Module 1: Design for Static Strength

July/August 2021
1.a) Explain stress tensor and stress concentration factor. (05 Marks)

Stress is defined as force per unit area. If we take a cube of material and subject it to an arbitrary load we can
measure the stress on it in various directions as shown in the figure.These measurements will form a second
rank tensor; the stress tensor.

Stress Tensor is expressed as,

𝜎𝑥 𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝜏𝑥𝑧
𝜏𝑖𝑗 = [𝜏𝑦𝑥 𝜎𝑦 𝜏𝑦𝑧 ] MPa
𝜏𝑧𝑥 𝜏𝑧𝑦 𝜎𝑧
1.b) Body subjected to tensile stress of 100MPa and 70MPa along two mutually perpendicular
directions. The point is also subjected to shear stress of 50MPa. Determine:

i) Normal and shear stress at plane inclined at 120 with reference to 100MPa stress plane.
ii) Principal and maximum, minimum shear stress
iii) Principal plane orientation
iv) Normal stress on planes of maximum and minimum shear stress.
(15 Marks)

Data:
σx = 100 Mpa, σy = 70 Mpa, τxy = 50 Mpa, θ = 120o

Soln:

(i) Normal and shear stress at plane inclined at 120 with reference to 100MPa stress plane
Normal Stress on inclined plane,
𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦
𝜎𝜃 = + ( ) cos 2𝜃 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 sin 2𝜃
2 2

100 + 70 100 − 70
𝜎𝜃 = + ( ) cos 2 × 120 + 50 sin 2 × 120
2 2

𝝈𝜽 = 34.2 MPa

Shear Stress on inclined plane,

𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦
𝜏𝜃 = − ( ) sin 2𝜃 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 cos 2𝜃
2

100 − 70
𝜏𝜃 = − ( ) sin 2 × 120 + 50 cos 2 × 120
2

𝝉𝜽 = -12 MPa
(ii) Principal and maximum, minimum shear stress
Maximum and Minimum Principal Stresses,

𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 2
𝜎1,2 = ± √( ) + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 2
2 2

100 + 70 100 − 70 2
𝜎1,2 = √
± ( ) + 502
2 2
 𝜎1,2 = 85 ± 52.2
Maximum Principal Stress, 𝝈𝟏 = 𝟏𝟑𝟕. 𝟐 𝑴𝑷𝒂
Minimum Principal Stress, 𝝈𝟐 = 𝟑𝟐. 𝟖 𝑴𝑷𝒂
Maximum and Minimum Shear Stress,

𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 2
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥,𝑚𝑖𝑛 = ±√( ) + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 2
2

100 − 70 2
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥,𝑚𝑖𝑛 = ±√( ) + 502
2
Maximum Shear Stress,
𝝉𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝟓𝟐. 𝟐 𝑴𝑷𝒂
Minimum Shear Stress,
𝝉𝒎𝒊𝒏 = − 𝟓𝟐. 𝟐 𝑴𝑷𝒂

(iii) Principle Plane Orientation

Plane of Maximum Principal Stress,
2𝜏𝑥𝑦
tan 2𝜃𝑝1 =
𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦
2 ∗ 50
tan 2𝜃𝑝1 =
100 − 70
𝜽𝒑𝟏 = 𝟑𝟔. 𝟔𝟓o
Plane of Minimum Principal Stress, 𝜃𝑝2 = 𝜃𝑝1 + 90
𝜽𝒑𝟐 = 𝟏𝟐𝟔. 𝟔𝟓o

(iv) Normal stress on planes of maximum and minimum shear stress.

𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦
Plane of Maximum Shear Stress, tan 2𝜃𝑠1 = − ( )
2𝜏𝑥𝑦

100 − 70
tan 2𝜃𝑠1 = − ( )
2 ∗ 50

𝜃𝑠1 = −8.35o
Plane of Minimum Shear Stress, 𝜃𝑠2 = 𝜃𝑠1 + 90
𝜃𝑠2 = 81.65o
Normal Stress on plane of Maximum Shear Stress,
𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦
𝜎𝜃𝑠1 = + ( ) cos 2𝜃𝑠1 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 sin 2𝜃𝑠1
2 2
100 + 70 100 − 70
𝜎𝜃𝑠1 = + ( ) cos 2(−8.35) + 50 sin 2(−8.35)
2 2
 𝝈𝜽𝒔𝟏 = 𝟖𝟓 𝑴𝑷𝒂

Normal Stress on plane of Minimum Shear Stress,

𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦
𝜎𝜃𝑠2 = + ( ) cos 2𝜃𝑠2 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 sin 2𝜃𝑠2
2 2
100 + 70 100 − 70
𝜎𝜃𝑠2 = + ( ) cos 2(81.65) + 50 sin 2(81.65)
2 2
𝝈𝜽𝒔𝟐 = 𝟖𝟓 𝑴𝑷𝒂

2.a) Explain various methods by which stress concentration can be reduced with sketches. (05 Marks)

A number of methods are available to reduce stress concentration in machine parts. Some of them are as
follows:

1. Provide a fillet radius so that the cross-section may change gradually.

2. Sometimes an elliptical fillet is also used.

3. If a notch is unavoidable it is better to provide a number of small notches rather than a long one. This
reduces the stress concentration to a large extent.

4. If a projection is unavoidable from design considerations it is preferable to provide a narrow notch than a
wide notch.

5. Stress relieving groove are sometimes provided. These are demonstrated in the following figures.
 Fig. Illustrations of different methods to reduce stress concentration

2.b) A point in a plate is subjected to a horizontal tensile stress of 100 N/mm2 and vertical stress of 60
N/mm2 . Find the magnitude of principal stresses. (15 Marks)

Data: σx = 100 N/mm2, σy = 60 N/mm2, τxy = 0

Soln:
Maximum Principal Stress,

𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 2
𝜎1 = + √( ) + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 2
2 2

𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦
𝜎1 = +
2 2

𝝈𝟏 = 𝝈𝒙 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝑵/𝒎𝒎𝟐

Minimum Principal Stress,

𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 2
𝜎2 = − √( ) + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 2
2 2

𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦
𝜎2 = −
2 2

𝝈𝟐 = 𝝈𝒚 = 𝟔𝟎 𝑵/𝒎𝒎𝟐
Maximum Shear Stress,

𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 2
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = √( ) + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 2
2

𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
2

100 − 60
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
2

𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 20 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2

Jan./Feb. 2021
1.a) Explain the following: i) Principal stress ii) Plane stress iii) Stress Tensor (06 Marks)

(i) Principal Stress: Principal stresses are those stresses which are acting on the principal planes. Principal
planes are these planes within the material such that the resultant stresses across them are wholly normal
stresses or planes across which no shearing stresses occur. The plane carrying the maximum normal stress is
called the major principal plane and the stress acting on it is called major principal stress. The plane carrying
minimum normal stress is known as minor principal plane and the stress acting on it is called as minor principal
stress.
Magnitude of Maximum and Minimum Principal Stress is given by,

𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 2
𝜎1,2 = ± √( ) + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 2
2 2

(ii) Plane Stress: Plane stress is defined to be a state of stress in which the normal stress and shear stress
directed perpendicular to the z plane are assumed to be zero.

Thus for plane stress condition, 𝜎𝑧 = 𝜏𝑥𝑧 = 𝜏𝑦𝑧 = 0

Ex: A thin planar body subjected to in-plane loading as shown in the figure:
1.b) A point in a structural member subjected to a plane stress is shown in Fig.Q.1(b). Determine the
following: i) Normal and Tangential stress intensities on plane MN inclined at an angle 45 ii) Principal
stresses and their directions. iii) Maximum shear stress and direction of planes on which it occurs. (14
Marks)

