CHAPTER-2

PERSONALITY

(Definition, theories of personality-type theories, psychoanalytical theory-

Freud’s structure of personality, psychosexual stages of development, post
Freudians (in brief)); humanistic Rogers and Maslow; traits- allport, cattell;
social/behavioural learning- bandura and rotter.)

Definition:

According to Allport, personality is a dynamic organization within the individuals of those

psycho-physical system systems that determine his/her unique adjustment to his/her
environment.

According to Eysenk, personality is the more or less stable and enduring organization of a
person’s character, temperament, intellect and physique which determines his unique
adjustment to the environment.

According to cattell, personality is that which permits a prediction of what a person will do in
a given situation.

TYPE THEORIES

Somatotypes- William Sheldon,1940’s

William Sheldon classified personality

according to the body type. He called
this a person’s somatotype.

Sheldon identified three main

somatotypes:

Sheldon’s somatotype Character shape

Endomorph Relaxed, sociable, tolerant, Plump, buxom, developed
(viscerotonic) comfort loving, peaceful visceral structure
Mesomrph Active, assertive, vigorous, muscular
(somatotonic) combative
Ectomorph Quiet,fragile,restrained, non Lean, delicate, poor muscles
(cerebrotonic) assertive, sensitive

To further categorize a person’s somatotype an individual is given a rating from 1 to 7 on

each of the three body types. 1=very low, 7= very high,

For example,

1
A stereotypical basketball player 1-1-7 (ectomorph)

Mohammed ali 1 – 7-1 (mesomorph)

A pear shaped person 7-1-1 (endomorph)

More typically, however, the person in the street could be something like:

A slight lanky person 5-2-3 (a bit ectomorphic); a person of average height who is moderately
muscular 4-5-3 ( abitmesomorphic); a person who is slightly heavy set 3-3-5 ( abit
endomorphic). Sheldon measured the proportions of hundreds of juvenile delinquent boys and
concluded that they were generally mesomorphs. Body types have been criticized for very
weak empirical methodology and are not generally used in psychology. The use of
somatotyping (using different taxonomies) is used more often in alternative therapies and
eastern psychology and spirituality.

Ernest Kretschmer’s Classification:

German psychologist Kretschmer has attempted to correlate physique and character. From his
studies on mental patients, he found that certain body types are associated with particular types
of mental disorders. He has classified personalities into four types:

a. Pyknic type:
These are people who are short and having round body. They will have personality traits of
extraverts. These people are more prone to suffer from a mental disorder called Manic
Depressive Psychosis (MDP).

b. Asthenic type:
These people will have a slender or slim body. They will have the personality traits of
introverts. These people are more prone to suffer from a serious mental disorder called
Schizophrenia.

c. Athletic type:
These people will have strong body. They are more energetic and aggressive. They will be
strong enough, determined, adventurous and balanced. They are comparable with ambiverts.
They are more prone to suffer from MDP.

d. Dysplastic type:
These people will have unproportionate body and do not belong to any of the three types
mentioned above. This disproportion is due to hormonal imbalance. Their behaviour and
personality are also imbalanced.

2
 Hippocrates theory of personality

Hippocrates suggests that there are four fundamental personality types, sanguine(pleasure,
seeking and sociable), choleric(ambitious and leaderlike), melancholic,(analytical and literal),
and phlegmatic(relaxed and thoughtful). Weallhave qualities from alltemperaments. Different
qualities are developed throughvarious stages of life

Sanguine

They tend to enjoy social gatherings, making new friends and tend to be boisterous. Theyare
usually quite creative and often daydream and some alone time is crucial for those of this
temperament. Sanguine can also mean sensitive, compassionate and romantic. Sanguine
personalities generally struggle with following tasks all the way through, are chronically late,
and tend to be forgetful and sometimes a little sarcastic. Often, when they pursue a new hobby,
they lose interest as soon as it ceases to be engaging or fun. They are very much people persons.
They are talkative and not shy. Sanguine generally have an almost shameless nature, certain
that what they are doing is right. They have no lack ofconfidence.Phlegmatic The phlegmatic
temperament is fundamentally relaxed and quiet, ranging from warmly attentive to lazily
sluggish.

Phlegmatic
The phlegmatic temperament is fundamentally relaxed and quiet, ranging from warmly
attentive to lazily sluggish. Phlegmatic tend to be content with themselves and are kind. They
are accepting and affectionate. They may be receptive and shy and often prefer stability to
uncertainty and change. They are consistent, relaxed, calm, rational, curious, and observant,
qualities that make them good administrators. They can be lazy because they are neither driven
nor worrying, and can also be passive
aggressive.

Choleric

3
They have a lot of aggression, energy and or passion, and try to instil it in others. They can
dominate people of other temperaments, especially phlegmatic types. Many great charismatic
military and political figures were choleric. They like to be in charge of everything. However,
choleric also tend to be either highly disorganized or highly organized. They do not havein--
between setups, only one extreme to another. Some people find them bossy and demanding.
As well as being leader--like and assertive, choleric also fall into deep and sudden depression.
Essentially, they are very much prone to moodswings.

Melancholic
Melancholic people often were perceived as very (or overly) pondering and considerate, getting
rather worried when they could not be on time for events. Melancholic’s can be highly creative
in activities such as poetry and art --and can become preoccupied with the tragedy and cruelty
in the world. Often they are perfectionists. They are self-reliant and independent; one negative
part of being a melancholic is that they can get so involved in what they are doing they forget
to think of others.

FRIEDMAN THEORY OF PERSONALITY

Type A personality behaviour was first described as a potential risk factor for heart disease in
the 1950s by cardiologistsMeyer Friedman and Ray Rosenman. They discovered that their
patients were wearing out the arms and upholstery on the chairs in the waiting room.[3] After
an eight-and-a-half-year-long study of healthy men between the ages of 35 and 59, Friedman
and Rosenman estimated that Type A behaviour doubles the risk of coronary heart disease in
otherwise healthy individuals.[4] The individuals enrolled in this study were followed well
beyond the original time frame of the study. Participants were asked to fill out a questionnaire,
that asked questions like "Do you feel guilty if you use spare time to relax?" and "Do you
generally move, walk, and eat rapidly?"[5] Subsequent analysis indicated that although Type A
personality is associated with the incidence of coronary heart disease; it does not seem to be a
risk factor for mortality.[6]

The types

Type A

The hypothesis describes Type A individuals as outgoing, ambitious, rigidly organized, highly
status-conscious, sensitive, impatient, anxious, proactive, and concerned with time
management. People with Type A personalities are often high-achieving "workaholics". They
push themselves with deadlines, and hate both delays and ambivalence.[7] People with Type A
personalities experience more job-related stress and less job satisfaction.[8]

