
frequencies.
2. Formulation of generalized empirical relationships in situations where no
adequate theory exists.
Example: determination of friction factor for turbulent pipe flow.
3. Determination of material, component, and system parameters, variables,
and performance indices.
Example: determination of yield point of a certain alloy steel, speed­
torque curves for. an electric motor, thermal efficiency of a steam turbine.
4. Study of phenomena with hopes of developing a theory.
Example: electron microscopy of metal fatigue cracks.
5. Solution of mathematical equations by means of analogies
Example: solution of shaft torsion problems by measurements on soap
bubbles.

Figure 1.4 Types of experimental-analysis problems.

("final control elements") that manipulate process inputs and thus affect the process
controlled variables. Thus, many of the amazing feats of engineering accomplished
by computer-aided devices depend heavily on the availability and proper operation
of associated measurement systems.

1.4 CONCLUSION
Whatever the nature of the application, intelligent selection and use of measurement
instrumentation depend on a broad knowledge of what is available and how the per­
formance of the equipment may be best described in terms of the j ob to be done.
New equipment is continuously being developed, but certain basic devices have
proved their usefulness in broad areas and undoubtedly will be widely used for
·
many years. A representative cross section of such devices is discussed in this text.
These devices are of great interest in themselves; they also serve as the vehicle for
the presentation and development of general techniques and principles needed in
handling problems in measurement instrumentation. In addition, these ·general con­
cepts are useful in treating any devices that may be developed in the future.
The treatment is also intended to be on a level that will be of service to not only
the user, but also the designer of measurement instrumentation equipment. There
are two main reasons for this emphasis. First, much experimental equipment (in­
cluding measurement instruments) is often "homemade," especially in smaller com­
panies where the high cost of specialized gear cannot always be justified. Second,
the instrument industry is a large and growing one which utilizes many engineers in
10 PA R T 1 General Concepts

a design capacity. While the general techniques -of mechanical and electrical design
as applied to machines are also applicable to instruments, in many cases a rather dif­
ferent point of view is necessary in instrument design. This is due, in part, to the fact
that the design of machines is mainly concerned with considerations of power and
efficiency, whereas instrument design almost completely neglects these areas and
concerns itself with the acquisition and manipulation of information. Since a con­
siderable number of engineering graduates will work in the instrument industry,
their education should include treatment of the most significant aspects of this area.
The third class of applications listed earlier, experimental engineering analysis,
requires not only familiarity with measurement systems, but also some understand­
ing of the planning, execution, and evaluation of experiments. While all these as­
pects of experimental work might be treated in a single text or course, I have chosen
in the present text to concentrate on a thorough exposition of the measurement sys­
tem itself. A comprehensive treatment of the overall problems and methods of en­
gineering experimentation is presented in my companion text.4 There, a maj or
emphasis is on statistical methods, especially some simplified and practical ap- ('
proaches to statistical design of experiments. The two books together give a com-
plete and in-depth coverage of all aspects of engineering experimental work.

PROBLEMS
1.1 By consulting various technical journals in the library, find accounts of
experimental studies carried out by engineers or scientists. Find three such
articles, reference them completely, explain briefly what was accomplished,
and attempt to classify them according to one or more categories of Fig. 1 .4.
1.2 Give three specific examples of measuring-instrument applications in each of
the following areas: (a) monitoring of processes and operations, (b) control
of processes and operations, (c) experimental engineering analysis.
1.3 Compare and contrast the experimental and the theoretical approaches to the
following problems:
(a) What is the tolerable vibration level to which astronauts may safely be
exposed in launch vehicles?
(b) Find the relationship between applied force F and resulting friction
torque T1 in the simple brake of Fig. Pl . l .
F

Figure Pl.l

4E. 0. Doebelin, "Engineering Experimentation: Planning, Execution, Reporting," McGraw-Hill,

New York, 1995.
 CHAPTER 1 Types of Applications of Measurement I n strumentation 11

(c) Find the location of the center of mass of the rocket shown in Fig. Pl .2
if the shapes, sizes, and materials of all the component parts are known.

Figure P1.2

(d) At what angle with the horizontal should a projectile be launched to

achieve the greatest horizontal range?

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Books
1. C . P. Wright, "Applied Measurement Engineering," Prentice-Hall,
Englewood Cliffs, 1 995.
2. R. S. Figliola and D. E. Beasley, "Theory and Design for Mechanical
Measurements," 3rd ed. , Wiley, New York, 2000.
3. R . B . Northrop, "Introduction to Instrumentation and Measurements," CRC Press,
New York, 1 997.
4. J. P. Holman, "Experimental Methods for Engineers," 7th ed., McGraw-Hill,
New York, 200 1 .
5. M. S . Ray, "Engineering Experimentation," McGraw-Hill, New York, 1 9 8 8 .
6. K. S . Lion, "Instrumentation i n Scientific Research," McGraw-Hill, New York, 1 959.
7. C. F. Hix and R. P. Alley, "Physical Laws and Effects," Wiley, New York, 1 9 5 8 .
8. I . J . Busch-Vishniac, "Electromechanical Sensors and Actuators," Springer,
New York, 1 999.
9. R. V. Jones, "Instruments and Experiences," Wiley, New York, 1 9 8 8 .
1 0. A. H. Slocum, "Precision Machine Design," Prentice-Hall, Engelwood Cliffs, 1 992.
11. E . 0 . Doebelin, "Engineering Experimentation," McGraw-Hill, New York, 1 99 5 .
12. J. C . Gibbings, "The Systematic Experiment," Cambridge Univ. Press,
New York, 1 98 6 .
13. H . Schenck, Jr., "Theories o f Engineering Experimentation," 3rd ed., McGraw-Hill,
New York, 1 979 .
14. C. Lipson and J. Sheth, "Statistical Design an d Analysis o f Engineering
Experiments," McGraw-Hill, New York, 1 973 .
15. F. B . Wilson, "An Introduction to Scientific Research," McGraw-Hill, New York,
1 952.
16. H. K . P. Neubert, "Instrument Transducers," Oxford Univ. Press, London, 1 963 .
17. P. H. Sydenham (ed.), "Handbook o f Measurement Science," vol. 1 : "Theoretical
Fundamentals," Wiley, New York, 1 982.
18. P. H . Sydenham, "Mechanical Design o f Instruments," Instrument Society of
America, Research Triangle Park, NC, 1 986.
12 PA R T 1 General Concepts

19. T. G. Beckwith and R. D. Marangoni, "Mechanical Measurements," 5th ed., Addison­

. Wesley, Reading, 1 993 .
20. C. S . Draper, W. McKay, and S. Lees, "Instrument Engineering," vols. 1 to 3,
McGraw-Hill, New York, 1955.
21. J . G . Webster, "The Measurement, Instrumentation, an d Sensors Handbook,"
CRC Press, B oca Raton, FL, 1 999.
22. S . Soloman, "Sensors Handbook," McGraw-Hill, New York, 1998 .
23 . J. Fraden, "Handbook of Modem Sensors," AlP, New York, 1 997.

