1 Exponentials, logarithms, radicals

1.1 Properties of Exponentials

xa 3
xa xb = xa+b x0 = 1 xb
= xa−b (ax)m = am xm x−a = 1
xa (am xn ) p = amp xnp (xa )b = xab x2 =
1 √ xa
x1 x 2 = x x ( xy )a = ya

1.2 Properties of Radicals

1 √ √ 1 1 1 m √ √ q √
nx
x
xn = n
x ax = (ax) 2 = a 2 x 2 xn = x = ( n x)m
n m n
y = √
ny

1.3 Properties of Logarithms

logb (bk ) = k = blogb (k)

logb (c) = k is the solution to the problem bk = c where k is the unknown
In your calculator this is log(c) / log(b) (as there is no base other than 10 or e for log on the calculator)

logb (xy) = logb (x) + logb (y) Product rule

logb ( xy ) = logb (x) − logb (y) Quotient rule
logb (xy ) = y · logb (x) Log of power rule
These also apply to ln(x).

Note: log(x) can refer to loge (x) or log10 (x). Always clarify but log(x) more often refers to base 10 (aka common
log)

Natural log (log base e = loge (x) = ln(x))

ln(x) = loge (x): "e to the power of what equals x?"

eln(k) = k and ln(ek ) = k

e−ln(x) = 1
x ea·ln(x) = xa ln(e−x ) = −x e−a·ln(x) = 1
xa

ln(xa ) = a · ln(x) ln(e) = loge (e) = 1 (e1 = e) ln(1) = loge (1) = 0 (e0 = 1) ln( 1x ) = loge ( 1x ) = −ln(x) =
−loge (x)

Calculus properties of natural exponentiation ex and natural log ln(x)

d
dx ex = ex
d 1
dx ln(x) = x

1
2 Complex numbers
C
r/|z|

θ
R

z = a + bi = r(cos θ + i · sin θ ) = reiθ (exponential form with θ being phase - this form makes it easier to ×/÷
complex numbers) where a = r · cos θ and b = r · sin θ

Amplitude/Modulus/Magnitude/length of complex number:

√ √ p
r = |z| = |a + bi| = a2 + b2 = cos2 θ + sin2 θ |eiθ | = (eiθ )(e−iθ )

Note: Complex conjugates are just minuses in front of all the is.

2.1 Absolute values

|x · y| = |x| · |y| |i| = 1 |x + y| ≤ |x| + |y| | xy | = |x|/|y| |x − y| ≥ |x| − |y| | − x| = |x|

Note: absolute values of trig functions work normally. ie. sin(− π4 ) = − √12 |sin( −π
4 )| =
√1
2

2.2 Complex exponential function (Euler) identities

eiθ −e−iθ eiθ +e−iθ iθ −iθ iθ −iθ
sin θ = 2i cos θ = 2 tan θ = −i eeiθ −e
+e−iθ
csc θ = 2i
eiθ −e−iθ
sec θ = 2
eiθ +e−iθ
cot θ = i eeiθ +e
−e−iθ

cos θ + i · sin θ (cis θ ) = eiθ

3 Taylor Series

Approximation of a real or complex function f (x) that is infinitely differentiable at a real or complex point a:

∞
f (nth derivative) (a) f ′ (a) f ′′ (a) f ′′′ (a)
∑ · (x − a)n = f (a) + · (x − a) + · (x − a)2 + · (x − a)3 ..... (1)
n=0 n! 1! 2! 3!
Maclaurin series is when the point a = 0.

3.1 Taylor series of ex

∞
xn x0 x1 x2 x3 x2 x3
ex = ∑ = + + + = 1+x+ + (2)
n=0 n! 0! 1! 2! 3! 2 6

3.2 eA where A is a matrix

An A0 ∞
A1 A2 A3 A2 A3
∑ eA =
= + + + = I + A + + (3)
n=o n! 0! 1! 2! 3! 2 6
   
d1n 0 ed1 0
Note: When D is a diagonal matrix, Dn =   and eD =  
0 d2 n 0 e d2

2
4 Integral of a Gaussian
ˆ ∞
r
−α(x−β )2 π
e dx = f or real constants α, β and α > 0 (4)
−∞ α
−(x−µ)2
For a normalised gaussian (as in a probability density distribution): g(x) = √1 e 2δ 2 the integral = 1. µ is the expected
δ 2π
value AKA mean (x-value of the peak) and δ 2 is the variance (squared deviation of the mean). The standard deviation is the
square root of the variance. (Remember 68-95-99.7 rule: percentage of values at 1,2 and 3 standard deviations from the mean
of a normal distribution).