In his 1996 book dealing with extreme Type A behaviour, Type A Behaviour: Its Diagnosis
and Treatment, Friedman suggests that dangerous Type A behaviour is expressed through three
major symptoms: (1) free-floating hostility, which can be triggered by even minor incidents;
(2) time urgency and impatience, which causes irritation and exasperation usually described as
being "short-fused"; and (3) a competitivedrive, which causes stress and an achievement-driven
mentality. The first of these symptoms is believed to be covert and therefore less observable,
while the other two are more overt.[9]

4
Type A people were said to be hasty, impatient, impulsive, hyper alert, potentially hostile, and
angry.[10] Research has also shown that Type A personalities deal with reality and have certain
defenses when it comes to dealing with problems.[11]

There are two main methods to assessing Type A behaviour. The first being the SI and the
second being the Jenkins Activity Survey (JAS)[12] The SI assessment involves an interviewer
measuring a persons emotional, nonverbal and verbal responses (your expressive style). The
JAS involves a self questionnaire with three main categories: Speed and Impatience, Job
Involvement, and Hard-Driving Competitiveness.[13]

Type B

The hypothesis describes Type B individuals as a contrast to those of Type A. Type B

personality, by definition, are noted to live at lower stress levels. They typically work steadily,
and may enjoy achievement, although they have a greater tendency to disregard physical or
mental stress when they do not achieve. When faced with competition, they may focus less on
winning or losing than their Type A counterparts, and more on enjoying the game regardless
of winning or losing. Unlike the Type A personalities rhythm of multi-tasked careers, Type B
individuals are sometimes attracted to careers of creativity: writer, counselor, therapist, actor
or actress. However, network and computer systems managers, professors, and judges are more
likely to be Type B individuals as well. Their personal character may enjoy exploring ideas
and concepts.

Type B personality types are more tolerant than individuals in the Type A category.[5]

Interactions between Type A & B

Type A individuals' proclivity for competition and aggression is illustrated in their interactions
with other Type As and with Type Bs. When playing a modified Prisoner's Dilemma game,
Type A individuals elicited more competitiveness and angry feelings from both Type A and
Type B opponents than did the Type B individuals. Type A individuals punished their Type A
counterparts more than their Type B counterparts, and more than Type Bs punished other Type
Bs. Rivalry between Type A individuals was shown by more aggressive behavior in their
interactions, including initial antisocial responses, refusal to cooperate, verbal threats, and
behavioral challenges.[14]

Criticism

Limitations of the original study comprise the inclusion of only middle-aged men and the lack
of information regarding the diets of those subjects. While the latter could serve as a
confounding variable, the former calls into question whether the findings can be generalized to
the remaining male population or to the female population as a whole.

Friedman et al. (1986)[15] conducted a randomized controlled trial on 862 male and female post
myocardial infarction patients, ruling out (by probabilistic equivalence) diet and other
confounds. Subjects in the control group received group cardiac counselling, and subjects in
the treatment group received cardiac counselling plus Type A counselling. The recurrence rate
was 28% in the control group and 13% in the treatment group, a strong and statistically
significant finding.

5
 CAHARAK SAMHITA OF AYURVEDA THEORY OF PERSONALITY

PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY OF PERSONALITY

Psychoanalytical Theory:
This theory was developed by famous psychologist Sigmund Freud. This theory has three
major parts: (a) The personality structure which includes Id, Ego and Super ego (b) Topography
of mind and (c) Psychosocial stages of development,

a. Personality structure:
Freud constructed a model of personality with three interlocking parts: the Id, the Ego and the
Super ego.

The Id:
This is the most
primitive part,
develops with the
birth of the child.
It can be thought
of as a sort of
store house of
biologically
based urges: the
urge to eat, drink,
eliminate and
especially, to be
sexually
stimulated.

The sexual energy underlies these urges is called the libido. According to Freud the Id operates
on a ‘pleasure principle’. That is-left to itself, the id would satisfy its fundamental urges

6
immediately and reflexively as they arose without regard to rules, the realities of life or morals
of any kind.

The Ego:
This part usually develops from the school year of life of the child—as a result of social
contacts. The ego consists of elaborate ways of behaving and thinking which constitute the
executive function of the person.

The ego delays motives of Id and channels behaviour into more socially acceptable outlets. It
keeps a person working for a living, getting along with people and generally adjusting to the
realities of life. Freud characterised the ego as working in the service on the ‘reality principle’.

That is, the ego tries to satisfy the id’s urge for pleasure, but only in realistic ways. The ongoing
tension between insistent urges of the id and the constraints of reality helps the ego develop
certain skills to safeguard the self-image. These skills are called ego defence mechanisms

The Super ego:

This part of personality corresponds closely to what we commonly call the conscience. It
consists mainly of prohibitions learned from parents and other authorities. The super ego may
condemn as ‘wrong’ certain things which the ego would otherwise do to satisfy the id.

However, super ego is guided by ‘ego ideal’- a set of values and moral ideals that are pursued
because they are perceived to be worthy. In other words the super ego operates on the ‘moral
principal’.

Freud believed that because of the diverse nature of these three parts, there will be constant
conflicts between one another, which leads to three types of anxiety, viz.

(1) Reality anxiety-arising when the individual is confronted by dangers or threats in the
external world.

(2) Neurotic anxiety-arising when the individual’s Id impulses threaten to break through his
ego controls and result in behaviour that will lead to his punishment and

(3) Moral anxiety- arising when the individual does something or even contemplates doing
something in conflict with his super ego or moral values and arouses guilt feelings.

b. Topography:
It is understood that there will be constant conflicts going
on between id, ego and super ego. These conflicts may occur
in the conscious, subconscious and unconscious levels of
human psyche. Freud refers to the unconscious, the
subconscious and the conscious as the ‘topographical’
aspects of the self, also called as the level of consciousness.
The functioning of these levels is as follows:

The conscious:

7
According to Freud the conscious part of mind is that part which is ready to receive the stimuli
from the external world. It helps to perform the functions like eating, drinking, reading, writing,
talking, thinking and such other activities and also helps us to behave in an appropriate way.

It will be functioning only when the individual is in a wake up state. At the conscious level we
will be aware of certain things around us and of certain thoughts.

The preconscious:
This is also known as subconscious. At this level are memories or thoughts that are easily
available with a moment’s reflection. For example, what we had for breakfast or what class
was held today morning.

Preconscious will be functioning between conscious and unconscious parts. In character it

resembles conscious to greater extent and will have better adjustment with it. Its contents can
be recalled easily. It prevents the suppressed thoughts and other prohibited motives in the
unconscious from entering the conscious part. Hence, it is also called as ‘Censor’.