Periodicals
1. Sensors (A searchable index of all articles is available at
www.sensorsmag.com/articles/article_indexl.)
2. The Review of Scientific Instruments
3. Journal of Physics E : Scientific Instruments
4. Proc. of Society for Experimental Mechanics
5. Journal of Instrument Society of America
6. Instruments and Control Systems
7. ASME Journal of Dynamic Systems, Measurement, and Control
8. Transactions of the Institute of Measurement and Control
9. IEEE Transactions in Instruments and Measurements
1 0. Precision Engineering
11. Measurement Science and Technology
12. CalLab
 C H A P T E R 2
Generalized Configurations and
Functional Descriptions of
Measuring Instruments

2. 1 FUNCTIONAL ELEMENTS OF AN INSTRUMENT ·

It is possible and desirable to describe both the operation and the performance (de­
gree of approach to perfectien) of measuring instruments and associated equipment
in a generalized way without recourse to specific physical hardware. The operation
can be described in terms of the functional elements of instrument systems, and the
performance is defined in terms of the static and dynamic performance characteris­
tics. This section develops the concept of the functional elements of an instrument
or measurement system.
If you examine diverse physical instruments with a view toward generalization,
soon you recognize in the elements of the instruments a recurring pattern of simi­
larity with regard to function. This leads to the concept of breaking down instru­
ments into a limited number of types of elements according to the generalized
function performed by the element. This breakdown can be made in a number of
ways, and no standardized, universally accepted scheme is used at present. We now
give one such scheme which may help you to understand the operation of any new
instrument with which you may come in contact and to plan the design of a new
·

instrument.
Consider Fig. 2. 1 , which represents a possible arrangement of functional ele­
ments in an instrument and includes all the basic functions considered necessary for
a description of any instrument. The primary sensing element is that which first
receives energy from the measured medium and produces an output depending in
some way on the measured qua,ntity ("measurand"). It is important to note that an
instrument always extracts some energy from the measured medium. Thus the
measured quantity is always disturbed by the act of measurement, which makes a

13
14 PART 1 General Concepts

Interface Interface
I
I
I

Figure 2.1
Functional elements of an instrument or a measurement system.

perfect measurement theoretically impossible. Good instruments are designed to

minimize this "loading effect," but it is always present to some degree.
The output signal of the primary sensing element is some physical variable,
such as displacement or voltage. For the instrument to perform the desired function,
it may be necessary to convert this variable to another more suitable variable while
preserving the information content of the original signal. An element that performs
such a function is called a variable-conversion element. It should be noted that not
every instrument includes a variable-conversion element, but some require several.
Also, the "elements" we speak of are functional elements, not physical elements .
That is, Fig. 2. 1 shows an instrument neatly separated into blocks, which may lead
you to think of the physical apparatus as being precisely separable into subassem­
blies performing the specific functions shown. That is, in general, not the case; a
specific piece of hardware may perform several of the basic functions, for instance.
In performing its intended task, an instrument may require that a signal repre­
sented by some physical variable be manipulated in some way. By "manipulation,"
we mean specifically a change in numerical value according io some definite rule
but a preservation of the physical nature of the variable. Thus an electronic ampli­
fier accepts a small voltage signal as input and produces an output signal that is also
a voltage but is some constant times the input. An element that performs such a
function is called a variable-manipulation element. Again, you should not be misled
by Fig. 2. 1 . A variable-manipulation element does not necessarily follow a variable­
conversion element, but may precede it, appear elsewhere in the chain, or not appear
at all.
When the functional elements of an instrument are actually physically sepa­
rated, it becomes necessary to transmit the data from one to another. An element
performing this function is called a data-transmission element. It may be as simple
as a shaft and bearing assembly or as complicated as a telemetry system for trans­
mitting signals from satellites to ground equipment by radio.
If the information about the measured quantity is to be communicated to a hu­
man being for monitoring, control, or analysis purposes, it must be put into a form
recognizable by one of the human senses . An element that performs this "transla­
tion" function is called a data-presentation element. This function includes the sim­
ple indication of a pointer moving over a scale and the recording of a pen moving
C H A PT E R 2 General ized Configurations and Functional Descriptions of Measuring I nstruments 15

8
Figure 2.2
Pressure gage.

over a chart. Indication and recording also may be performed in discrete increments
(rather than smoothly), as exemplified by a digital voltmeter or printer. While the
majority of instruments communicate with people through the visual sense, the use
of other senses such as hearing and touch is certainly conceivable.
Although data storage in the form of pen/ink recording is often employed, some
applications require a distinct data storage/playback function which can easily re­
create the stored data upon command. The magnetic tape recorder/reproducer is the
classical example here. However, many recent instruments digitize the electric sig­
nals and store them in a computerlike digital memory (RAM, hard drive, flopp.y
disk, etc.).
Before we go on to some illustrative examples, let us emphasize again that Fig.
2 . 1 is intended as a vehicle for presenting the concept of functional elements, and
not as a physical schematic of a generalized instrument. A given instrument may in­
volve the basic functions in any number and combination; they need not appear in
the order of Fig. 2. 1 . A given physical component may serve several of the basic
functions.
As an ex;ample of the above concepts, consider the rudimentary pressure gage
of Fig. 2.2. One of several possible valid interpretations is as follows : The primary
sensing element is the piston, which also serves the function of variable conversion
16 PA R T 1 General Concepts

Bourdon Linkage Scale and

fluid Bulb Tubing tube and gear

e
Figure 2.3
Pressure thermometer.

since it converts the fluid pressure (force per unit area) to a resultant force on the
piston face. Force is transmitted by the piston rod to the spring, which converts
force to a proportional displacement. This displacement of the piston rod is magni­
fied (manipulated) by the linkage to give a larger pointer displacement. The pointer
and scale indicate the pressure, thus serving as data-presentation elements. If it were
necessary to locate the gage at some distance from the source of pressure, a small ·

tube could serve as a data-transmission element.

