NURS N313F Nursing Research

(2023-24)
Outline
• Describe the process of developing and refining a research problem
• Distinguish research problems, research questions and statements of
purpose
• Describe the function and characteristics of research hypothesis and
differentiate between different types of hypotheses
• Critique statements of purpose, research problems, research questions and
hypotheses in research reports

2
Basic Terminology #1

Research problem
o An enigmatic, perplexing, or troubling
condition
Problem statement
o A statement articulating the research problem
and making an argument to conduct a new
study
Statement of purpose
o Summary of an overall goal
Basic Terminology #2

Research questions
o The specific queries the researcher wants to
answer in addressing the research problem
Hypotheses
o The researcher’s predictions about relationships
among variables
Terms Relating to Research Problems
With Examples
Phases of the research process
in quantitative studies

Conceptual phase

Design and planning phase

Empirical phase

Analytic phase

Dissemination phase
6
7

Conceptual phase Step 1: Formulating and delimiting the

(research) problem

Design & planning Step 2: Reviewing the related literature

phase
Step 3: Undertaking clinical fieldwork
Step 4: Defining the framework and
Empirical phase developing conceptual definitions
Step 5: Formulating hypotheses
Analytic phase

Dissemination phase
Testing #1
Question #1

Tell whether the following statement is True or False.

The statement of purpose makes an argument to

conduct a new study.
a. True
b. False
Research Problems and Paradigms

Quantitative studies: usually involve concepts

that are well developed and for which methods of
measurement have been (or can be) developed
Qualitative studies: are undertaken because a
researcher wants to develop a rich, context-bound
understanding of a poorly understood phenomenon
Sources of Research Problems

Clinical experience
Nursing literature
Global issues
Political issues
Theory
Suggestions from external sources (e.g., priority
statements of national organizations or funders)
 What are the What are the
areas you are areas you would
most concerned like to improve or
with at work? change at work?

What problems
have you often How to integrate
encountered at research
work? evidence into
your practice?

Research ideas/interests emerge from 13

clinical experience
Research Problems and Questions

Broad enough to include central concerns

Narrow enough to serve as a guide to study design
Research Problems and Questions
Puzzling or troubling conditions
Usually identified from broad topic areas (research topics), and
are then developed into more specific researchable problems
Research problems will further be refined and developed into
research questions
Research problem …

Research problem 2
Research topic
Research problem 1
Care of hospitalized children Anxiety among
hospitalized children
is common
15
Research questions
 Components of a Problem Statement #1
 Identification of the problem (What is wrong with the current
situation?)
 Background (What is the nature or context of the problem?)
 Scope (How big is the problem, and how many people are
affected?)
 Consequences (What are the consequences of not fixing the
problem?)
 Knowledge gaps (What information about the problem is
lacking?)
 Proposed solution (How will the study contribute to the
problem’s solution?)
Components of a Problem Statement #2
Components of a Problem Statement #3
Statement of Purpose: Quantitative
Studies

Identifies key study variables

Identifies possible relationships among variables
Indicates the population of interest
Suggests, through use of verbs, the nature of the
inquiry (e.g., to test . . ., to compare . . ., to
evaluate . . .)
Statement of Purpose: Qualitative Studies

Identifies the central phenomenon

Suggests the research tradition (e.g., grounded
theory, ethnography)
Indicates the group, community, or setting of
interest
Suggests, through use of verbs, the nature of the
inquiry (e.g., to describe . . ., to discover . . ., to
explore . . .)
21

Statement of Purpose
 The researcher’s summary of the overall research goal
 Usually expressed in form of study aim and/or objectives
 In quantitative study, a statement of purpose identifies:
 Key variables and their possible relationships
 Population of interest
 E.g. The purpose of this study is to evaluate the effectiveness of play
therapy in reducing anxiety among hospitalized children (a quantitative
experimental study)
 In qualitative study, a statement of purpose indicates:
 Nature of the inquiry
 Key concept or phenomenon
 Context under study (i.e. group, community or setting)
 E.g. The purpose of this study is to explore how frontline nurses perceive
their work environment in local public hospitals (a qualitative exploratory
study)
 Communicates more than just the nature of the problem
 But provides suggestions on how the research problem can be solved
22