The unconscious:
This part of mind contains memories, thoughts and motives which we cannot easily call up. It
is the largest and also the powerful part of mind. It contains the natural instincts, thoughts
inappropriate desires, irrational motives and painful experiences. All the experiences
suppressed by conscious part will remain here. These forces will be trying to come to conscious
part for satisfaction. But their entry is prevented by preconscious.

Hence, they try to come out when preconscious part is at rest. They appear in the form of
dreams, or in the form of slip of tongue, slip of pen, automatic writing, amnesia, etc.

Freud has developed certain techniques such as free association, dream analysis, analysis of
transference, analysis of resistance, hypnosis and such other techniques in order to bring out
the contents of unconscious which cause mental illness.

Freud has compared these three levels to an ‘Ice berg’ in water. The conscious part will be like
tip of ice berg which is above the surface level. Although that is the part we can see, it is only
a small part.

The subconscious part, as a thin layer is separating the conscious and unconscious. The major
part of the mind that is unconscious will be like a submerged big part of ice berg. The Figure
5.1 shows the topography of mind.

8
 PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT

According to Freud, there is an innate sequence of stages through which all human beings
pass. At each stage pleasure is focused on a different regions of the body.

Oral stage: The stage of psycho sexual development during which pleasure is centered in the
region of mouth.

Anal stage: The psycho sexual stage of development in which pleasure is focused primarily
in the anal zone.

Phallic stage: An early stage of psycho sexual development during which pleasure is
centered in the genital region. It is during this stage that the Oedipus Complex develops.

Oedipus Complex (The Father and the Daughter, Electra complex (the mother and the son):
In Freud’s theory a crisis of psycho sexual development in which children must give up the
sexual attraction to their opposite sex parents.

Latency stage: The psycho sexual stage of development that follows resolution of the
Oedipus Complex. During this stage sexual desires are relatively weak.

Genital stage: The final stage of psycho sexual development- one in which individual
acquires the adult capacity to combine lust with affection.

or

Psychosexual stages of development:

In his theory of child development, Freud described a succession of stages around body zones.
In his opinion, every child will have an innate tendency to seek pleasure especially through
physical stimulation and particularly through stimulation of parts of the body that are sensitive
to touch: the mouth, the anus and the genitals. Such a pleasure includes many psychological
issues also. Hence, these stages are called as psychosexual stages. These are:

i. Oral stage (birth to age one):

According to Freud’s theory, the infant obtains sensual pleasure first by sucking and later by
biting. A baby given too little or too much opportunity to suck, or made anxious about it may
acquire oral fixations, leading to abnormal behaviour like over talkativeness, dependency,
chain smoking, etc.

ii. Anal stage (age one to age three):

This is a period of toilet training by parents. The anus becomes highly sensitive area. The child
finds pleasure in holding on and letting go of faeces. Parents try to teach to avoid such
prohibited behaviour connected with excretion.

This leads to fixation causing abnormal characteristics during adulthood such as messiness and
disorders such as excessive compulsiveness, over conformity and exaggerated self-control.

9
iii. Phallic stage (age three to age five):
During this stage the child’s interest shifts toward genitals. The child enjoys stimulating the
genital organs. Freud believed that it is at this time the children develop sensual feelings toward
the parent of the opposite sex.

Boys develop ‘Oedipus complex’, i.e. develop affection towards mother and in turn develop
castration anxiety. On the other side, girls develop affection towards father which is called as
‘Electra complex’.

iv. Latency stage (age six through puberty):

During this period the child’s interest is shifted towards learning more about the world,
sexuality is largely repressed and the ego expands.

v. Genital stage (adolescence and beyond):

Mature heterosexual interests develop during this phase. The stage is set for responsible
enjoyment of adult sexuality. During this stage the sexual interests will lie outside the family
circle.

Erik Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Development

Erikson’s (1959) theory of psychosocial development has eight distinct stages, taking in five
stages up to the age of 18 years and three further stages beyond, well into adulthood.
Like Freud and many others, Erik Erikson maintained that personality develops in a
predetermined order, and builds upon each previous stage. This is called the epigenetic
principle.
During each stage, the person experiences a psychosocial crisis which could have a positive or
negative outcome for personality development. For Erikson (1963), these crises are of a
psychosocial nature because they involve psychological needs of the individual (i.e. psycho)
conflicting with the needs of society (i.e. social).
According to the theory, successful completion of each stage results in a healthy personality
and the acquisition of basic virtues. Basic virtues are characteristic strengths which the ego can
use to resolve subsequent crises.
Failure to successfully complete a stage can result in a reduced ability to complete further
stages and therefore a more unhealthy personality and sense of self. These stages, however,
can be resolved successfully at a later time.

10
Stage Psychosocial Crisis Basic Virtue Age

1. Trust vs. Mistrust Hope 0 - 1½

2. Autonomy vs. Shame Will 1½ - 3

3. Initiative vs. Guilt Purpose 3-5

4. Industry vs. Inferiority Competency 5 - 12

5. Identity vs. Role Confusion Fidelity 12 – 18

6. Intimacy vs. Isolation Love 18 – 40

7. Generativity vs. Stagnation Care 40 – 65

8. Ego Integrity vs. Despair Wisdom 65+

11
1. Trust vs. Mistrust
Is the world a safe place or is it full
of unpredictable events and
accidents waiting to happen?
Erikson's first psychosocial crisis
occurs during the first year or so of
life (like Freud's oral stage of
psychosexual development). The
crisis is one of trust vs. mistrust.
During this stage, the infant is
uncertain about the world in which
they live. To resolve these feelings
of uncertainty, the infant looks
towards their primary caregiver for
stability and consistency of care.
If the care the infant receives is
consistent, predictable and reliable, they will develop a sense of trust which will carry with
them to other relationships, and they will be able to feel secure even when threatened.

Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of hope. By developing a sense of trust, the infant
can have hope that as new crises arise, there is a real possibility that other people will be there
as a source of support. Failing to acquire the virtue of hope will lead to the development of
fear.
For example, if the care has been harsh or inconsistent, unpredictable and unreliable, then the
infant will develop a sense of mistrust and will not have confidence in the world around them
or in their abilities to influence events.
This infant will carry the basic sense of mistrust with them to other relationships. It may result
in anxiety, heightened insecurities, and an over feeling of mistrust in the world around them.
Consistent with Erikson's views on the importance of trust, research
by Bowlby and Ainsworth has outlined how the quality of the early experience
of attachment can affect relationships with others in later life.

2. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

Autonomy versus shame and doubt is the second stage of Erik Erikson's stages of psychosocial
development. This stage occurs between the ages of 18 months to approximately 3 years.
The child is developing physically and becoming more mobile, and discovering that he or she
has many skills and abilities, such as putting on clothes and shoes, playing with toys, etc. Such
skills illustrate the child's growing sense of independence and autonomy.
For example, during this stage children begin to assert their independence, by walking away
from their mother, picking which toy to play with, and making choices about what they like to
wear, to eat, etc.

12
 Erikson states it is critical that
parents allow their children to
explore the limits of their abilities
within an encouraging environment
which is tolerant of failure.
For example, rather than put on a
child's clothes a supportive parent
should have the patience to allow the
child to try until they succeed or ask
for assistance. So, the parents need
to encourage the child to become
more independent while at the same
time protecting the child so that
constant failure is avoided.
A delicate balance is required from
the parent. They must try not to do everything for the child, but if the child fails at a particular
task they must not criticize the child for failures and accidents (particularly when toilet
training). The aim has to be “self control without a loss of self-esteem” (Gross, 1992). Success
in this stage will lead to the virtue of will.
If children in this stage are encouraged and supported in their increased independence, they
become more confident and secure in their own ability to survive in the world.
If children are criticized, overly controlled, or not given the opportunity to assert themselves,
they begin to feel inadequate in their ability to survive, and may then become overly dependent
upon others, lack self-esteem, and feel a sense of shame or doubt in their abilities.

3. Initiative vs. Guilt

Initiative versus guilt is the third stage of Erik
Erikson's theory of psychosocial development.
During the initiative versus guilt stage, children
assert themselves more frequently.
These are particularly lively, rapid-developing
years in a child’s life. According to Bee (1992), it
is a “time of vigor of action and of behaviors that
the parents may see as aggressive."
During this period the primary feature involves the
child regularly interacting with other children at
school. Central to this stage is play, as it provides
children with the opportunity to explore their
interpersonal skills through initiating activities.
Children begin to plan activities, make up games, and initiate activities with others. If given
this opportunity, children develop a sense of initiative and feel secure in their ability to lead
others and make decisions.

Conversely, if this tendency is squelched, either through criticism or control, children develop
a sense of guilt. They may feel like a nuisance to others and will, therefore, remain followers,
lacking in self-initiative.

13
The child takes initiatives which the parents will often try to stop in order to protect the child.
The child will often overstep the mark in his forcefulness, and the danger is that the parents
will tend to punish the child and restrict his initiatives too much.
It is at this stage that the child will begin to ask many questions as his thirst for knowledge
grows. If the parents treat the child’s questions as trivial, a nuisance or embarrassing or other
aspects of their behavior as threatening then the child may have feelings of guilt for “being a
nuisance”.
Too much guilt can make the child slow to interact with others and may inhibit their creativity.
Some guilt is, of course, necessary; otherwise the child would not know how to exercise self-
control or have a conscience.
A healthy balance between initiative and guilt is important. Success in this stage will lead to
the virtue of purpose.

4. Industry vs. Inferiority

Erikson's fourth psychosocial crisis, involving industry vs. inferiority occurs during childhood
between the ages of five and twelve.
Children are at the stage where they will be learning to read and write, to do sums, to do things
on their own. Teachers begin to take an important role in the child’s life as they teach the child
specific skills.
It is at this stage that the child’s peer group will gain greater significance and will become a
major source of the child’s self-esteem. The child now feels the need to win approval by
demonstrating specific competencies that are valued by society and begin to develop a sense
of pride in their accomplishments.
If children are encouraged and reinforced for their initiative, they begin to feel industrious
(competent) and feel confident in their ability to achieve goals. If this initiative is not
encouraged, if it is restricted by parents or teacher, then the child begins to feel inferior,
doubting his own abilities and therefore may not reach his or her potential.
If the child cannot develop the specific skill they feel society is demanding (e.g., being athletic)
then they may develop a sense of inferiority.
Some failure may be necessary so that the child can develop some modesty. Again, a balance
between competence and modesty is necessary. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue
of competence.

5. Identity vs. Role Confusion

During adolescence, the transition from childhood to adulthood is most important. Children are
becoming more independent, and begin to look at the future in terms of career, relationships,
families, housing, etc. The individual wants to belong to a society and fit in.
The fifth stage is identity vs. role confusion, and it occurs during adolescence, from about 12-
18 years. During this stage, adolescents search for a sense of self and personal identity, through
an intense exploration of personal values, beliefs, and goals.
The adolescent mind is essentially a mind or moratorium, a psychosocial stage between
childhood and adulthood, and between the morality learned by the child, and the ethics to be
developed by the adult (Erikson, 1963, p. 245)

14
This is a major stage of development where the child has to learn the roles he will occupy as
an adult. It is during this stage that the adolescent will re-examine his identity and try to find
out exactly who he or she is. Erikson suggests that two identities are involved: the sexual and
the occupational.
According to Bee (1992), what should happen at the end
of this stage is “a reintegrated sense of self, of what one
wants to do or be, and of one’s appropriate sex role”.
During this stage the body image of the adolescent
changes.

Erikson claims that the adolescent may feel

uncomfortable about their body for a while until they can
adapt and “grow into” the changes. Success in this stage
will lead to the virtue of fidelity.
Fidelity involves being able to commit one's self to others
on the basis of accepting others, even when there may be ideological differences.
During this period, they explore possibilities and begin to form their own identity based upon
the outcome of their explorations. Failure to establish a sense of identity within society ("I
don’t know what I want to be when I grow up") can lead to role confusion. Role confusion
involves the individual not being sure about themselves or their place in society.
In response to role confusion or identity crisis, an adolescent may begin to experiment with
different lifestyles (e.g., work, education or political activities).
Also pressuring someone into an identity can result in rebellion in the form of establishing a
negative identity, and in addition to this feeling of unhappiness.

6. Intimacy vs. Isolation

Intimacy versus isolation is the sixth stage of Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial
development. This stage takes place during young adulthood between the ages of
approximately 18 to 40 yrs.
During this period, the major conflict centers on forming intimate, loving relationships with
other people.
During this period, we begin to share ourselves more intimately with others. We explore
relationships leading toward longer-term commitments with someone other than a family
member.
Successful completion of this stage can result in happy relationships and a sense of
commitment, safety, and care within a relationship.
Avoiding intimacy, fearing commitment and relationships can lead to isolation, loneliness, and
sometimes depression. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of love.

7. Generativity vs. Stagnation

Generativity versus stagnation is the seventh of eight stages of Erik Erikson's theory of
psychosocial development. This stage takes place during during middle adulthood (ages 40 to
65 yrs).