Figure 2.3 depicts a pressure-type thermometer. The liquid-filled bulb acts as a
primary sensor and variable-conversion element since a temperature change results
in a pressure buildup within the bulb, because of the constrained thermal expansion
of the filling fluid. This pressure is transmitted through the tube to a Bourdon-type
pressure gage, which converts pressure to displacement. This displacement is ma­
nipulated by the linkage and gearing to give a larger pointer motion. A scale and
pointer again serve for data presentation.
A remote-reading shaft-revolution counter is shown in Fig. 2.4; The micro­
switch sensing arm and the camlike projection on the rotating shaft serve both a pri­
mary sensing and a variable-conversion function since rotary displacement is
converted to linear displacement. The microswitch contacts also serve for variable
conversion, changing a mechanical to an electrical oscillation (a sequence of volt­
age pulses). These voltage pulses may be transmitted relatively long distances over
wires to a solenoid. The solenoid reconverts the electrical pulses to mechanical
reciprocation of the solenoid plunger, which serves as input to a mechanical counter.
The counter itself involves variable conversion (reciprocating to rotary motion),
variable manipulation (rotary motion to decimalized rotary motion), and data
presentation.
As a final example, let us examine Fig. 2.5, which illustrates schematic�ly a
D' Arsonval galvanometer as used in oscillographs and optical scanning systems .
CHAPTE R 2 Generalized Config urations and Functional Descriptions of Measuring I nstruments 17

Ac

Rotating Mecha nical

shaft cou n t e r

Figure 2.4
Digital revolution counter.

to
1
Vo l ta g e
be
mea sured

j
Motion of
recording
!
chart

Figure 2.5
D'Arsonval galvanometer.

A time-varying voltage to be recorded is applied to the ends of the two wires which
transmit the voltage to a coil made up of a number of turns wound on a rigid frame.
This coil is suspended in the field of a permanent magnet. The resistance of the coil
18 PA R T 1 General Concepts

converts the applied voltage to a proportional current (ideally). The interaction be­
tween the current and the magnetic field produces a torque on the coil, which gives
another variable conversion. This torque is converted to an angular deflection by the
torsion springs. A mirror rigidly attached to the coil frame converts the frame rota­
tion to the rotation of a light beam which the mirror reflects. The light-beam rota­
tion is twice the mirror rotation, which gives a motion magnification. The reflected
beam intercepts a recording chart made of photosensitive material which is moved
at a fixed and known rate, to give a time base. The combined horizontal motion of
the light spot and vertical motion of the recording chart generates a graph of voltage
versus time. The "optical lever arm" (the distance from the mirror to the recording
chart) has a motion-magnifying effect, since the spot displacement per unit mirror
rotation is directly proportional to it.
In this instrument, the coil and magnet assembly probably would be considered
as the primary sensing element since the lead wires (which serve a transmission
function) are not really part of the instrument, and the coil resistance (which acts in
a variable-conversion function) is an intrinsic part of the coil. In any case, the as­
signment of precise names to specific components is not nearly as important as the
recognition of the basic functions necessary to the successful operation of the in­
strument. By concentrating on these functions and the various physical devices
available for accomplishing them, we develop our ability to synthesize new combi­
nations of elements leading to new and useful instruments. This ability is funda­
mental to all instrument design.

2.2 ACTIVE AND PASSIVE TRANSDUCERS

Once certain basic functions common to all instruments have been identified, then
we see if it is possible to make some generalizations on how these functions may be
performed. One such generalization is concerned with energy considerations. In
performing any of the general functions indicated in Fig. 2. 1 , a physical component
may act as an active transducer or a passive transducer.
A component whose output energy is supplied entirely or almost entirely by its
input signal is commonly called a passive transducer. The output and input signals
may involve energy of the same form (say, both mechanical), or there may be an en­
ergy conversion from one form to another (say, mechanical to electrical). (In much
technical literature, the term "transducer" is restricted to devices involving energy
conversion; but, conforming to the dictionary definition of the term, we do not
make this restriction.)
An active transducer, however, has an auxiliary source of power which supplies
a major part of the output power while the input signal supplies only an insignifi­
cant portion. Again, there may or may not be a conversion of energy from one form
to another.
In all the examples of Sec. 2. 1 , there is only one active transducer-the mi­
croswitch of Fig. 2.4; all other components are passive transducers. The power to
drive the solenoid comes not from the rotating shaft, but from the ac power line, an
auxiliary source of power. Some further examples of active transducers may be
CHAPTER 2 Generalized Config u rations and Functional Descri ptions of Measuring I nstruments 19

in order. The electronic amplifier shown in Fig. 2.6 is a good one. The element
supplying the input-signal voltage, e; need supply only a negligible amount of
power since almost no current is drawn, owing to negligible gate current and a
high Rg . However, the output element (the load resistance RL ) receives significant
current and voltage and thus power. This power must be supplied by the battery Ebb •
the auxiliary power source. Thus the input controls the output, but does not actually
supply the output power.
Another active transducer of great practical importance, the instrument servo­
mechanism, is shown in simplified form in Fig. 2. 7. This is actually an instrument
system �ade up of components, some of which are passive transducers and others
active transducers. When it is considered as an entity, however, with input voltage
e; and outl'ut displacement X0 , it meets the definition of an active transducer and is
profitably thought of as such. The purpose of this device is to cause the motion X0 to
follow the variations of the voltage e; in a proportional manner. Since the motor
torque is proportional to the error voltage ee , it is clear that the system can be at rest
only if ee is zero. This occurs only when e; esz ; since esz is proportional to X0 , this
=

means that X0 must be proportional to e; in the static case. If e; varies, X0 will tend to
follow it, and by proper design, accurate "tracking" of e; by X0 should be possible.
You should recognize this device as an instrument which uses the feedback princi­
ple of Fig. 1 . 1 .

2.3 ANALO G AND DIGITAL MODES O F OPERATION

It is possible further to classify how the basic functions may be performed by turn­
ing attention to the analog or digital nature of the signals that represent the infor­
mation.
For analog signals, the precise value of the quantity (voltage, rotation angle,
etc.) carrying the information is significant. However, digital signals are basically
of a binary (on/off) nature, and variations in numerical value are associated with
changes in the logical state ("true/false") of some combination of "switches." In a

""
F ield-effect
transistor

Gate

-=- Ebb

Figure 2.6
Electronic amplifier.
20 PA R T 1 General Concepts

Aux iliary
power

e,- ee A m plifier

- esl +

Figure 2;7
Instrument servomechanism.

