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The Elaboration of Personal Construct Psychology

Article in Annual Review of Psychology · February 2007

DOI: 10.1146/annurev.psych.58.110405.085535 · Source: PubMed

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ANRV296-PS58-18 ARI 17 November 2006 1:32

The Elaboration of Personal

Construct Psychology
Beverly M. Walker1 and David A. Winter2
by City University of New York, The Graduate Center on 11/01/10. For personal use only.
Annu. Rev. Psychol. 2007.58:453-477. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org

1
School of Psychology, University of Wollongong, Wollongong 2522, Australia;
email: [email protected]
2
School of Psychology, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield AL10 9AB and Barnet,
Enfield and Haringey Mental Health NHS Trust, United Kingdom;
email: [email protected]

Annu. Rev. Psychol. 2007. 58:453–77 Key Words

First published online as a Review in George Kelly, personality theory, clinical psychology, repertory
Advance on August 11, 2006
grid, laddering, constructivism
The Annual Review of Psychology is online
at http://psych.annualreviews.org Abstract
This article’s doi: More than half a century has passed since the publication of George
10.1146/annurev.psych.58.110405.085535
Kelly’s (1955/1991) The Psychology of Personal Constructs. This review
Copyright ! c 2007 by Annual Reviews. considers the elaboration of personal construct psychology (PCP)
All rights reserved
during this time, both by Kelly and by others who developed his
0066-4308/07/0110-0453$20.00 ideas. Advances to the theory have principally concerned implica-
tive relationships between constructs, construing of the self, social
relationships, emotions, links with other approaches, and support-
ing research. With regard to methods of assessment of construing,
major developments have occurred in both repertory grid and non-
grid techniques, such as laddering. The principal advances in the
applications of PCP have been in the clinical, educational, and orga-
nizational fields, but have by no means been limited to these areas.
It can be concluded that PCP has met Kelly’s own design specifica-
tions for a useful theory and that PCP can perhaps anticipate at least
another half-century of elaboration.

453
ANRV296-PS58-18 ARI 17 November 2006 1:32

municating investigators who are developing

Contents and extending Kelly’s theory and techniques,
applying them in clinical and environmental
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 454
psychology, anthropology, criminology, ur-
THEORY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455
ban planning, and many other research areas”
Kelly’s Own Elaborations . . . . . . . . . 455
(p. 8).
Theory of Construct
PCP is a position that sees people as ad-
Implications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456
venturers, capable of pushing the boundaries
The Self . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456
of their lives as they experiment with alterna-
PCP as a Social Psychology:
tive interpretations of their changing worlds
Beyond the Individual . . . . . . . . . 457
in an attempt to increase predictability. Criti-
Emotions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458
cal here are the discriminations people make,
Relationship to Other Theories . . . 458
whereby they see some things as similar to
by City University of New York, The Graduate Center on 11/01/10. For personal use only.

Testing the Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459

and others as different from others. These dis-
Annu. Rev. Psychol. 2007.58:453-477. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org

METHOD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460
criminations, known as constructs, are bipo-
Grid-Based Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460
lar, with both poles necessary for understand-
Nongrid-Based Methods . . . . . . . . . . 462
ing of the discrimination. “Hot” cannot be un-
APPLICATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463
derstood except in relationship to “cold.” Our
Clinical Applications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463
actions reflect the application of these con-
Educational Applications. . . . . . . . . . 466
struct poles, as we behave in accordance with
Organizational Applications . . . . . . . 467
our constructions. Contrasts are central to an
Other Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467
understanding of change in that the contrast
CONCLUSIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467
(or opposite pole) to the current way of seeing
the world is the most readily available alter-
native, and changed behavior will reflect this,
at least initially.
INTRODUCTION The processes that relate to the develop-
Personal construct: Although many psychological approaches ment, application, and modification of this
a bipolar from 50 years ago have waned in impor- construing are central to understanding dif-
discrimination tance, personal construct psychology (PCP) ferences between individuals and facilitating
between elements of
was ahead of its time (Mischel 1980). Subse- change, rather than merely the content of con-
an individual’s world
quent theoretical movements have advocated struing per se. Critical to the construct sys-
PCP: personal
themes overlapping with the originally radi- tem’s development are processes such as the
construct psychology
cal position George Kelly articulated in The Validation Cycle, in which ways of making
Psychology of Personal Constructs (1955/1991). sense of the world are tested and revised or
“Scientometric” studies of PCP indicate buttressed, as in Kelly’s metaphor of the per-
that the approach developed “an international son as a potential scientist, and the Creativ-
base of support enjoyed by few psychologi- ity Cycle, which describes how we can cre-
cal theories” (Neimeyer et al. 1990, p. 17). ate something new by successively loosening
References to it are made in nearly half of the ways we construe, then tightening up to a
the volumes of the Annual Review of Psychology defined outcome. The hierarchical nature of
between 1955 and 2005. For example, Tyler construing, with constructs employed more
(1981) describes the publication of Kelly’s widely being known as superordinate, relative
book as a “landmark event in the opening to- to those with more specific applicability, the
ward individuality,” remarking, “Although it subordinate, is also important in determin-
took a number of years for the full signifi- ing change. Although Kelly (1955) formally
cance of Kelly’s theory to become apparent, presents some of his theory in a fundamen-
there is now a worldwide network of com- tal postulate and 11 corollaries, these do little