Data: 𝜎𝑥 = 40 𝑀𝑃𝑎, 𝜎𝑦 = − 30 𝑀𝑃𝑎, 𝜏𝑥𝑦 = 25 𝑀𝑃𝑎, 𝜃 = 45°

Soln:

(i) Normal and Tangential stress intensities on plane MN inclined at an angle 45

Normal Stress on plane MN,

𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦
𝜎𝜃 = + ( ) cos 2𝜃 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 sin 2𝜃
2 2

40 − 30 40 + 30
𝜎𝜃 = + ( ) cos 2 × 45 + 25 sin 2 × 45
2 2

𝝈𝜽 = 30 MPa

Tangential Stress on plane MN,

𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦
𝜏𝜃 = − ( ) sin 2𝜃 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 cos 2𝜃
2

40 + 30
𝜏𝜃 = − ( ) sin 2 × 45 + 25 cos 2 × 45
2

𝝉𝜽 = - 35 MPa

ii) Principal stresses and their directions

Maximum and Minimum Principal Stresses,

𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 2
𝜎1,2 = ± √( ) + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 2
2 2
 40 − 30 40 + 30 2
𝜎1,2 = √
± ( ) + 252
2 2

𝜎1,2 = 5 ± 43.01
Maximum Principal Stress, 𝝈𝟏 = 𝟒𝟖. 𝟎𝟏 𝑴𝑷𝒂
Minimum Principal Stress, 𝝈𝟐 = −𝟑𝟖. 𝟎𝟏 𝑴𝑷𝒂
Plane of Maximum Principal Stress,
2𝜏𝑥𝑦
tan 2𝜃𝑝1 =
𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦

2 × 25
tan 2𝜃𝑝1 =
40 + 30

𝜽𝒑𝟏 = 𝟏𝟕. 𝟕𝟕°

Plane of Minimum Principal Stress, 𝜃𝑝2 = 𝜃𝑝1 + 90

𝜽𝒑𝟐 = 𝟏𝟎𝟕. 𝟕𝟕°

iii) Maximum shear stress and direction of planes on which it occurs

Maximum Shear Stress,

𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 2
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = √( ) + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 2
2

40 + 30 2
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 √
= ( ) + 252
2

𝝉𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝟒𝟑. 𝟎𝟏 𝑴𝑷𝒂

𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦
Plane of Maximum Shear Stress, tan 2𝜃𝑠1 = − ( )
2𝜏𝑥𝑦

40 + 30
tan 2𝜃𝑠1 = − ( )
2 × 25

𝜽𝒔𝟏 = −𝟐𝟕. 𝟐𝟑°

2.a) Explain the following failure theories: i) Maximum normal stress theory ii) Maximum shear stress
theory iii) Maximum strain theory iv) Distortion energy theory (16 Marks)

i) Maximum Normal Stress Theory

ii) Maximum Shear Stress Theory
Iii) Maximum Strain Theory

iv) Distortion Energy Theory

According to this theory, the design condition is given by

2.b) Explain the failure of brittle and ductile material. (04 Marks)

Failure involves the forced separation of a material into two or more parts. Brittle failure involves fracture
without any appreciable plastic deformation (i.e. energy absorption). Ductile failure in the converse involves
large plastic deformation before separation. The difference between brittle and ductile fracture is illustrated in
Fig. 1. Remembering that the area under the Stress - Strain curve in Fig. 1 represents energy, we can see that
much less energy is expended in brittle fracture than in ductile fracture.