15
Generativity refers to "making your mark" on the world through creating or nurturing things
that will outlast an individual.
People experience a need to create or nurture things that will outlast them, often having mentees
or creating positive changes that will benefit other people.
We give back to society through raising our children, being productive at work, and becoming
involved in community activities and organizations. Through generativity we develop a sense
of being a part of the bigger picture.
Success leads to feelings of usefulness and accomplishment, while failure results in shallow
involvement in the world.
By failing to find a way to contribute, we become stagnant and feel unproductive. These
individuals may feel disconnected or uninvolved with their community and with society as a
whole. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of care.

8. Ego Integrity vs. Despair

Ego integrity versus despair is the eighth and final stage of Erik Erikson’s stage theory of
psychosocial development. This stage begins at approximately age 65 and ends at death.
As we grow older (65+ yrs) and become senior citizens, we tend to slow down our productivity
and explore life as a retired person.
It is during this time that we contemplate our accomplishments and can develop integrity if we
see ourselves as leading a successful life.
Erikson described ego integrity as “the acceptance of one’s one and only life cycle as something
that had to be” (1950, p. 268) and later as “a sense of coherence and wholeness” (1982, p. 65).
Erik Erikson believed if we see our lives as unproductive, feel guilt about our past, or feel that
we did not accomplish our life goals, we become dissatisfied with life and develop despair,
often leading to depression and hopelessness.
Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of wisdom. Wisdom enables a person to look back
on their life with a sense of closure and completeness, and also accept death without fear.
Wise people are not characterized by a continuous state of ego integrity, but they experience
both ego integrity and despair. Thus, late life is characterized by both integrity and despair as
alternating states that need to be balanced.

Critical Evaluation
By extending the notion of personality development across the lifespan, Erikson outlines a
more realistic perspective of personality development (McAdams, 2001).
Based on Erikson’s ideas, psychology has reconceptualized the way the later periods of life are
viewed. Middle and late adulthood are no longer viewed as irrelevant, because of Erikson, they
are now considered active and significant times of personal growth.
Erikson’s theory has good face validity. Many people find that they can relate to his theories
about various stages of the life cycle through their own experiences.
However, Erikson is rather vague about the causes of development. What kinds of experiences
must people have to successfully resolve various psychosocial conflicts and move from one
stage to another? The theory does not have a universal mechanism for crisis resolution.
Indeed, Erikson (1964) acknowledges his theory is more a descriptive overview of human
social and emotional development that does not adequately explain how or why this

16
development occurs. For example, Erikson does not explicitly explain how the outcome of one
psychosocial stage influences personality at a later stage.
However, Erikson stressed his work was a ‘tool to think with rather than a factual analysis.’ Its
purpose then is to provide a framework within which development can be considered rather
than testable theory.
One of the strengths of Erikson's theory is its ability to tie together important psychosocial
development across the entire lifespan.
Although support for Erikson's stages of personality development exists (McAdams,
1999), critics of his theory provide evidence suggesting a lack of discrete stages of personality
development (McCrae & Costa, 1997)

KAREN HORNEY CONCEPT OF PERSONALITY

Karen horney argued that penis envy was not a normal development in females but rather than
unusual and pathological occurrence. She also countered the some of her male patients envied
women their capacity for pregnancy, child birth, motherhood, breast development and suckling.

Tow major components of her person psychology were the notion of basic anxiety and basic
hostility.

Basic anxiety:
It is what arises in childhood when the child feels helpless in a threatening world. Children
learnt that they are relatively weak and powerless, dependent on their parents for safety and
satisfaction. Loving and reliable parents can create a feeling a security and erratic indifferent
or rejecting parents may sharpen the child’s sense of helplessness and vulnerability.

Basic hostility:
It is what usually accompanies basic anxiety and grows of resentment over the parental
behaviour that leads to anxiety in the first place. Because hostility cannot be expressed directly
to parents, it is typically repressed, which only increases the child’s anxiety. Children
dependent on their parents, anxious because their parents, hostile towards their parents , and
unable to express their true feeling directly depend on the three modes of social behaviour.

First mode: moving towards others, involves excessive compliance/passive.

Second mode: moving against others, involves pursuit of satisfaction through ascendance and
domination of others.

Third mode: moving away from others- is protection by withdrawal.

Horney believed that normal people use all three modes of social interaction at to makes but in
a relatively balanced and flexible manner, adjusting their approach to situational demands.
Neurotic people, she urged, allow one approach to dominate their social interactions and thus
rigidly gets them into trouble.

17
 Carl Rogers

Carl Rogers (1902-1987) was a humanistic psychologist who agreed with the main assumptions
of Abraham Maslow, but added that for a person to "grow", they need an environment that
provides them with genuineness (openness and self-disclosure), acceptance (being seen with
unconditional positive regard), and empathy (being listened to and understood).

Carl Rogers (1959) believed that humans have one basic motive, that is the tendency to self-
actualize - i.e., to fulfill one's potential and achieve the highest level of 'human-beingness' we
can. Like a flower that will grow to its full potential if the conditions are right, but which is
constrained by its environment, so people will flourish and reach their potential if their
environment is good enough.

The Fully Functioning Person

Rogers believed that every person could achieve their goal. This means that the person is in
touch with the here and now, his or her subjective experiences and feelings, continually
growing and changing.

In many ways, Rogers regarded the fully functioning person as an ideal and one that people do
not ultimately achieve. It is wrong to think of this as an end or completion of life’s journey;
rather it is a process of always becoming and changing.

Rogers identified five characteristics of the fully functioning person:

1. Open to experience: both positive and negative emotions accepted. Negative feelings are
not denied, but worked through (rather than resorting to ego defense mechanisms).

2. Existential living: in touch with different experiences as they occur in life, avoiding
prejudging and preconceptions. Being able to live and fully appreciate the present, not always
looking back to the past or forward to the future (i.e., living for the moment).

3. Trust feelings: feeling, instincts, and gut-reactions are paid attention to and trusted. People’s
own decisions are the right ones, and we should trust ourselves to make the right choices.

4. Creativity: creative thinking and risk-taking are features of a person’s life. A person does
not play safe all the time. This involves the ability to adjust and change and seek new
experiences.

5. Fulfilled life: a person is happy and satisfied with life, and always looking for new
challenges and experiences.

For Rogers, fully functioning people are well adjusted, well balanced and interesting to know.
Often such people are high achievers in society.

18
Critics claim that the fully functioning person is a product of Western culture. In other cultures,
such as Eastern cultures, the achievement of the group is valued more highly than the
achievement of any one person.