Statement of Purpose: An example (1)

Aim Objective(s)
General in nature More specific in nature
An example An example
This study aims to assess The objectives include:
the stress level among 1. To assess the stress level among
nursing students in Hong male nursing students in Hong
Kong. Kong.
2. To assess the stress level among
female nursing students in Hong
Kong.
3. To compare the difference in stress
level between male and female
nursing students in Hong Kong.
23

Statement of Purpose: An example (2)

Aim Objective(s)
Presents the ultimate goal only / Present in a stepwise manner regarding
in a more precise way how to achieve the ultimate goal (i.e.
study aim)
An example An example
This study aims to examine the The objectives include:
relationship between stress and 1. To assess the stress level among
job satisfaction among nurses nurses working in Hong Kong public
working in Hong Kong public hospitals.
hospitals. 2. To assess the job satisfaction level
among nurses working in Hong
OR Kong public hospitals.
3. To examine the relationship
This study aims to assess stress between stress and job satisfaction
and job satisfaction levels, and among nurses working in Hong
their interrelationships among Kong public hospitals.
nurses working in Hong Kong
public hospitals.
24

Action verb for purpose, aim and objective

Action verbs Examples
The aim of this study is to assess the stress level among nurses
assess/profile /
working in ICU.
determine (quantitative survey study)

The aim of this study is to compare the stress level between

compare general and psychiatric nursing students in Hong Kong.
(quantitative comparative study)

This study aims to examine the relationship between sleep quality

examine/investigate and academic performance among nursing students.
(quantitative correlational study)

This study aims to evaluate the effectiveness of patient education

test/evaluate in reducing post-operative complications. (quantitative
experimental study)

explore/discover/ This study aims to explore the experiences of clinical learning

understand/describe/ among nursing students in their first practicum.
delineate/explicate (qualitative study)
Testing #2
Question #2

The statement of purpose for a qualitative study

would include:
a. Identification of the key study variables
b. Suggestions for the research tradition
c. Indication of the population of interest
d. Identification of the relationship among variables
Research Questions #1

Are sometimes direct rewordings of statements of

purpose, worded as questions
Are sometimes used to clarify or lend specificity to
the purpose statement
In quantitative studies, typically pose queries about
the relationships among variables
Research Questions #1

 Clear and focused

 Not too broad and not too
narrow
 Not too easy to answer
 Not too difficult to answer
 Researchable
29

The process of formulating

research questions
Research Questions #1
31
Steps

Identify a research
problem and continue
brainstorming

Review related
literature Formulation of a research
Undertake clinical
question from a research
fieldwork problem: A process
Define the framework
and develop
conceptual definitions

Formulate a research
question
32
Steps Example
Anxiety among hospitalized children is common.
Identify a research
problem and continue Little is known about how hospitalized children’s
anxiety level varies with respect to the presence
brainstorming
of their parents during hospitalization.
Findings from previous literature suggests that
Review related hospitalization can induce anxiety among
children, yet little evidence is available
literature concerning how to reduce anxiety among
hospitalized children.
Undertake clinical
To review the current practice in clinical settings.
fieldwork
Whether there is any theory explaining the
Define the framework relationship between parents’ presence and the
and develop anxiety level among children?
conceptual definitions Define concepts such as anxiety, parents’
presence and hospitalization
Formulate a research Is parents’ presence important / effective in
question reducing anxiety of the hospitalized children?
Research Questions #2

In qualitative studies, research questions often

pose queries linked to the research tradition:
o Grounded theory: process questions
o Phenomenology: meaning questions
o Ethnography: cultural description questions
34