Feb./Mar. 2022
1.a) Explain the following : i) Factor of safety ii) Uniaxial stress iii) True stress iv) Stress tensor v)
Principal stress. (10 Marks)

i) Factor of Safety:
It is defined as the ratio of maximum strength of the material to the working or design stress.
Mathematically,
Maximum stress
Factor of safety =
Working or design stress
In case of ductile materials e.g. mild steel, where the yield point is clearly defined, the factor of safety is based
upon the yield point stress. In such cases,
Yield stress
Factor of safety =
Working or design stress

In case of brittle materials e.g. cast iron, the yield point is not well defined as for ductile materials. Therefore,
the factor of safety for brittle materials is based on ultimate stress.
 Ultimate stress
Factor of safety =
Working or design stress

ii) Uniaxial Stress:

A one-dimensional state of stress in which normal stresses act along one direction only is called a uniaxial
stress state. Figure shows a structural element subjected to uniaxial stress:

σx σx

iii) True Stress

True Stress acting on the material is the applied load divided by instantaneous cross sectional area.
The relationship between true stress and engineering stress is given by,
𝜎𝑇 = 𝜎 (1 + 𝜀)
where 𝜎𝑇 is True Stress
𝜎 is Engineering Stress
𝜀 is Engineering Strain

iv) Stress Tensor:

Stress is defined as force per unit area. If we take a cube of material and subject it to an arbitrary load we can
measure the stress on it in various directions as shown in the figure.These measurements will form a second
rank tensor; the stress tensor.
Stress Tensor is expressed as,

𝜎𝑥 𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝜏𝑥𝑧
𝜏
𝜏𝑖𝑗 = [ 𝑦𝑥 𝜎𝑦 𝜏𝑦𝑧 ] MPa
𝜏𝑧𝑥 𝜏𝑧𝑦 𝜎𝑧

v) Principal Stress:
Principal stresses are those stresses which are acting on the principal planes. Principal planes are these planes
within the material such that the resultant stresses across them are wholly normal stresses or planes across
which no shearing stresses occur. The plane carrying the maximum normal stress is called the major principal
plane and the stress acting on it is called major principal stress. The plane carrying minimum normal stress is
known as minor principal plane and the stress acting on it is called as minor principal stress.

Magnitude of Maximum and Minimum Principal Stress is given by,

𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 2
𝜎1,2 = √
± ( ) + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 2
2 2
1.b) A mild steel shaft of 50 mm diameter is subjected to a bending moment of 2000 N-m and a Torque
‘T’. If the yield point of the steel in tension is 200 MPa, find the maximum value of this torque without
causing yielding of the shaft according to, i) Maximum principal stress theory ii) Maximum shear stress
theory iii) Maximum distortion strain energy theory. (10 Marks)

Data: 𝑑 = 50 𝑚𝑚, 𝑀 = 2000 × 103 𝑁 − 𝑚𝑚, 𝜎𝑦 = 200 𝑀𝑃𝑎

Soln:
Moment of Inertia of Shaft Section,
𝜋𝑑 4
𝐼=
64

𝜋504
𝐼=
64

𝐼 = 306.8 × 103 𝑚𝑚4

Distance from neutral axis,

𝑑 50
𝑦= = = 25 𝑚𝑚
2 2

Bending Stress,

𝑀𝑦
𝜎=
𝐼

2000 × 103 × 25
𝜎=
306.8 × 103

𝝈 = 𝟏𝟔𝟑 𝑴𝑷𝒂

For shaft subjected to torque T, Shear Stress

16𝑇
𝜏=
𝜋𝑑 3

16𝑇
𝜏=
𝜋503

𝝉 = 𝟒. 𝟎𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟓 𝑻 𝑴𝑷𝒂

Maximum and Minimum Principal Stress,

𝜎 𝜎 2
𝜎1,2 = ± √( ) + 𝜏 2
2 2

163 163 2
𝜎1,2 = √
± ( ) + (4.07 × 10−5 𝑇)2
2 2
 𝝈𝟏,𝟐 = 𝟖𝟏. 𝟓 ± √𝟔𝟔𝟒𝟐. 𝟐𝟓 + (𝟏. 𝟔𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟗 × 𝑻𝟐 )
Maximum Shear Stress,

𝜎 2
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = √( ) + 𝜏 2
2

163 2
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = √( ) + (4.07 × 10−5 𝑇)2
2