Or
One central assumption of Rogers theory was that human beings show many positive
characteristics and move, over the course of their lives, toward becoming fully functioning
person. What are such persons like? Rogers suggested that they are people who strive to
experience life to the fullest, who live in the here and now and who trust their own feeling.
They are sensitive to the needs and rights of others but they do not allow society's standards to
shape their feelings or actions to an excessive degree. Fully functioning people aren't saints.
They can and do act in ways they later regret but throughout life, their actions are dominated
by constructive impulses. They are in close touch with their own values and feelings and
experience life more deeply than most other persons. If all human beings possess the capacity
to become fully functioning person, why don't they all succeed? Why aren't we surrounded by
models of health and happy adjustments? The answer, Rogers contends, lies in the anxiety
generated when life experience are inconsistent with our ideas about ourselves. In short- When
a gap develops between our self-concept(our believes and knowledge about ourselves) and
reality or our perceptions of it. For ex. a young girl who is quite independent and self-reliant,
and who thinks of herself in this way. After her older sibling dies in an accident parents begun
to baby her and feels she must be sheltered from the outside world. This treatment is highly
inconsistent with her self-concept. As a result she experiences anxiety and adopts one or more
psychological defences to reduce it. The most common defence is distortion-changing our
perception of reality so that they are consistent with our self-concept. For ex. the girl may come
to believe that her parents aren't being overprotective, they are just showing normal concern
for her safety. Another defence process is denial; she may refuse admit to herself that as a result
of being baby she is indeed losing her independence. The larger such gaps, Rogers contends
the greater individual maladjustment-and personal unhappiness. Rogers suggested that
distortions in the self-concepts are common because most people grow up in an atmosphere of
conditional positive regard. That is they learn that such as their parents, will approve of them
only when they behave in certain ways and express certain feelings. As a result many people
are forced to deny the existence of various impulses and feelings and their self-concepts
become badly distorted. Rogers suggest that therapists can help to accomplish this goal by
placing individuals in an atmosphere of unconditional positive regard- a setting in which they
will be accepted by the therapists no matter what they say or do. Such conditions are provided
by client centered therapy.

The Theory of Self-Actualization by Abraham maslow

“Self-actualization” represents a concept derived from Humanisticpsychological theory and,

specifically, from the theory created by Abraham Maslow. Self-actualization, according to
Maslow, represents growth of an individual toward fulfilment of the highest needs; those for
meaning in life, in particular. Carl Rogers also created a theory implicating a “growth poteation
of fulfilment of “being values”, or the needs that are on the highest level of this hierarchyntial”
whose aim was to integrate congruently the “real self” and the “ideal self” thereby cultivating
the emergence of the “fully functioning person”. It was Maslow, however, who created a

19
psychological hierarchy of needs, the fulfilment of which theoretically leads to a culmin,
representing meaning.

Maslow’s hierarchy reflects a linear pattern of growth depicted in a direct pyramidal order of
ascension. Moreover, he states that self-actualizing individuals are able to resolve dichotomies
such as that reflected in the ultimate contrary of free-will and determinism. He also contends
that self-actualizers are highly creative, psychologically robust individuals. It is argued herein
that a dialectical transcendence of ascension toward self-actualization better describes this type
of self-actualization, and even the mentally ill, whose psychopathology correlates
with creativity, have the capacity to self-actualize.

TRAITS (ALLPORT)

Gordon Allport (1897–1967)Gordon Allport

was one of the first modern trait theorists.
Allport and Henry Odbert worked through two
of the most comprehensive dictionaries of the
English language available and extracted around
18,000 personality-describing words. From this
list they reduced the number of words to
approximately 4,500 personality-describing
adjectives which they considered to describe observable and relatively permanent personality
traits.

Allport organized these traits into a hierarchy of three levels:

• Cardinal traits dominate and shape an individual’s behavior, such as Ebenezer Scrooge’s
greed or Mother Theresa’s altruism. They stand at the top of the hierarchy and are
collectively known as the individual’s master control. They are considered to be an
individual’s ruling passions. Cardinal traits are powerful, but few people have
personalities dominated by a single trait. Instead, our personalities are typically
composed of multiple traits.
• Central traits come next in the hierarchy. These are general characteristics found in
varying degrees in every person (such as loyalty, kindness, agreeableness, friendliness,
sneakiness, wildness, or grouchiness). They are the basic building blocks that shape most
of our behavior.
• Secondary traits exist at the bottom of the hierarchy and are not quite as obvious or
consistent as central traits. They are plentiful but are only present under specific
circumstances; they include things like preferences and attitudes. These secondary traits
explain why a person may at times exhibit behaviors that seem incongruent with their
usual behaviors. For example, a friendly person gets angry when people try to tickle him;
another is not an anxious person but always feels nervous speaking publicly.

20
Summary:

Allport has identified three types of traits—cardinal, central and secondary. Cardinal traits are
primary and they cover all aspects of an individual’s behaviour and attributes.

Central traits represent few characteristics which can be used to describe a person such as
kindness, honesty, etc. Secondary traits appear in only a relatively small range of situations.
These are not strong enough like cardinal traits and hence they are not regarded as integral
parts of one’s personality.

CATELL – SOURCE TRAITS & SURFACE TRAITS

Surface Traits:

Surface traits are a concept developed by Raymond Cattell whose work concentrated on
personality traits. He theorized that there are 16 source traits that are the building blocks of
personality. All these traits form part of an individual's personality. When you put the source
traits together along with other variables in the environment they make up the surface traits,
which are the traits we see and think of as personality. Surface traits are considered one
construct of multiple traits that go together.

For example, being altruistic would be a surface trait while source traits that comprise this
would be being unselfishness, not greedy, sharing, and being thoughtful. A surface trait is
comprised of the source traits that can be observed in an individual and are easily observable
and common clusters of behavior. Cattell considered source traits to be more influential than
surface traits in studying personality.

SOURCE TRAITS:

A concept developed by Raymond Cattell, Source Traits are the building blocks or sources of
human personality. Cattell believed there are 16 of these source traits.

For example, a person may be reserved or outgoing, serious or happy-go-lucky, and

submissive or dominant. All these traits form part of an individual's personality. When you
put the source traits together, the make up the Surface Traits, which are the traits we see and
think of as personality.

THE FIVE FACTOR MODEL OF COSTA AND McCRAE

The basic dimensions of personality:

21
 There are five key or central dimensions of personality (eg;costa and McCrae, 1994;
Zuckerman,1994) these are sometimes labelled the big five, and they can be described as
follows:

1) Extra version: a dimension ranging from energetic, enthusiastic, sociable, and

talkative at one end to retiring , sober, resrved, silent, and cautious at the other.
2) Agreeableness: a dimensions ranging from good natured, cooperative, trusting and
helpful at one end to irritable , suspicious, and uncooperative at the other.
3) Conscientiousness: a dimension ranging from well – organised, careful self
discipline responsible and precise at one end to disorganised, impulsive careless and
undependable at the other.
4) Emotional stability: (sometimes labelled neuroticism): a dimension ranging from
poised, calm, composed and not hypochondriacal at one end to nervous, anxious,
high- strung hypochondiacal at the other.
5) Openness to experience: a dimension ranging from imaginative, witty, and having
broad interests at one end to down to earth, simple, and having narrow interest at the
other.