Research Questions #3
 A specific question that researchers need to answer in order to
address a research problem. Examples:
1. What is the anxiety level among hospitalized children?
2. Why do hospitalized children experience anxiety?
3. Do hospitalized children who are accompanied by parents
report lower anxiety levels than those hospitalized
children who are not accompanied by parents?
4. Is parents’ presence important / effective in reducing the
anxiety level among hospitalized children?
 Defining research question is important because it informs the
direction of all subsequent planning and analysis
Types of Research Question
 Clinical research questions can often be narrowed down into 6
broad categories: treatment/therapy, prevention, diagnosis,
prognosis, aetiology and meaning.
 Knowing what type of question, you are asking is important as
it will help you decided what type of research you need to look
for.
Types of Research Question
37

Types of Research Question

Research interests / Examples of research questions
paradigms
For quantitative research
Treatment / intervention What is the effect of drug X (IV) on depressive symptoms
(DV)?
Prognosis Does diabetic condition (IV) increase the risk of
developing leg or foot ulcer (DV)?
Etiology/harm Does smoking (IV) cause or increase the risk of
developing lung cancer (DV)?
Descriptive information What is the prevalence of smoking among young female
adults in Hong Kong?

For qualitative research

Phenomenology What is the lived experience of working in an AED in Hong
Kong’s public hospitals?
Grounded theory What are the social processes involved in developing a
positive practice environment in hospitals?
PICO/PICo Research Question Framework

Is a way to organise a well constructed and

answerable research question.

 PICO (quantitative) • PICo (qualitative)

 P = Population/Problem  P = Population/Problem
 I = Interest (phenomenon
 I = Intervention
of interest )
 C = Comparison  Co = Context
 O = Outcome
 PICO (Quantitative)

P = What are the characteristics of the population/problem?

I = What is the main intervention am I considering?
C = What is the main alternative to compare to the
intervention?

O = What do I want to achieve, improve, affect, measure? -

what is the outcome?
PICO and Research Question
(Quantitative)

• Example
 In patients with stable chronic obstructive pulmonary
disease, is group self-management education more
effective than individual self-management education in
reducing hospital readmission and improving quality
of life?
PICO and Research Question
(Quantitative)

In patients with stable chronic obstructive pulmonary

disease, is group self-management education more
effective than individual self-management education in
reducing hospital readmission and improving quality of
life?

P = Patients with stable COPD

I = Group self-management education
C = Individual self-management education
O = Hospital readmission & quality of life
PICo (Qualitative)

 P = What are the characteristics of the population?

 I = What is the phenomenon of interest that relates to a
defined experience or process?
 Co = What is the context or setting and its distinct
characteristics?
PICo and Research Question
(Qualitative)

What are trans peoples’ psychosocial

experiences living with HIV in the Australian
healthcare system?
PICo and Research Question
(Qualitative)

What are trans peoples’ psychosocial

experiences living with HIV in the Australian
healthcare system?

 P = Trans people living with HIV

 I = Psychosocial experiences
 Co = The Australian healthcare system
FINER criteria for a good research
question
 Research Research Statements
problems question of purpose
A specific question that
A description of the study the researcher needs to
The researcher’s summary
Definition issue (e.g. a dilemma/query) answer in order to
of the overall research goal.
that needs investigation. address a research
problem.
Quantitative research
Identify the key variables
and their possible
interrelationships, and
Identify the nature of the specify the population of
Guide the study
Purpose problem, its context and
direction.
interest.
significance. Qualitative research
Indicates the nature of
inquiry, key concept /
phenomenon, and the
context under study.
Anxiety is common among The purpose of this study
hospitalized children and can is to assess the anxiety
influence their process of What is the anxiety
Example level of the hospitalized
recovery… There is limited level of the hospitalized children in Hong Kong.
(Study 1) evidence concerning the children in Hong Kong?
anxiety level of hospitalized (Identifies the variable and
children in Hong Kong. population of interest)
47
Research Research Statement of
problems question purpose
The purpose of this study
What are the social
Little is known about the is to explore / uncover the
processes involved in
Example social processes involved in social processes involved
developing anxiety
(Study 2) developing anxiety among the in developing anxiety
among the
hospitalized children. among the hospitalized
hospitalized children?
children.
The purpose of this study
Is there a difference
Little is known about the is to compare the
in anxiety level
difference in anxiety level difference in anxiety level
between hospitalized
Example between two groups of between hospitalized
children who are and
(Study 3) hospitalized children who are children who are and are
are not accompanied
and are not accompanied by not accompanied by
by parents during
parents during hospitalization. parents during
hospitalization?
hospitalization.

