MATH 117 – ABSTRACT

ALGEBRA
EDDIE L. FERRER
Instructor
Course Name: ABSTRACT ALGEBRA
Course Code: Math 117
No. of Units: 3
Course Description
This course is designed to facilitate understanding of
basic concepts and properties of algebraic structures. The
topics include Groups, Subgroups, Cyclic Groups,
Permutation Groups, Cosets, Isomorphism, Normal and
Factor Groups, Homomorphism, and introduction to rings.
It aims to develop symbolic thinking, enhance skills in
writing proofs, and foster appreciation for mathematical
structures which are all helpful in dealing with higher Math

Prerequisite Subjects:
Logic and Set Theory
 Course Learning Outcomes

At the end of the course, the pre-service teachers should be

able to:
A. Demonstrate critical thinking in interpreting and applying
fundamental concepts and proving claims concerning basic
algebraic structures (e.g. groups, subgroups,
homomorphisms)
B. Exhibit competence in identifying as well as producing
examples and non-examples of particular algebraic
structures using their properties and relevant mathematical
concepts.
C. Show skills in working with functions to relate seemingly
dissimilar algebraic structures
D. Reconstruct algebraic concepts and reformulate
principles based on mathematical investigations
E. Communicate abstract algebra ideas in both written
and oral form
F. Design classroom activities and materials on selected
abstract algebra concepts with the use of ICT.

REFERENCES
Fraleigh, J.B. (2014). A first course in abstract algebra, (7th Edition). USA:
Pearson.
F.

Gallian, J.A. (2016). Contemporary abstract algebra, (9th Edition). USA:

Cengage.Learning.
Jaisingh, L.R. & Ayres, F. (2003). Schaum’s outline of theory and problems
of abstract algebra (2nd Edition). USA: McGraw-Hill.
Malik, D.S. (1997). Fundamentals of abstract algebra. Singapore:
McGraw-Hill Companies.
Rotman, J.J (2005). A first course in abstract algebra with applications,
(3rd Edition). New Jersey, USA: Prentice-Hall
 CONTENT
I. Preliminary Topics
a. Modular Arithmetic
b. Functions
c. Equivalence Relations
II. Groups
a. Binary operations
b. Groups
c. Elementary Properties of Groups
III. Subgroups
a. Order of a Group and Order of an Element
b. Subgroups
c. Cyclic Subgroups
IV. Cyclic Groups
a. Definition and Properties of Cyclic Groups
b. Finite Cyclic Groups

V. Permutation Groups
a. Permutations and the Symmetric Groups
b. Orbits and Cycles
c. Properties of Permutations
VI. Cosets and Lagrange’s Theorem
a. Cosets
b. Lagrange’s Theorem

VII. Isomorphisms
a. Isomorphisms
b. Automorphisms
VIII. Normal Subgroups and Factor Groups
a. Normal Subgroup
b. Factor Groups

IX. Group Homomorphism

a. Group Homomorphisms
b. Properties of Homomorphisms

X. Introduction to Rings
a. Definition and Examples of Rings
b. Properties of Rings
c. Subrings
At the end of the week, the pre-service teacher
(PST) should be able to:

• use modulo concepts and properties to solve modular

arithmetic problems and compose proofs,
• Illustrate the concept of function, one-to-one function,
onto function, one-to-one
correspondence, inverse of a function, and equivalence
relation,
• Evaluate a function and identify its domain and range,
formulate proofs for propositions related to functions,
function composition, and equivalence relations.
 Modular Arithmetic
Modular arithmetic is an abstraction of a
method of counting that you often use. For
example, if it is now September, what month
will it be 25 months from now? Of course, the
answer is October, but the interesting fact is
that you didn’t arrive at the answer by starting
with September and counting off 25 months.
Instead, without even thinking about it, you
simply observed that 25 = 2 ∙ 12 + 1, and you
added 1 month to September.
Similarly, if it is now Saturday, you know that
in 23 days it will be Monday. This time, you
arrived at your answer by noting that 23 = 7 ∙
3 + 2, so you added 2 days to Saturday
instead of counting off 23 days. If your
electricity is off for 26 hours, you must
advance your clock 2 hours, since 26 = 2 ∙
12 + 2. Surprisingly, this simple idea has
numerous important applications in
mathematics and computer science. You will
see a few of them in today's lesson.
When we divide two integers, we will have an equation that
looks like the following:
𝑎
= 𝑞 remainder 𝑟
𝑛
𝑎 is the dividend
𝑛 is the divisor
𝑞 is the quotient
𝑟 is the remainder
Sometimes, we are only interested in what the remainder is
when we divide 𝑎 by 𝑛. For these cases there is an operator
called the modulo operator (abbreviated as mod).
Using the same 𝑎, 𝑛, 𝑞 and 𝑟 as above, we would have:
𝑎 𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑛 = 𝑟. We would say this as 𝑎 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑜 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜 𝑟.
Where 𝑛 is referred to as the modulus. Thus,