typical digital electronic system, any voltage in the range of + 2 to + 5 V produces

the on state, while signals of 0 to +0.8 V correspond to off. Thus whether the volt­
age is 3 or 4 V is of no consequence. The same result is produced, and so the system
is quite tolerant of spurious "noise" voltages which might contaminate the informa­
tion signal. In a digitally represented value of, say, 5 .763, the least significant digit
(3) is carried by on/off signals of the same (large) size as for the most significant
digit (5). Thus in an all-digital device such as a digital computer, there is no limit to
the number of digits which can be accurately carrie d; we use whatever can be justi­
fied by the particular application. When combined analog/digital systems are used
(often the case in measurement systems), the digital portions need not limit system
accuracy. These limitations generally are associated with the analog portions and/or
the analog/digital conversion devices.
The majority of primary sensing elements are of the analog type. The only dig­
ital device illustrated in this text up to this point is the revolution counter of Fig. 2.4.
This is clearly a digital device since it is impossible for this instrument to indicate,
say, 0.79; it measures only �n steps of 1 . The importance of digital instruments is
increasing, perhaps mainly because of the widespread use of digital computers in
both data-reduction and automatic control systems. Since the digital computer
works only with digital signals, any information supplied to it must be in digital
form. The computer's output is also in digital form. Thus any communication with
CHAPTER 2 Generalized Confi g u rations and Functional Descriptions of Measuring I n struments 21

the computer at either the input or the output end must be in terms of digital signals.
Since most measurement and control apparatus is of an analog nature, it is neces­
sary to have both analog-to-digital converters (at the input to the computer) and
digital-to-analog converters (at the output of the computer). These devices (which
are discussed in greater detail in a later chapter) serve as "translators" that enable
the computer to communicate with the outside world, which is largely of an analog
nature.

2.4 NULL AND DEFLECTION METHODS

Another useful classification separates devices by their operation on a null or a de­
flection principle. In a deflection-type device, the measured quantity produces some
physical effect that engenders a similar but opposing effect in some part of the in­
strument. The opposing effect is closely related to some variable (usually a me­
chanical displacement or deflection) that can be directly observed by some human
sense. The opposing effect increases until a balance is achieved, at which point the
"deflection" is measured and the value of the measured quantity inferred from this.
The pressure gage of Fig. 2.2 exemplifies this type of device, since the pressure
force engenders an opposing spring force as a result of an unbalance of forces on the
piston rod (called the force-summing link), which causes a deflection of the spring.
As the spring deflects, its force increases; thus a balance will be achieved at some
deflection if the pressure is within the design range of the instrument.
In contrast to the deflection-type device, a null-type device attempts to maintain
deflection at zero by suitable application of an effect opposing that generated by the
measured quantity. Necessary to such an operation are a detector of unbalance and
a means (manual or automatic) of restoring the balance. Since deflection is kept at
zero (ideally), determination of numerical values requires accurate knowledge of
the magnitude of the opposing effect. A pressure gage operating on a null principle
is depicted in simplified form in Fig. 2.8. By adding the proper standard weights to
the platform of known weight, the pressure force on the face of the piston may be
balanced by gravitational force. The condition of force balance is indicated by the
platform remaining at rest between the upper and lower stops. Since the weights and
the piston area are al.l known, the unknown pressure may be computed.
Upon comparing the null and deflection methods of measurement exemplified
by the pressure gages described above, we note that, in the deflection instrument,
accuracy depends on the calibration of the spring, whereas in the null instrument it
depends on the accuracy of the standard weights. In this particular case (and for
most measurements in general), the accuracy attainable by the null method is of a
higher level than that by the deflection method. One reason is that the spring is not
in itself a primary standard of force, but must be calibrated by standard weights,
wher�as in the null instrument a direct comparison of the unknown force with the
standard is achieved. Another advantage of null methods is the fact that, since the
measured quantity is balanced out, the detector of unbalance can be made very sen­
sitive, because it need cover only a small range around zero. Also the detector need
not be calibrated since it must detect only the presence and direction of unbalance,
22 PA R T 1 General Concepts

� Sta n d ard weights

,--- Upper stop

\__ P l a t fo r m
assembly
of known we i g h t

Figure 2.8
Deadweight pressure gage.

but not the amount. However, a deflection instrument must be larger, more rugged,
and thus less sensitive if it is 'to measure large magnitudes.
The disadvantages of null methods appear mainly in dynamic measurements.
Let us consider the pressure gages again. The difficulty in keeping the platform bal­
anced for a fluctuating pressure should be apparent. The spring-type gage suffers
not nearly so much in this respect. By use of automatic balancing devices (such as
the instrument servomechanism of Fig. 2.7) the speed of null methods may be im­
proved considerably, and instruments of this type are of great importance.

2.5 INPUT-OUTPUT CONFIGURATION OF

INSTRUMENTS AND MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS
Before we discuss instrument performance characteristics, it is desirable to develop
a generalized configuration that brings out the significant input-output relationships
present in all measuring apparatus. A scheme suggested by Draper, McKay, and
Lees 1 is presented in somewhat modified form in Fig. 2.9. Input quantities are
'

classified into three categories : desired inputs, interfering inputs, and modifying
inputs. Desired inputs represent the quantities that the instrument is specifically
intended to measure. Inteifering inputs represent quantities to which the instrument
is unintentionally sensitive. A desir�d input produces a component of output

1C. S. Draper, W. McKay, and S. Lees, "Instrument Engineering," vol. 3, p. 58, McGraw-Hill,
New York, 1955.
CHAPTER 2 Generalized Confi gurations and Functional Descriptions of Measuring Instruments 23

i n terfering input and IM

Output com ponent due to

q=J
Interfering input

I
I

I fM, I
J
I +
0
...
M o d i f y i n g i n pu t
/
t O u t put
+
r;,, o
I I
I
I

Desired i n put

ctJ
· --
Output com ponent d u e to
desired i n p u t and IM

Figure 2.9
Generalized input-output configuration.

according to an input-output relation symbolized by FD • where Fv denotes the

mathematical operations necessary to obtain the output from the input. The symbol
Fv may represent different concepts, depending on the particular input-output
characteristic being described. Thus Fv might be a constant number K that gives the
proportionality constant relating a constant static input to the corresponding static
output for a linear instrument. For a nonlinear instrument, a simple constant is not
adequate to relate static inputs and outputs ; a mathematical function is required.
To relate dynamic inputs and outputs, differential equations are necessary. If a
description of the output "scatter," or dispersion, for repeated equal static inputs is
desired, a statistical distribution function of some kind is needed. The symbol Fv
encompasses all such concepts. -The symbol FI serves a similar function for an
interfering input.
The third class of inputs might be thought of as being included among the
interfering inputs, but a separate classification is actually more significant. This
is the class of modifying inputs. Modifying inputs are the quantities that cause a -
change in the input-output relations for the desired and interfering inputs ; that is,
they cause a change in Fv and/or F1• The symbols FM I and FM v represent (in the
appropriate form) the specific manner in which iM affects FI and FD • respectively.
These symbols, FM I and FM v are interpreted in the same general way as FI and Fv .
The block diait"am of Fig. 2.9 illustrates the above concepts. The circle with a
cross in it is a conventional symbol for a summing device. The two plus signs as
shown indicate that the output of the summing device is the instantaneous algebraic
sum of its two inputs. Since an instrument system may have several inputs of each
of the three types as well as several outputs, it may be necessary to draw more com­
plex block diagrams than in Fig. 2.9. This extension is, however, straightforward.
The above concepts can be clarified by means of specific examples. Consider
the mercury manometer used for differential-pressure measurement as shown in
24 PA R T 1 General Concepts

(a)

(h)

(c)

Figure 2.10
Spurious inputs for manometer.