The purpose of this study

There is limited evidence Is parents’ presence is to evaluate the
concerning the importance / important / effective importance /
Example
effect of parents’ presence in in reducing the effectiveness of parents’
(Study 4) reducing the anxiety level of anxiety level of the presence in reducing the
the hospitalized children. hospitalized children? anxiety level of the
hospitalized children.
Research Hypotheses #1

States an expectation, a predicted answer to the

research question
Should almost always involve two or more variables
Suggests the predicted relationship between the
independent variable and the dependent variable
Research Hypotheses #2

The hypothetical statement Testability

 A statement indicating the  There is a prediction
predicted relationship about the anticipated
between two or more outcome.
variables.
 The variables are
observable or measurable.
 The hypothesis should
not be written using
value-laden terms which
are not scientifically
testable, e.g. should,
ought to, better than, and
bad for. 49
Research Hypotheses #2

A hypothesis:
o Must contain terms that indicate a relationship
(e.g., more than, different from, associated
with)
o Is articulated almost exclusively in quantitative
(not qualitative) studies
o Is tested through statistical procedures
51

Research Hypotheses #2

A translation of the research question into a prediction of

expected outcome

o Research question: Is parents’ presence important /

effective in reducing the anxiety level among
hospitalized children?
o Hypothesis: Hospitalized children who are
accompanied by parents experience lower anxiety
levels than those who are not accompanied by
parents.
52

Research Hypotheses #2
 A testable hypothesis states the expected relationship between the
variables within a population
 Experimental/comparative /correlational research usually requires
hypothesis setting
 Some descriptive studies may not require hypothesis setting, but
require formulation of research question(s):
o Research question: What is the anxiety level among hospitalized
children?
 Qualitative studies do not have hypothesis, but assumptions
 Through formulating hypothesis, researchers are encouraged to think
logically, exercise critical judgment, and analyze previous research
findings to explore alternative explanations for the findings
 Remarks: Hypotheses are developed based on justifiable rationales
Testing #3
Question #3

Tell whether the following statement is True or False.

A hypothesis most commonly involves one variable.
a. True
b. False
Directional Versus Nondirectional
Hypotheses

Directional hypothesis
o Specifies the expected direction of the
relationship between variables
Nondirectional hypothesis
o Predicts the existence of a relationship, not its
direction
 Directional Versus Nondirectional
Hypotheses
Directional hypothesis
A research hypothesis that specifies not only the existence
but the expected direction of the relationship between
variables
It contains predictive term: e.g. “more than”, “reduces”,
“increases” and “positive correlation”
It is developed from theory or previous studies
The researcher predicts that change will occur in a particular
way
An example: Hospitalized children who are accompanied by
parents report a lower anxiety level than those who are not 56
accompanied by parents
 Directional Versus Nondirectional
Hypotheses
Non-directional hypothesis
A research hypothesis that only predicts the presence of a
relationship between variables but does not indicate the expected
form of the relationship
It uses vague term: e.g. “influence”, “affect” and “alter”
It is developed when there is no sound theoretical understandings
and related research evidence, or when the findings of previous
studies are contradictory
The researcher predicts that change will occur, without saying
how it will occur
An example: Anxiety level differs between two groups of
hospitalized children, with and without parents accompanying57
them during hospitalization
What type of hypothesis does it refer to?
Directional Non-directional
hypothesis hypothesis
1. The higher the salary, the lower the staff
turnover rate.