454 Walker · Winter

ANRV296-PS58-18 ARI 17 November 2006 1:32

to convey the spirit of the theory and omit ner and style of his telling, by a rhetoric of hu-
central features, such as the emphasis on con- mor and disrespect, tradition and innovation,
structive alternativism, whereby we can always that he employs to speak a frame of mind into
Sociality: the
construe things differently. Concepts they en- life” (Mair 1989, p. 4). His papers are full of construing of
compass include commonality (shared con- narratives, both personal (Kelly 1962, 1978) another person’s way
struing) and individuality, thereby spanning and cultural (Kelly 1969a,d). Today such an of viewing their
both nomothetic and idiographic approaches, approach seems less controversial, as narra- world
as well as sociality (relationships based on con- tive approaches to psychology are increasingly Repertory grid: a
struing others’ construing). However, some prominent (Mair 1988, 1989). technique for the
assessment of the
know PCP best for its methodologies, espe- Although The Psychology of Personal Con-
structure and content
cially the repertory grid. This method exam- structs (Kelly 1955) focuses more centrally of a construct system
ines the ways a person’s constructs apply to on problematic construing, subsequent pa-
aspects of the world, termed “elements.” pers explore optimal functioning, arguing
by City University of New York, The Graduate Center on 11/01/10. For personal use only.

Our focus is on how Kelly’s theory, and that this requires an Experience Cycle in-
Annu. Rev. Psychol. 2007.58:453-477. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org

associated methodologies and practice, have volving anticipation, investment, encounter,

been elaborated since 1955. Priority has been dis/confirmation, and constructive revision
given among the thousands of publications (Kelly 1980).
to developments that are influential, are rel- Kelly (1969b) broadens the consideration
evant to psychologists, are relatively recent, of how people depend on others to meet
and involve a body of work. Because we want their needs beyond the therapy context to
to present, as far as possible, a view shared observations about society and its reliance
among the personal construct community, we on complex webs of interdependency. Our
requested from other authors1 in the field a construing concerning dependencies on oth-
list of five post-1955 developments in theory, ers consists of some of our earliest, nonver-
method, and application. They were gener- bal discriminations. Kelly challenges the view
ous in their responses and this paper benefited that infants are more dependent than adults
from that collective picture. by arguing that adults have more needs. In-
fant depending is not problematic because
of the amount of dependency entailed but
THEORY because it is precarious, depending on few
to meet all needs. Some people retain such
Kelly’s Own Elaborations
a fragile pattern of undispersed dependency
Kelly’s extensions and refocusing of his the- as adults. Broadening his developmental per-
ory were partly based on others’ interpreta- spective, Kelly links progressive dispersion
tions of PCP. For example, he was assembling of dependencies to the child’s developing ca-
a challenge, reflected in posthumous papers pacity to construe other people’s construing
(Maher 1969), to views of the theory as merely (“sociality”). Maturing individuals thus adapt
cognitive, ignoring life’s passions (e.g., Bruner their demands to what others are prepared to
1956, Rogers 1956). give, as well as understanding what others may
Kelly’s psychology moves beyond the 1955 need from them.
statement of his position to demonstrating, in Despite Kelly’s PhD thesis on speech and
the form of the papers themselves, a more rad- reading, his main mention of language in 1955
ical way of doing psychology—“by the man- is to indicate that construing is not synony-
mous with the words used to approximate
the discriminations made. Subsequently, he
1
We thank R Bell, L Botella, P Caputi, R Cromwell, G focuses on how labels give the illusion of
Feixas, M Frances, F Fransella, M Fromm, B Gaines, D
Jankowicz, D Kalekin-Fishman, J Mancuso, G Neimeyer, objectivity, or “that a word is beholden to
R Neimeyer, and J Scheer. the object it is used to describe. The object