SOCIAL COGNITION AND SOCIAL LEARNING THEORIES OF BANDURA

AND ROTTER

(Identification and explanation of concepts in each theoretical framework)

Bandura's and Rotter's social-cognitive theories of personality emphasize cognitive processes,

such as thinking and judging.
LEARNING OBJECTIVE

• Discuss the major components of social-cognitive theories of personality

22
 KEY POINTS

• Social-cognitive theories of personality emphasize the role of cognitive processes, such as

thinking and judging, in the development of personality.
• Albert Bandura is a behavioral psychologist who came up with the concept of
reciprocal determinism, in which cognitive processes, behavior, and context all interact with
and influence each other.
• Rotter expanded upon on Bandura's ideas and developed the term locus of control to describe
our beliefs about the power we have over our lives.
• A person with an internal locus of control believes that their rewards in life are guided by
their own decisions and efforts. If they do not succeed, they believe it is due to their own
lack of effort.
• A person with an external locus of control believes that rewards or outcomes are determined
by luck, chance, or other people with more power than them. If they do not succeed, they
believe it is due to forces outside of their control.

TERMS

• locus of control
The extent to which individuals believe that they can control events that affect them; can be
either internal or external.
• self-efficacy
The term used to describe how one judges one's own competence to complete tasks and reach
goals.
• social learning theory
A theory that assumes people learn certain behaviors through observing and imitating the
behaviors of others, and then being rewarded or punished for behaving that way.
• learned helplessness
The condition of a human or animal that has learned to behave helplessly, failing to respond
even though there are opportunities for it to help itself by avoiding unpleasant circumstances
or by gaining positive rewards.

Social-cognitive theories of personality emphasize the role of cognitive processes, such as

thinking and judging, in the development of personality. Social cognition is basically social
thought, or how the mind processes social information; social-cognitive theory describes how
individuals think and react in social situations. How the mind works in a social setting is
extremely complicated—emotions, social desirability factors, and unconscious thoughts can
all interact and affect social cognition in many ways. Two major figures in social cognitive-
theory are behaviorist Albert Bandura and clinicalpsychologist Julian Rotter.

Albert Bandura (1925-present)

Albert Bandura is a behavioral psychologist credited with creating social learningtheory. He
agreed with B.F. Skinner's theory that personality develops through learning; however, he
disagreed with Skinner’s strict behaviorist approach to personality development. In contrast to
Skinner’s idea that the environment alone determines behavior, Bandura (1990) proposed the
23
concept of reciprocal determinism, in which cognitive processes, behavior, and context all
interact, each factor simultaneously influencing and being influenced by the others. Cognitive
processes refer to all characteristics previously learned, including beliefs, expectations, and
personality characteristics. Behavior refers to anything that we do that may be rewarded or
punished. Finally, the context in which the behavior occurs refers to the environment or
situation, which includes rewarding/punishing stimuli.

Reciprocal determinism

Bandura proposed the idea of reciprocal determinism, in which our behavior, cognitive
processes, and situational context all influence each other.

This theory was significant because it moved away from the idea that environment alone affects
an individual's behavior. Instead, Bandura hypothesized that the relationship between behavior
and environment was bi-directional, meaning that both factors can influence each other. In this
theory, humans are actively involved in molding the environment that influences their own
development and growth.

Julian Rotter (1916-present)

Julian Rotter is a clinical psychologist who was influenced by Bandura's social learning theory
after rejecting a strict behaviorist approach. Rotter expanded upon Bandura's ideas of reciprocal
determinism, and he developed the term locus of control to describe how individuals view their
relationship to the environment. Distinct from self-efficacy, which involves our belief in our
own abilities, locus of control refers to our beliefs about the power we have over our lives, and
is a cognitive factor that affects personality development. Locus of control can be classified
along a spectrum from internal to external; where an individual falls along the spectrum
determines the extent to which they believe they can affect the events around them.

24
Locus of control

Rotter's theory of locus of control places an individual on a spectrum between internal and
external.

Internal Locus of Control

A person with an internal locus of control believes that their rewards in life are guided by their
own decisions and efforts. If they do not succeed, they believe it is due to their own lack of
effort. An internal locus of control has been shown to develop along with self-regulatory
abilities. People with an internal locus of control tend to internalize both failures and successes.
Many factors have been associated with an internal locus of control. Males tend to be more
internal than females when it comes to personal successes—a factor likely due
to cultural norms that emphasize aggressive behavior in males and submissive behavior in
females. As societal structures change, this difference may become minimized. As people get
older, they tend to become more internal as well. This may be due to the fact that as children,
individuals do not have much control over their lives. Additionally, people higher up in
organizational structures tend to be more internal. Rotter theorized that this trait was most
closely associated with motivation to succeed.

External Locus of Control

A person with an external locus of control sees their life as being controlled by luck, chance,
or other people—especially others with more power than them. If they do not succeed, they
believe it is due to forces outside their control. People with an external locus of control tend to
externalize both successes and failures. Individuals who grow up in circumstances where they
do not see hard work pay off, as well as individuals who are socially disempowered (such as
people in a low socioeconomic bracket), may develop an external locus of control. An external
locus of control may relate to learned helplessness, a behavior in which an organism forced to

25
endure painful or unpleasant stimuli becomes unable or unwilling to avoid subsequent
encounters with those stimuli, even if they are able to escape.
Evidence has supported the theory that locus of control is learned and can be modified.
However, in a non-responsive environment, where an individual actually does not have much
control, an external locus of control is associated with a greater sense of satisfaction.
Examples of locus of control can be seen in students. A student with an internal locus of control
may receive a poor grade on an exam and conclude that they did not study enough. They realize
their efforts caused the grade and that they will have to try harder next time. A student with an
external locus of control who does poorly on an exam might conclude that the test was poorly
written and the teacher was incompetent, thereby blaming external factors out of their control.

Modern View of Personality:

In his social cognitive theory, Bandura places great emphasis on what he terms the self-system
– the cognitive process by which a person perceives, evaluates and regulates his or her own
behaviour so that it is appropriate in a given situation. Reflecting the emphasis on cognition in
modern psychology, Bandura calls attention about the consequences of their actions, anticipate
future events and establish goals and plans. They engage in self reinforcement, patting
themselves when they attain their goals.
Another important feature of Bandura’s theory is its emphasis on observational learning, a form
of learning in which individuals acquire both information and new forms of behaviour through
observing others.
Bandura’s theory that has received most attention recent research is his concept of self-
efficacy – an individual’s belief that he or she can perform some behaviour or task successfully.
Self-efficacy has been found to play a role in success on many tasks, (e.g. Maurer and Pierce
1998) in health. Generalized beliefs about their task related capabilities can be viewed as
important aspects of personality.