5 Nabla/Del ∇ operator

For a vector field ⃗F = ⃗F( f1 (x, y, z), f2 (x, y, z), f3 (x, y, z)):

⃗∇ · ⃗F = d f1
+ ddyf2 + ddzf3 (Divergence - scalar: a scalar field quantifying how much the field diverges from each point)
dx

 
d d d
⃗∇ × ⃗F =  dx dy dz  , = ( d f3 − d f2 , d f1 − d f3 , d f2 − d f1 ) (Curl - vector: a vector field that
dy dz dz dx dx dy
f1 (x, y, z) f2 (x, y, z) f3 (x, y, z)
shows

us how a "windwill" would be turned at each point)

 
d f1 d f2 d f3
 dx dx dx 
∇⃗F =
 d f1 d f2 d f3 
 dy dy dy 
 (The total derivative of a vector field (a tensor quantity): transpose of the Jacobian ma-

d f1 d f2 d f3
dz dz dz
trix)

For a scalar field f (x, y, z):

∇ f = ( ddxf , ddyf , ddzf ) (Gradient - grad of f - vector: a vector field (AKA gradient field) where at each point (x,y,z coordinate)
the vector points in the direction of the steepest slope)

Note: ∇ · ⃗F (divergence) doesn’t apply for scalar fields.

6 Key EM formulas

Lorentz force: Force on charged particle q moving with velocity ⃗v through an ⃗E and ⃗B field:

⃗F = q(⃗E + ⃗V × ⃗B) (5)

3
 |q1 q2 |
The q⃗E part is the electric force (Coulomb’s law: F = 4πε0 r2
) and the q(⃗V × ⃗B) part is the magnetic force.
⃗0
F q
⃗E is the force per unit charge exerted on a test charge at any point: ⃗E = and ⃗E = r̂ (r̂ points from the charge
q0 4πε0 r2

generating the ⃗E field ("source point") to the test charge ("field point")).
(ε0 = 8.988 × 109 N · m2 /C2 (permittivity of free space)).
⃗B is created by a charge q moving with velocity ⃗v: ⃗B = µ0 q⃗v×r̂
4π r2 (field at r · r̂ from the charge q).
(µ0 = 4π × 10−7 ≈ 1.2566 × 10−6 AN2 (permeability of free space)).

6.1 Maxwell’s equations in free space

‚ Qenclosed
ΦE = ⃗E · d⃗A = Gauss’s law for ⃗E: The electrostatic flux (flux of ⃗E through any closed surface.
ε0

Differential form: ∇ · ⃗E = ρ
ε0 with ρ being charge density (charge per unit area/volume).

‚
ΦB = ⃗B · d⃗A = 0 Gauss’s law for ⃗B: ⃗B field lines do not start or end at "magnetic charges" (there are no magnetic
monopoles).
Differential form: ∇ · ⃗B = 0

¸ −dΦB
⃗E · d⃗l = Faraday’s law: The induced EMF (induced ⃗E) due to magnetic flux (changing ⃗B through a stationary
dt

conductor).
⃗
Differential form: ⃗∇ × ⃗E = − ddtB

¸
⃗B · d⃗l = µ0 Ienclosed Ampere’s Law where Ienclosed = ic + id and ic is conduction currents and id = ε0 dΦ
dt is displacement
E

currents (ie. through the free space of a capacitor).

Differential form: ⃗∇ × ⃗B = µ0 J⃗ (static only) (J⃗ is current density (through loop))

6.2 Maxwell’s equations in dielectrics and materials in magnetic fields

Dielectric: Materials that are electrical insulators. They are polarised by an applied electric field (because they have no free
charges).

‚
⃗D · d⃗A = q f ree Gauss’s law for dielectrics with the constitutive relation: ⃗D = ε0 εr ⃗E with ε0 being permittivity
of free space and εr being relative permittivity (property of dielectric).
Differential form: ∇ · ⃗D = ρ f ree

Note the relations: ⃗P = χe ⃗E (⃗P = Polarization (dipole moment density in dielectrics (electric dipoles (⃗p) per unit volume)
and χe is the electric susceptibility defined as εr − 1).

¸
⃗ · d⃗l = i f ree
H ⃗ = µ0 µr ⃗B
Ampere’s Law for material in magnetic field with the constitutive relation: H with
µ0 being the permeability of free space and µr being relative permeability (property of material).

4
 Differential form: ⃗∇ × H
⃗ = J⃗f ree with J⃗ = qN⃗
vd being current density, (q = individual carrier charge, N = number
density of charge carrier, v⃗d = drift velocity (average velocity of charges)) (static only)

⃗ = χm H
Note the relations: M ⃗ (M
⃗ = Magnetization (magnetic dipole moment (⃗µ) density in material in magnetic field - how

a material responds magnetically in a ⃗B field) and χe is the magnetic susceptibility defined as µr − 1).