By noticing this, we can visualize the modulo operator by using

circles. We write 0 at the top of a circle and continuing
clockwise writing integers 1, 2, ... up to one less than the
modulus. For example, a clock with the 12 replaced by a 0
would be the circle for a modulus of 12.
Example
8 𝑚𝑜𝑑 4 =?
With a modulus of 4 we make a clock with numbers 0, 1, 2, 3.
We start at 0 and go through 8 numbers in a clockwise
sequence 1, 2, 3, 0, 1, 2, 3, 0.

We ended up at 0 so 8 mod 4 = 0.
Example
−5 mod 3 =?
With a modulus of 3 we make a clock with numbers 0, 1, 2.
We start at 0 and go through 5 numbers in counter-clockwise
sequence (5 is negative) 2, 1, 0, 2, 1.

We ended up at 1 so −5 mod 3 = 1
In general, if 𝑎 and 𝑏 are integers and 𝑛 is a positive integer,
then 𝑎 mod 𝑛 = 𝑏 mod 𝑛 if and only if 𝑛 divides 𝑎 − 𝑏.
In our applications, we will use addition and multiplication
mod 𝑛. When you wish to compute 𝑎𝑏 mod 𝑛 or (𝑎 +
𝑏) mod 𝑛, and 𝑎 or 𝑏 is greater than 𝑛, it is easier to “mod
first.”

For example, to compute (27 ∙ 36) mod 11, we note that 27

mod 11 = 5 and 36 mod 11 = 3, so (27∙36) mod 11 = (5 ∙ 3)
mod 11 = 4.
 Congruence

For a positive integer 𝑛, the integers 𝑎 and 𝑏 are congruent

𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑛 if their remainders when divided by 𝑛 are the same.
EXAMPLE
52 ≡ 24 mod 7
As we can see above, 52 and 24 are congruent (mod 7)
because 52 (mod 7) = 3 and 24 (mod 7) = 3.
Note: = is different from ≡.
Another way of defining this is that integers 𝑎 and 𝑏 are
congruent mod n if their difference (a - b) is an integer
𝑎−𝑏
multiple of 𝑛, that is, if 𝑛
has a remainder of 0.

EXAMPLE
36 ≡ 10 (mod 13)
36 and 10 are said to be congruent (mod 13) because
their difference 36 – 10 = 26 is an integer multiple of
𝑛 = 13, that is 26 = 2 x 13.
Addition

EXAMPLE
It is currently 7:00 PM. What time (in AM or PM) will it be
in 1000 hours?
Time "repeats" every 24 hours, so we work modulo 24.
Since 1000 ≡ 24 × 41 + 16 ≡ 16(mod 24),
the time in 1000 hours is equivalent to the time in 16 hours.
Therefore, it will be 11:00 AM in 1000 hours.

EXAMPLE
Find the sum of 31 and 148 in modulo 24.

Solution 1:

31 in modulo 24 is equivalent to 7. If we use the first

modular addition rule stated above, we find that 31 +
148 ≡ 7 + 148 ≡ 155 (mod 24). 155 in modulo 24 is 11.
Solution 2:

As stated previously, 31 in modulo 24 is 7. Instead of using

the first rule, we'll use the second rule. 148 is 4 in modulo
24. So now, all we need to find is 7+4, which is 11.
EXAMPLE
Find the remainder when 123 + 234+ 32+ 56+ 22 + 12 + 78 is
divided by 3.
Solution:
We know that 123 ≡ 0 (mod 3), 234 ≡ 0 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 3), 32 ≡
2 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 3), 56 ≡ 2 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 3), 22 ≡ 1 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 3), 12 ≡ 0 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 3),
and 78 ≡ 0 𝑚𝑜𝑑 3 .
From property 3, we have
123 + 234 + 32 + 56 + 22 + 12 + 78
≡ 0 + 0 + 2 + 2 + 1 + 0 + 0 ≡ 5 𝑚𝑜𝑑 3 .
Since 5 has a remainder of 2 when divided by 3, so does
123 + 234 + 32 + 56 + 22 + 12 + 78,
and thus, the answer is 2.
Multiplication
Modular multiplication appears in many fields of
mathematics and has many far-ranging applications,
including cryptography, computer science, and computer
algebra.
EXAMPLE
What is 8 x 16 mod 7 ?
Solution:
Since 8 ≡ 1 mod 7 and 16 ≡ 2 mod 7 , we have
8 x 16 ≡ 1 x 2 ≡ 2 mod 7

EXAMPLE
Find the remainder when 124 ⋅ 134 ⋅ 23 ⋅ 49 ⋅ 235 ⋅ 13 is
divided by 3.
Solution:
In this example, multiplying the numbers would be very
tedious. Instead, we use property 3 repeatedly. We know
that 124 ≡ 1, 134 ≡ 2, 23 ≡ 2, 49 ≡ 1, 235 ≡ 1, and 13 ≡ 1.
Therefore,
124 ⋅ 134 ⋅ 23 ⋅ 49 ⋅ 235 ⋅ 13 ≡ 1 ∙ 2 ∙ 2 ∙ 1 ∙ 1 ∙ 1 ≡
4 ≡ 1 (mod 3),
implying the product, upon division by 3, leaves a
remainder of 1.
Exponentiation
Since exponentiation is repeated multiplication, we have the
following:
Solution:
EXERCISES

6. Determine 71000 mod 6 and 61001 mod 7.

 Functions and
Equivalence Relations
Evaluating Functions Given In Function Notation.
Example

Solution: Put each of these values or variables in the

parentheses and then follow the rule that says take the
square root of the input and then add 1.
Evaluate the ff.

𝑥 2 −𝑥
1. 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥+1
, 𝑓 2 =

𝑥+1 𝑎+1
2. 𝑓 𝑥 = , 𝑓 =
𝑥−1 𝑎−1

2 2+ℎ −𝑓 2
3. 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 + 2𝑥 + 3, 𝑓 ℎ

𝑥
4. If 𝑓 𝑥 = express 𝑓 3𝑥 in terms of 𝑓 𝑥
𝑥−1
Example

The domain is all values that x can take on. So set the
radicand greater than or equal to zero and solve. The result
will be domain:
−2𝑥 + 3 ≥ 0
−2𝑥 ≥ −3
2𝑥 ≤ 3
3
𝑥≤
2
3
Then the domain is “all 𝑥 ≤
2
The domain is all the values that x is allowed to take on.
So, the only values that x can not take on are those which
would cause division by zero. So, set the denominator
equal to zero and solve;
𝑥2 − 𝑥 − 2 = 0
𝑥−2 𝑥+1 =0
𝑥 = 2 or 𝑥 = −1

Then the domain is “all x not equal to -1 or 2”.

Example
Examples

𝑥+1 1
1. 𝑓 𝑥 = , 𝑔 𝑥 = , find 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔 𝑥
𝑥−1 𝑥
2
2. 𝑓 𝑥 = , 𝑔 𝑥 = 2𝑥 2 − 4, find
2−3𝑥
(a) 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔 𝑥 (b) 𝑔 ∘ 𝑓 𝑥
3. If 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 − 1, 𝑓 𝑔 𝑥 = 2𝑥, find 𝑔 𝑥
𝑥+1 2
4. If 𝑔 𝑥 = ,𝑔 𝑓 𝑥 = , find 𝑓 𝑥 .
𝑥 𝑥−1
2𝑥−3
5. If 𝑓 𝑔 𝑥 = 2𝑥+1 and 𝑔 𝑥 = 1 − 2𝑥, find 𝑓 𝑥
6. 𝑔 𝑥 = 5 + 6𝑥, 𝑓 𝑔 𝑥 = 108𝑥 2 + 156𝑥 + 56,
find 𝑓 𝑥