TAT or Thematic Appreciation Test:

The test consisting of perception of a certain picture in a Thematic manner (revealing

imaginative themes) is called TAT or Thematic Apperception Test. This test was developed by
Murray and Morgan.
Test material and administration: It consists of 30 pictures + blank card which portray human
beings in a variety of actual life situations. Ten of these cards are meant for males, 10 for
females and 10 for both. In this way, the maximum number of pictures used with any subject
is 20. The test is usually administered in two sessions, using 10 pictures in each session.
The pictures are presented one at a time. They are vague and indefinite. The subject is told
clearly that this is a test of creative imagination and that there is no right and wrong response.

26
He has to make up a story for each of the pictures presented to him, within not a fixed time
period. He has to take care of the following aspects while knitting the story:
1) What is going on in the picture?
2) What has led to this scene?
3) What would happen in such a situation?
4) What are the characters thinking and feeling?

In making up the stories, the subject unconsciously projects so many characteristics of his
personality. There is no time to think. Therefore, the stories express his own life – natural
desires, likes and dislikes, ambitions, emotions, sentiments, etc. Its special value resides in its
power of exploring the underlying hidden drives, complexes and conflicts of the personality.
An expert examiner can know much about the personality of his subject by carefully
interpreting the given responses.
Scoring and interpretation: Originally, Murray analysed the contents of the stories according
to need and presses/obstacle (the need of the hero and the environmental forces to which he is
exposed). Today, this way of interpretation is not generally followed. Nowadays, the system
of scoring and interpretation takes account of the following:

1) Hero of the story – what type of personality he has?

2) Theme of the story – What is the nature of the theme or plot used in making the story?
3) The style of the story – Length of the story, language used, direct or indirect expression,
forced or poor expression, organisation of the contents, originality and creativity, etc.
4) The content of the story –What interests, sentiments, attitudes they depict. In which manner
(reality or fantasy) the behaviour has been expressed. What inner-state of the mind, the story
reveals.

5) Test situation as a whole – The subject’s reaction to be listed as a whole.

6) Particular emphasis or omissions – The omission, addition, distortion and attention to
particular details.
7) Subject’s attitude towards authority and sex.
8) Outcome. Conclusion of the story – happy, unhappy, comedy, etc.

As a whole, the recurring themes and features contribute more than a single response towards
interpretation. Moreover, the global view of one’s personality should be based on the responses
of all the 20 pictures shown to the subject. There are so many chances of misinterpreting the
stories contents by an immature examiner. Therefore, the future of TAT hangs on the
possibility of perfecting the interpreter more than in perfecting the material. He should be given
full opportunity for acquiring essential knowledge and training for this purpose.

27
Scoring, Analysis & Interpretation:
Location – Part of the blot which the subject associates each response to.
(W) – Seeing the card as a whole.
(w) – Failed to see the problem as a whole.
(D) – Major details.
(d) – Minor details involving petty issues or less important matters.
(s) – Subject response to the white spaces within the main outlines.
Content – What is seen by the subject and note the manner of its perception.
H – Human forms.
A – Animal forms.
Ad – Animal details.
Hd- Human details.
N – Natural object like rivers, greenfield.
O – Inanimate object like lampshade, pot.
Originality - Column for each of the 10 cards, certain responses are scored as:
P – Popular (Common Occurrence).
O - Originality (New).
Determinants – Manner of perceptions.
(F) – Form (e.g. Butterfly).
(C) – Color (e.g. Blood, fire).
(M) – Movement (e.g. Running, dancing).
(K) – Shading (e.g. Smooth surface, smoke).

Interpretation & Analysis:

Number of (W)s is greater than the number of d or D – Mature, intelligent, ability to synthesize.

Greater frequency of Color at the expense of human movement – extrovert.

Dominance of shading responses – anxiety, depressed attitudes and feelings.
Greater emphasis on movement – imaginative life. Only through various kinds of
relationships, observations, records, and integration of results from various parts that a final
global picture about the subject is drawn.

RORSCHACH INK BLOCK TEST

28
Uses 10 cards with ink blots- 5 black and white cards, 3red, white, black and 2 coloured
cards. These cards are are completely unstructured.

Administration of the test:

Cards are presented at one time in specific order. The subject is asked to report what he sees,
what it looks to him. The subject are allowed to the card, turn it around. There is no time lmit
for the responses. The examiner however notes down the time taken, angle of the card and the
facial expressions.

Scoring:
The scoring categories are marked into four categories-

Location- refers to the part of the blot with which the subject associates.
Contents- concerned with what the subject sees.
Originality- refers to the responses being common occurrence while the others cotain
something new.
Determinants- makes note of the manner of perception , the particular characteristics
which helped the subject in deciphering the blot or deciding his manner of the
perception.

Analysis and interpretation:

Different symbols are counted in all the bove mentioned four categories to see the frequency
of the different kinds of responses. These in addition to time, behaviour of the subjects are all
taken into account for interpretation. The test demands a lot of training and skill in scoring
and interpretation.

MINNESOTA MULTIPHASIC PERSONALITY INVENTORY (MMPI)

MMPI-2 is designed to measure many aspects of personality related to psychological

disorders.

S.no Clinical scales Description of disorder

1. Hypochondriasis Excessive concern with bodily functions

2. Depression Pessimism, hopelessness, slowing of actions and thoughts

29
3. Hysteria Development of physical disorders such as blindness,
paralysis and vomiting as an escape from emotional
problems.

4. Psychopathic Disregard for social customs, shallow emotions.

deviances

5. Masculinity- Possession of traits and interest typically associated with

femininity opposite sex.

6. Paranoia Suspiciousness, delusions of grandeur or persecution.

7. Psychasthenia Obsession, compulsive, fears, guilts, indecisiveness.

8. Schizophrenia Bizaree, unusual thoughts or behaviour, withdrawal,

hallucinations, delusions.

9. Hypomania Emotional excitement, flight of ideas, over activity.

10. Social introversion Shyness, lack of interest in others, insecurity.

This inventory is used with adults who are 18 and above.

The current inventory has 567 items all in true or false format and takes one or two
hours to complete depending on their level.
The chief criterion of validity was the prediction of clinical cases against the
diagnosis of a hospital staff.
There are four unusual scores obtained in addition to the diagnostic classification.
These four are validity scores (F), a “lie score” (L), a “question score” and a K- score.

30