Fig. 2. 1 Oa. The desired inputs are the pressures p1 and p2 whose difference causes
the output displacement x, which can be read off the calibrated scale. Figures 2. 1 Ob
and c show the action of two possible interfering inputs. In Fig. 2. 1 0b the manome­
ter is mounted on some vehicle that is accelerating. A simple analysis shows that
there will be an output x even though the differential pressure might be zero. Thus
if you are trying to measure pressures under such circumstances, an error will be en­
gendered because of the interfering acceleration input. Similarly, in Fig. 2. 1 0c, if the
manometer is not properly aligned with the gravity vector, it may give an output sig­
nal x even though no pressure difference exists. Thus the tilt angle () is an interfer­
ing input. (It is also a modifying input.)
CHAPTE R 2 Generalized Config u rations and Functional Descri ptions of Measuring I nstruments 25

Test

'
'
'
'
.....

Figure 2.11
Interfering input for strain-gage circuit.

Modifying inputs for the manometer include ambient temperature and gravita­
tional force. Ambient temperature manifests its influence in a number of ways. First,
the calibrated scale changes length with temperature; thus the proportionality factor
relating p 1 - p2 to x is modified whenever temperature varies from its basic calibra­
tion value. Also, the density of mercury varies with temperature, which again leads
to a change in the proportionality factor. A change in gravitational force resulting
from changes in location of the manometer, such as moving it to another country or
putting it aboard a spaceship, leads to a similar modification in the sc.ale factor. Note
that the effects of both the desired and the interfering inputs may be altered by the
modifying inputs.
As another example, consider the electric-resistance strain-gage setup shown in
Fig. 2. 1 1 . The gage consists of a fme-wire grid of resistance R8 firmly cemented to
the specimen whose unit strain E at a certain point is to be measured. When strained,
the gage's resistance changes according to the relation

11R8 = ( GF)R8E (2.1 )

where Ll..n 8 = change m gage resistance, ,rlu *
A n /:, · ·
(2.2)
GF ,@, gage factor, dimensionless (2.3)
R8 @ gage resistance when unstrained, fl (2.4)
E @ unit strain, cm/cm (2.5)'
The resistance change is proportional to the strain. Thus if we could measure the
resistance, we could compute the strain. The resistance is measured by using the
Wheatstone-bridge arrangement shown. When no load F is present, the bridge is
balanced ( e0 set to zero) by adjusting Re . Application of load causes a strain, a M8 ,

*The symbol @ means "equal by definition."

 PA R T 1 General Concepts

and thus unbalances the bridge, causing an output voltage e0 which is proportional
to e and can be JTleasured on a meter or an oscilloscope. The voltage e0 is given by

Ra
(2.6)

The desired input here is clearly the strain e which causes a proportional output
voltage e0 • One interfering input which often causes trouble in such apparatus is the
60-Hz magnetic field caused by nearby power lines, electric motors, etc. This field
induces voltages in the strain-gage circuit, causing output voltages e0 even when the
strain is zero. Another interfering input is the gage temperature. If this varies, it
causes a change in gage resistance that will cause a voltage output even if there is
no strain. Temperature has another interfering effect since it causes a differential ex­
pansion of the gage and the specimen, which gives rise to a strain e and a voltage e0
even though no force F has been applied. Temperature also acts as a modifying
input since the gage factor is sensitive to temperature. The battery voltage Eh is
another modifying input. Both these are modifying inputs since they tend to change
the proportionality factor between the. desired input e and the output e0 or between
an interfering input (gage temperature) and output e0 •

Methods of Correction for Interfering and Modifying Inputs

In the design and/or use of measuring instruments, a number of methods for nulli­
fying or reducing the effects of spurious inputs are available. We briefly describe
some of the most widely used.
The method of inherent insensitivity proposes the obviously sound design phi­
losophy that the elements of the instrument should inherently be sensitive to only
the desired inputs. While usually this is not entirely possible, the simplicity of this
approach encourages one to consider its application wherever feasible. In terms of
the general configuration of Fig. 2.9, this approach requires that somehow F1 and/or
FM, D be made as nearly equal to zero as possible. Thus, even though i1 and/or iM
may exist, they cannot affect the output. As an example of the application of this
concept to the strain gage of Fig. 2. 1 1 , we might try to find some gage material that
exhibits an extremely low temperature coefficient of resistance while retaining its
sensitivity to strain. If such a material can be found, the problem of interfering tem­
perature inputs is at least partially solved. Similarly, in mechanical apparatus that
must maintain accurate dimensions in the face of ambient-temperature changes, the
use of a material2 of very small temperature coefficient of expansion may be help­
ful. Two such materials are the metal alloy Invar and the glass/ceramic Zerodur.
If stiffness (such as in a spring) must be temperature insensitive, consider the metal
alloy Ni-Span C.
__

2D. G. Chetwynd, "Selection of Structural Materials for Precision Devices," Precision Eng., vol. 9, no. 1 ,
pp. 3-<i, January 1987.
C HAPT E R 2 General ized Configurations and Functional Descriptions of Measuring I nstruments 27

The method ofhigh-gainfeedback is exemplified by the system shown in Fig.

2. 1 2b.Suppose we wish to measure a voltage e; by applying it to a motor whose
torque acts on a spring, causing a displacement x0 , which may be measured on a
calibrated scale. By proper design, the displacement X0 might be made proportional
to the voltage e; according to

(2.7)
where KMo
and Ksp are appropriate constants. This arrangement, shown in Fig.
2. 12a, is called an open-loop system. If modifying inputs iM1 and iM2 exist, they
cause changes in KMo and Ksp that lead to errors in the relation between e; and x0 •
These errors are in direct proportion to the changes in KMo and Ksp . Suppose,
instead, we construct a system as in Fig. 2. 1 2b. Here the output X0 is measured by

� �
� I
� I

c!J [!]
Voltage Torque D isplacement
e; Xo

Motor Spring
( a ) O pencloop system

rL ,-1:, rL
� I
� I
� I

� - B f---'-
c!J -
[!] Xo

fi!o
Amplifier Motor Spring

Feedback device

�
ril
T.
( b J Closed-loop or feedback syste m

Figure 2.12
Use of feedback to reduce effect of spurious inputs.
28 PA R T 1 General Concepts

the feedback device, which produces a voltage e0 proportional to X0 • This voltage is

subtracted from the input voltage e;, and the difference is applied to an amplifier
which drives the motor and thereby the spring to produce x0 • We may write