2. Stress affects children’s academic

performance.
3. There is a relationship between calcium
intake and the chance of having
osteoporosis.
4. Implementation of primary nursing alters
the number of patient complaints.
5. Patients who have received telephone
follow-up report better health outcomes
than those who have not.
58
6. Honey dressing increases the healing
rate of ulcers.
Research Versus Null Hypotheses

Research hypothesis
o States the actual prediction of a relationship

Null hypothesis
o Expresses the absence of a relationship (used
only in statistical testing)
Hypotheses and Proof

Hypotheses are never proved or disproved.

o Statistical hypothesis testing cannot provide
absolute proof—only probabilistic information
to support an inference that a hypothesis is
probably correct (or not).
Hypotheses are supported, or rejected, by the
study data.
Research hypothesis and null hypothesis
Research hypothesis / alternative hypothesis (H1)
A research hypothesis indicates that there is a relationship,
association or difference between variables
All the directional and non-directional hypotheses are research
hypotheses. They indicate researchers’ expected relationship(s)
between variables
Example 1: Hospitalized children who are accompanied by
parents experience lower anxiety level than those who are not
accompanied by parents
Example 2: Massage is effective in reducing low back pain
If H1 is supported, the proposition / theory is supported
(hypotheses are sometimes generated from a theory) 61
Research hypothesis and null hypothesis
Null hypothesis (H0)
 A null hypothesis indicates that there is no relationship, association or difference between
the variables
 It adds support to an argument, acknowledging that the results would not be as expected,
or the results have been influenced by factors which the researcher has not taken into
account
 Example 1: Hospitalized children who are accompanied by parents reported similar
anxiety levels when compared to those who are not accompanied by parents
 Example 2: Massage is not effective in reducing low back pain
 When there is statistical support for the H1  H0 is rejected  H1 is accepted
 When there is not enough statistical strength to support H1  H0 cannot be rejected  H1
is rejected
 Implications: H1 may be incorrect or other factors may have influenced the study
findings so that the expected relationship cannot be detected 62

 Null hypothesis cannot be accepted

What type of hypothesis is it?

Research hypothesis Null

Directional Non-directional hypothesis

1. There is no relationship
between the duration of cigarette
smoking and the chance of
getting lung cancer.
2. Patients who receive music
therapy experience a lower level
of pain than patients who do not
receive music therapy.

3. Students’ study methods can

affect their examination results.

4. Drug X cannot reduce the

depressive symptoms. 63
 Hypothesis Revised hypothesis
1. Smoking damages body resistance.

2. Smoking is bad.

3. Smoking badly influences health.

4. Small-group counseling is better than

individual counseling in influencing smoking
behaviors among adolescents.

64
 Hypothesis Revised hypothesis
1. Smoking damages body resistance. Smoking reduces body
(The relationship is not verifiable) resistance.
2. Smoking is bad. Smoking decreases life
(The anticipated outcome is not well-defined) expectancy.
Smoking reduces cardiac
3. Smoking badly influences health.
function.
(The outcome variable should be specifically
Smoking increases blood
defined so that it can be measured)
pressure.
4. Small-group counseling is better than Small-group counseling is
individual counseling in influencing smoking more effective than individual
behaviors among adolescents. counseling in influencing
(“Better than” is a value-laden term that is smoking behaviors among
not objective and scientifically testable) adolescents.
65
Hypothesis testing
 Hypotheses are either accepted or rejected, based on the
analysis of the study findings through statistical test
 Hypothesis testing is a deductive process
 If a research hypothesis is rejected, it does not mean that
the study has no value. The findings can still provide
implications for further research.

66
Critical Appraisal of Problems, Questions,
and Hypotheses

Evaluate whether researchers have adequately

communicated their research problem.
Consider whether the problem has significance for
nursing and evidence-based practice.
Determine whether the research problem is
compatible with the chosen research paradigm and
its associated methods.
Evaluate whether the statement of purpose or
research questions lend themselves to research
inquiry.
Critiquing Research Problems, Questions,
and Hypotheses
Research hypothesis under qualitative
research
 References
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Learning.
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NY, USA: Springer International Publishing.
 Portney, L. G. (2020). Foundations of clinical research: applications to evidence-based practice, 4e.
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 LoBiondo-Wood, G., & Haber, J. (2009). Nursing research: Methods, critical appraisal, and
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 Boswell, C., & Cannon, S. (2022). Introduction to nursing research: Incorporating evidence-based
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