𝝉𝒎𝒂𝒙 = √𝟔𝟔𝟒𝟐. 𝟐𝟓 + (𝟏. 𝟔𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟗 × 𝑻𝟐 )

i) Torque according to Maximum Principal Stress Theory

According to Maximum Principal Stress Theory, for safe design:
𝜎1 = 𝜎𝑦

81.5 + √6642.25 + (1.66 × 10−9 × 𝑇 2 ) = 200

√6642.25 + (1.66 × 10−9 × 𝑇 2 ) = 118.5

6642.25 + (1.66 × 10−9 × 𝑇 2 ) = 14042.25

(1.66 × 10−9 × 𝑇 2 ) = 7400

𝑇 2 = 4.46 × 1012

𝑻 = 𝟐𝟏𝟏𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎𝟑 𝑵 − 𝒎𝒎 = 𝟐𝟏𝟏𝟐 𝑵 − 𝒎

ii) Torque according to Maximum Shear Stress Theory

According to Maximum Shear Stress Theory, for safe design:
𝜎𝑦
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
2
200
√6642.25 + (1.66 × 10−9 × 𝑇 2 ) =
2

6642.25 + (1.66 × 10−9 × 𝑇 2 ) = 10000

(1.66 × 10−9 × 𝑇 2 ) = 3357.75

𝑇 2 = 2022.74 × 109

𝑻 = 𝟏𝟒𝟐𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎𝟑 𝑵 − 𝒎𝒎 = 𝟏𝟒𝟐𝟐 𝑵 − 𝒎

iii) Torque according to Maximum Distortion Strain Energy Theory
According to Maximum Distortion Strain Energy Theory, for safe design:
𝜎1 2 + 𝜎2 2 − 𝜎1 𝜎2 = 𝜎𝑦 2
2 2
[81.5 + √6642.25 + (1.66 × 10−9 × 𝑇 2 )] + [81.5 − √6642.25 + (1.66 × 10−9 × 𝑇 2 )]
− [81.5 + √6642.25 + (1.66 × 10−9 × 𝑇 2 )] [81.5 + √6642.25 − (1.66 × 10−9 × 𝑇 2 )] = 2002

2[81.52 + 6642.5 + 1.66 × 10−9 𝑇 2 ] − [81.52 − 6642.5 + 1.66 × 10−9 𝑇 2 ] = 2002

81.52 + 3(6642.5) + 3(1.66 × 10−9 𝑇 2 ) = 40000
𝑻 = 𝟏𝟔𝟒𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎𝟑 𝑵 − 𝒎𝒎 = 𝟏𝟔𝟒𝟐 𝑵 − 𝒎

2.a) Why failure theory is important in aircraft structures? Explain the failure of brittle and ductile
materials. (10 Marks)

Importance of failure theories in aircraft structures:

Aircraft structures must be designed to withstand a wide range of stresses and loads, including aerodynamic
forces, weight, and impact loads. To ensure that the structures can withstand these loads without failing,
engineers use failure theories to predict the behavior of materials and structures under different types of stress.
There are several failure theories that are commonly used in aircraft design, including the maximum stress
theory, maximum strain theory, and the maximum distortion energy theory. Each theory has its own
assumptions and limitations, and engineers must carefully select the theory that best fits the specific
application and material being used.

By using these failure theories, engineers can determine the maximum allowable stresses and loads
that a material or structure can withstand before it fails. This information is critical for designing safe and
reliable aircraft structures that can operate under a wide range of conditions and loads. In addition to helping
prevent catastrophic failures, failure theories can also help reduce weight and material costs by allowing
engineers to design structures that are optimized for the loads they will experience. This can help improve fuel
efficiency and reduce operating costs for airlines and other aircraft operators.

Overall, failure theories are a critical tool for aircraft designers and engineers, helping to ensure the
safety, reliability, and efficiency of aircraft structures.

Failure of Brittle and Ductile Materials: Refer 2b) of Jan/Feb 2021

2.b) Explain atleast four different theories of failure in detail. (10 Marks)

Refer solution of 2.a) Jan./Feb. 2021