(ei - eo)KAMKMo Ksp = (ei - KFB xo)KAMKMo Ksp = xo (2.8)

=
ei KAMKMo Ksp ( 1 + KAMKMo KsP KFB)xo (2.9)
KAM KMo Ksp
=
xo 1 + KAM KMo KSP KFB ei ·
(2.10)

Suppose, now, that we design KAM to be very large (a "high-gain" system), so

that KAMKM�sPKFB � 1 . Then

(2.11)

The significance of Eq. (2. 1 1 ) is that the effect of variations in KMo • KsP • and KAM
(as a result of modifying inputs iM1 , iMz , and iM ) on the relation between input e;
3
and output X0 has been made negligible. We now require only that KFB stay constant
(unaffected by iM4) in order to maintain constant input-output calibration as shown
by Eq. (2. 11).
You may question whether much really has been gained by this somewhat elab­
orate scheme, since we merely transferred the requirements for stability from KMo
and Ksp to KFB· In practice, however, this method often leads to great improvements
in accuracy. One . reason is that, since the amplifier supplies most of the power
needed, the feedback device can be designed with low power-handling capacity. In
general, this leads to greater accuracy and linearity in the feedback-device charac­
teristics . Also, the input signal e; need carry only negligible power; thus the feed­
back system extracts less energy from the measured medium than the corresponding
open-loop system. This, of course, results in less distortion of the measured quan­
tity because of the presence of the measuring instrument. Finally, if the open-loop
chain consists of several (perhaps many) devices, each susceptible to its own spuri­
ous inputs, then all these bad effects can be negated by the use of high amplification
and a stable, accurate feedback device.
Before we pass on to other methods, we should mention that application of the
feedback principle is not without its own peculiar problems. The main one is dy­
namic instability, wherein excessively high amplification leads to destructive oscil­
lations. The study of the design of feedback systems is a whole field in itself, and
many texts treating this subject are available. 3
The method of calculated output corrections requires one to measure or
estimate the magnitudes of the interfering and/or modifying inputs and to know
quantitatively how they affect the output. With this �nformation, it is possible to
calculate corrections which may be added to or subtracted from the indicated output
so as to leave (ideally) only that component associated with the desired input. Thus,
in the manometer of Fig. 2. 1 0, the effects of temperature on both the calibrated
scale's length and the density of mercury may be quite accurately computed if the

3E. 0. Doebelin, "Control System Principles and Design," Wiley, New York, 1985.
CHAPTER 2 Generalized Config u rations and Functional Descri ptions of Measuring I nstruments 29

temperature is known. The local gravitational acceleration is also known for a given
elevation and latitude, so that this effect may be corrected by calculation. Since
many measurement systems today can afford to include a microcomputer to carry
out various functions, if we also provide sensors for the spurious inputs, the micro­
computer can implement the method of calculated output corrections on ,an auto­
matic basis, giving a so-called smart sensor.
The method of signal filtering is based on the possibility of introducing certain
elements ("filters") into the instrument which in some fashion block the spurious
signals, so that their effects on the output are removed or reduced. The filter may be
applied to any suitable signal in the instrument, be it input, output, or intermediate
signal. The concept of signal filtering is shown schematically in Fig. 2. 1 3 for the

+
Filter
-;
,

( a ) Input filtering

I�

( h ) Output filtering

Figure 2.13
General principle of filtering,
30 PA R T 1 General Concepts

cases of -\nput and output filtering. The application to intermediate signals should be
obvious. In Fig. 2. 1 3a the inputs i1 and iM are caused to pass through filters whose
input-output relation is (ideally) zero. Thus i; and i� are zero even if i1 and iM are not
zero. The concept of output filtering is illustrated in Fig. 2. 1 3b. Here the output o,
though really one signal, is thought of as a superposition of o1 (output due to inter­
fering input), oD (output due to desired input), and oM (output due to modifying in­
put). If it is possible to construct filters that selectively block o1 and oM but allow oD
to pass through, this may be symbolized as in Fig. 2. 1 3b and results in o' consisting
entirely of oD .
The filters necessary in the application of this method may take several forms ;
they are best illustrated by examples. If put directly in the path of a spurious input,
a filter can be designed (ideally) to block completely the passage of the signal. If,
however, it is inserted at a point where the signal contains both desired and spurious
components, the filter must be designed to be selective. That is, it must pass the
desired cbmponents essentially unaltered while effectively suppressing all others .
Often it is necessary to attach delicate instruments to structures that vibrate.
Electromechanical devices for navigation and control of aircraft or missiles are out­
standing examples. Figure 2. 1 4a shows how the interfering vibration input may be
filtered out by use of suitable spring mounts. The mass-spring system is actually a
mechanical filter which passes on to the instrument only a negligible fraction of the
motion of the vibrating structure.
The interfering tilt-angle input to the manometer of Fig. 2. 1 0c may be effec­
tively filtered out by means of the gimbal-mounting scheme of Fig. 2. 1 4b. If the
gimbal bearings are essentially frictionless, the rotations 0 1 and 02 cannot be com­
municated to the manometer; thus it always hangs vertical.
In Fig. 2. 1 4c the thermocouple reference junction is shielded from ambient­
temperature fluctuations by means of thermal insulation. Such an arrangement acts
as a filter for temperature or heat-flow inputs.
The strain-gage circuit of Fig. 2. 1 4d is shielded from the interfering 60-Hz field
by enclosing it in a metal box of some sort. This solution corresponds to filtering the
interfering input. Another possible solution, which corresponds to selective filtering
of the output, is shown in Fig. 2. 1 4e. For this approach to be effective, it is essential
that the frequencies in the desired signal occupy a range considerably separated
from those in the undesired component of the signal. In the present example, sup­
pose the strains to be measured are mainly steady and never vary more rapidly than
2 Hz. Then it is possible to insert a simple RC filter, as shown, that will pass the de­
sired signals but almost completely block the 60-Hz interference.
Figure 2. 1 4f shows the pressure gage of Fig. 2.2 modified by the insertion of a
flow restriction between the source of pressure and the piston chamber. Such an
arrangement is useful, for example, if you wish to measure only the average pres­
sure in a large air tank that is being supplied by a reciprocating compressor. The pul­
sations in the air pressure may be smoothed by the pneumatic filtering effect of the
flow restriction and associated volume. The variation of the output-input amplitude
ratio j p0 1p; I with frequency is similar to that for the electrical RC filter of Fig .
2. 1 4e. Thus steady or slowly varying input pressures are accurately measured while
CHAPTER 2 General ized Configurations and Functional Descriptions of Measuring I n struments 31

Gimbal

Vibration­
isolation

\ Interfering tilt-angle �� put)

(o) (h)

c Measuring junction
+

\ Thermal
.,. Varying / insulation
., ambient
j unction
temperature Reference
/ \

(c) (d)

R
I
\
\ + +
\ '
\ ' ..... _ _
\ '
', ei eo e;
---
\
c
\
' ' ....
Strain plus
'

---
interference
'
' ....
'
'

1�1 Filter eo
characteristic
Strai n only

60 Hz Frequency
(e)

Figure 2.14
Examples of filtering.
32 PA R T 1 General Concepts

��
• 1�1
Po Average pressure
only '

Frequency
{f)

�f rared radiant source

\ / fd, e; "Chopped " Ts plus Tambiont
\

--fl
fombient
,
Rotating r; fv
shutter
{"chopper")

1�1 fombiont frequ � ncies

i..J
./ Chopper
I"' frequency
I
I
I
I
I
I

F requency

{g)

Figure 2.14
(Continued)

rapid variations are strongly attenuated. The flow restriction may be in the form of
a needle valve, which allows easy adjustment of the filtering effect.
A "chopped" radiometer is shown in simplified form in Fig. 2. 1 4g. This device
senses the temperature Ts of some body in terms of the infrared radiant energy emit­
ted. The emitted energy is focused on a detector of some sort and causes the tem­
perature Td of the detector, and thus its output voltage e; , to vary. The difficulty with
such devices is that the ambient temperature, as well as Ts , affects Td . This effect is
serious since the radiant energy to be measured causes very small changes in Td ;
thus small ambient drifts can completely mask the desired input. An ingenious
solution to this problem interposes a rotating shutter between the radiant source
and the detector, so that the desired input is "chopped," or modulated, at a known
frequency. This frequency is chosen to be much higher than the frequencies at
which ambient drifts may occur. The output signal e; of the detector thus is a super­
position of slow ambient fluctuations and a high-frequency wave whose amplitude
varies in proportion to variations in Ts . Since the desired and interfering compo­
nents are thus widely separated in frequency, they may be selectively filtered. In this
case, we desire a ftlter that rejects constant and slowly varying signals, but faithfully
CHAPT E R 2 General ized Configurations and Functional Descriptions of Measu ring I nstruments 33

Output
I n put

N o - poss

Freq

H igh -pass

Ba n d - rejection
( " n o tc h ")

Figure 2.15
Basic filter types.

reproduces rapid variations. Such a characteristic is typical of an ordinary ac am­

plifier, and since amplification is necessary in such instruments in any case, the use
of an ac amplifier as shown solves two problems at once.
In summing up the method of signal filtering, it may be said that, in general, it
is usually possible to design filters of mechanical, electrical, thermal, pneumatic,
etc., nature which separate signals according to their frequency content in some
specific manner. Figure 2. 15 summarizes the most common useful forms of such
devices.
The method of opposing inputs consists of intentionally introducing into the
instrument interfering and /or modifying inputs that tend to cancel the bad effects of
the unavoidable spurious inputs . Figure 2. 16 shows schematically the concept for
interfering inputs. The extension to modifying inputs should be obvious. The inten­
tionally introduced input is designed so that the signal on and o1 2 are essentially
equal but act in the opposite sense; thus the net contribution On - o1 2 to the output
is nearly zero. This method actually might be considered as a variation on the
method of calculated output corrections. However, the "calculation" and application
of the correction are achieved automatically owing to the structure of the system,
rather than by numerical calculation by a human operator. Thus the two methods are
similar ; however, the distinction between them is a worthwhile one since it helps to
organize your thinking in inventing new applications of these generalized correction
concepts.
Some examples of the method of opposing inputs are shown in Fig. 2. 17. A
millivoltmeter, shown in Fig. ? . 17a, is basically a current-sensitive device.
.
 Rcon
----
Temperature
-----
Rcomp

8.0 - H -; [ -e;+ _]
-
-
Rc.oil Rc.omp
Rtotol

lombient
I
(Modify i n g input ) I Effect of Rcomp
I
I
I
I
I I
L_�_J

1 � ��-------8�0-
I
I

D�-s-i r e-d-i-n p-u-

-(� t ) ----�·

(a)
Figure 2.17
Examples of method of opposing inputs.
 CHAPTE R 2 Generalized Confi gurations and Functional Descri ptions of Measuring I n struments 35

F ree stre a m
Stagnation poi nt
Static pre s s u r e Pstreom
Static pressure ta p Pp robe
M a s s den sity p
Velocity V L
'-..!"""""'"""'�--. - - - - - - - - - -,
11
-- - - - - - - - - -, I
-t+--- d2 Stag nation
point

U nderpressure due to Overpressure due to

i n c reased velocity of sta g n a tion poi nt I line )
flow over surface of on probe s u p port
probe

V
I I n terfe r i n g
in put )

P streom

I Desired input)

(b)

Figure 2.17
(Continued)

However, as long as the total circuit resistance is constant, its scale can be calibrated
in voltage, since voltage and current are proportional. A modifying input here is the
ambient t�mperature, since it causes the coil resistance Rcoil to change, thereby
altering the proportionality factor between current and voltage. To correct for
this error, the compensating resistance Rcomp is introduced into the circuit, and its
material is carefully chosen to have a temperature coefficient of resistance opposite
to that of Rcoil . Thus when the temperature changes, the total resistance of the circuit
is unaffected and the calibration of the meter remains accurate.
Figure 2. 17b shows a static-pressure-probe design due to L. Prandtl. As the
fluid flows over the surface of the probe, the velocity of the fluid must increase
since these streamlines are longer than those in the undisturbed flow. This velocity
increase causes a drop in static pressure, so that a tap in the surface of the probe
gives an incorrect reading. This underpressure error varies with the distance d1 of
the tap from the probe tip. Prandtl recognized that the probe support will have
a stagnation point (line) along its front edge and that this overpressure will be felt
upstream, the effect decreasing as the distance d2 increases. By properly choosing
36 PA R T 1 Gene ral Concepts

Gas-filled
Orifice bellows

Manometer

Effect of density
Gas temperature chan g e
(Modifyin g input ) I
Effect of area chan g e
I
I
' t/9\.;
L "f>'
I
- --'

I
Manometer
Moss flow rate reading
(Desired input )

Gas pressure
(Modifyin g input ) Effect of area
chan g e

(c)
Figure 2.17
(Continued)

distances d and d (by experimental test), these two effects can be made exactly to
1 2
_cancel, giving a true static-pressure value at the tap.
A device for the measurement of the mass flow rate of gases is shown in Fig.
2. 17 c. The mass flow rate of gas through an orifice may be found by measuring the
pressure drop across the orifice, perhaps by means of a U-tube manometer. Unfor­
tunately, the mass flow rate also depends on the density of the gas, which varies
with pressure and temperature. Thus the pressure-drop measuring device usually
cannot be calibrated to give the mass flow rate, since variations in gas temperature
- and pressure yield different mass flow rates for the same orifice pressure drop. The
instrument of Fig. 2. 17c overcomes this problem in an ingenious fashion. The flow
CHAPTER 2 General ized Config u rations and Fu nctional Descriptions of Measuring I n struments 37

Silicone fluid fill

Gimbal

Effect of viscosity
change
Ambient
temperature
I
(Modifying input) ..----t- Effect of g ap thickness
1 chan g e
I I

�---tfV\;
I
1
v _J

8,. angular velocity

(Desired input)

(d)

Figure 2.17
(Concluded)

rate through the orifice also depends on its flow area. Thus if the flow area could be
varied in just the right way, this variation could compensate for pressure and tem­
perature changes so that a given orifice pressure drop would always correspond to
the same mass flow rate. This is accomplished by attaching the specially shaped me­
tering pin to a gas-filled bellows as shown. When the temperature drops (causing an
increase in density and therefore in mass flow rate), the gas in the bellows contracts,
which moves the metering pin into the orifice and thereby reduces the flow area.
This returns the mass flow rate to its proper value. Similarly, should the pressure of
the flowing gas increase, causing an increase in density and mass flow rate, the gas­
filled bellows would be compressed again, reducing the flow area and correcting the
mass flow rate. The proper shape for the metering pin is revealed by a detailed
analysis of the system.
A final example of the method of opposing inputs is the rate gyroscope of
Fig. 2. 17d. Such devices are widely used in aerospace vehicles for the generation of
stabilization signals in the control system. The action of the device is that a vehicle
38 PA R T 1 General Concepts

rotation at angular velocity (Ji causes a proportional displacement 00 of the gimbal

relative to the case. This rotation 00 is measured by some motion pickup (not shown
in Fig. 2. 17 d). Thus a signal proportional to vehicle angular velocity is available,
and this is useful in stabilizing the vehicle. When the vehicle undergoes rapid mo­
tion changes, however, the angle ()0 tends to oscillate, giving an incorrect angular­
velocity signal. To control these oscillations, the gimbal rotation ()0 is damped by the
shearing action of a viscous silicone fluid in a narrow damping gap. The damping
effect varies with the viscosity of the fluid and the thickness of the damping gap.
Although the viscosity of the silicone fluid is fairly constant, it does vary with
ambient temperature, causing an undesirable change in damping characteristics. To
compensate for this, a nylon cylinder is used in the gyro of Fig. 2. 1 7d. When the
temperature increases, viscosity drops, causing a loss of damping. Simultaneously,
however, the nylon cylinder expands, narrowing the damping gap and thus restor­
ing the damping to its proper value. By proper choice of materials and geometry, the
two effects can be made to very nearly cancel over the operating temperature range
of the equipment.

2.6 C ONCLUSION
In this chapter we developed useful generalizations with regard to the functional
elements and the input-output configurations of measuring instruments and systems.
In the analysis of a given instrument or in the design of a new one, the starting point
is the separation of the overall operation into its functional elements. Here you must
take a broad view of what must be done, but not be concerned with how it is actually
accomplished. Once the general functional concepts have been clarifiefa,, the details
of operation may be considered fruitfully. The ideas of active and pa�sive trans­
ducers, analog and digital modes of operation, and null versus deflection methods
give a systematic approach for either analysis or design. ;
, ·

Finally, compensation of spurious inputs and detailed evitluation of perfor­

mance are facilitated by application of input-output block diagrams. These config­
uration diagrams show clearly which physical analyses must be made �o evaluate
performance with respect to accurate meastirement of the desired input� and rejec­
tion of spurious inputs. The evaluation of the relative quality of different instru­
ments (or the same instrument with different numerical parameter values) requires
the definition of performance criteria against which competitive designs may be
compared. This is the subject of Chapter 3.
CHAPTE R 2 Generalized Confi gurations and Functional Descriptions of Measuring I n struments 39

PROBLEMS
2.1 Make block diagrams such as Fig. 2. 1 , showing the functional elements of
the instruments depicted in the following:
(a) Fig. 2.7.
(b) Fig. 2.8.
(c) Fig. 2. 1 0a.
(d ) Fig. 2. 1 1 . Take F as input and e0 as output.
(e) Fig. 2. 14g. Take Ts as input and e0 as output.
(f) Fig. 2. 17b. Take V as input and manometer !lh as output.
(g) Fig. 2. 17d. Take ()i as input and ()0 as output.
2.2 Identify the active transducers, if any, in the instruments of (a) Fig. 2 . 8 ,
(b) Fig. 2. 1 0a, (c) Fig. 2. 1 1 , (d) Fig. 2. 17b, (e) Fig. 2. 17c.
2.3 Consider a man, driving a car along a road, who sees the opportunity to pass
and decides to accelerate.
(a) If the light waves entering his eyes are considered input and
accelerator-pedal travel is taken as output, is the man functioning as an
active or a passive transducer?
(b) If the accelerator-pedal travel is considered input and car velocity as
output, is the automobile engine an active or a passive transducer?
2.4 Give an example of a null method of force measurement.
2.5 Give an example of a null method of voltage measurement.
2.6 Sketch and explain two possible modifications of the system of Fig. 2.4 that
will allow measurement to 1110 revolution.
2.7 Identify desired, interfering, and modifying inputs for the systems of
(a) Fig. 2.2, (b) Fig. 2.3, (c) Fig. 2.4, (d ) Fig. 2.5.
2.8 Why is tilt angle in Fig. 4. 10c a modifying input?
2.9 Suppose in Eq. (2.7) that KMo = Ksp = ei = 1 .0. Now let KMo change by
1 0 percent to 1 . 1 . Wha qs the change in x} In Eq. (2. 10), let KMo = Ksp =
KFB = =
ei = 1 .0, and KAM 100. Now let KM0 change by 1 0 percent to 1 . 1 .
What is the change in X0? Investigate the effect of similar changes in KAM,
KsP • and KFB.
2.10 The natural frequency of oscillation of the balance wheel in a watch
depends on the moment of inertia of the wheel and the spring constant of the
(torsional) hairspring. A t�mperature rise results in a reduced spring constant,
which lowers the oscillation frequency. Propose a compensating means
for this effect. Non-temperature-sensitive hairspring material is not an
acceptable solution.