www.annualreviews.org • Personal Construct Psychology 455

ANRV296-PS58-18 ARI 17 November 2006 1:32

determines it” (Kelly 1969d, p. 73). Kelly struct encompasses a wider range of elements
(1969e) goes further in alerting us to the ways than the more subordinate, but rather that
language channels our stance to the world. We constructs differ in their range of implica-
commonly use the indicative mood, implying tions, with those constructs having a larger
that the relationship we propose is inherent number of implications (both superordinate
in the nature of the subject of our sentence, and subordinate) considered more meaning-
namely that something has certain properties. ful. (For example, for most people the con-
Kelly suggests adopting an invitational mood, struct of “good-bad” would carry many more
by which the listener is invited to imagine that implications than a more concrete construct
this is but one possibility, thus fostering the such as “symmetrical-asymmetrical.”) Hinkle
adventurousness that Kelly advocates for sci- reworks Kelly’s notion of threat, which fo-
entific thinking and everyday living. cuses on awareness of wide-ranging immi-
For a clinical psychologist of his era, Kelly nent change in core constructs, to awareness
by City University of New York, The Graduate Center on 11/01/10. For personal use only.

(1955) gives surprising emphasis to cultural of “an imminent comprehensive reduction of

Annu. Rev. Psychol. 2007.58:453-477. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org

factors, and in 1962 he extends this to an un- the total number of predictive implications of
derstanding of shared features of construing the personal construct system” (p. 25). Simi-
within different nationalities. His focus is on larly, whereas Kelly views anxiety as awareness
how we make choices by using constructs that, that occurrences are not able to be accom-
being bipolar, provide alternatives for move- modated by one’s current construct system,
ment. He proposes that we are enmeshed Hinkle writes of awareness of the lack of
within a cultural decision matrix, which at implications for the constructs that one
the same time presents choices and limits the confronts.
extent of choice available. He highlights the Hinkle argues that people choose to see
impact of exploring the construing of a dif- themselves in terms of that pole of a con-
ferent culture—“looking through glasses that struct they anticipate will be more likely to
are not your own can permanently affect your extend the implications of their system, and
eyesight” (Kelly 1962, p. 90)—and considers thereby the meaning of their lives. Conse-
implications of this position for international quently, people resist movement to unelab-
understanding. orated poles (anxiety) or reduced implicative-
Thus, far from The Psychology of Personal ness (threat). The higher a construct is in the
Constructs being a bible for future PCP work, hierarchy, the greater are its implications and
Kelly sets an example of active elaboration of its resistance to change from one pole to the
his position. We consider below the extent to other. Hinkle demonstrates findings consis-
which that challenge has been grasped. tent with this theoretical elaboration.
More recent elaborations of the notion
of the hierarchical organization of personal
Theory of Construct Implications constructs include the clarification of possi-
In our survey of PCP contributors, the doc- ble types of implicative relationships between
toral dissertation of Kelly’s student, Hinkle constructs (ten Kate 1981) and the develop-
(1965), exploring why and how people change ment of a model from set and graph theories
(and especially why they do not change), fig- (Chiari et al. 1990).
ured the most extensively. Hinkle’s theory of
construct implications concentrates less on
the way constructs apply to elements of the The Self
person’s world and more on how constructs The unitary notion of a self as the essence of
interrelate. It is based on organization, rather the person is rejected by Kelly. He consid-
than content, of construing. For Hinkle, it ers that self is one pole of a construct, which
is not so much that a superordinate con- in turn is construed. His position entails the

456 Walker · Winter

ANRV296-PS58-18 ARI 17 November 2006 1:32

relevance of contrast and the view that the PCP as a Social Psychology: Beyond
construction of self occurs in comparison with the Individual
others. Additionally, our sense of self is con-
Although PCP is commonly classified as a
structed by our understanding of others’ views
personality theory, a case can be made for
of us (Bannister 1983).
it being a social psychology. Consideration
One example of the examination of pat-
of the person-in-relation (Walker 1996) is
terns of construing linking self and others
evident in numerous aspects of Kelly’s the-
(Adams-Webber 1990) is a research pro-
orizing, including the importance of “so-
gram centering on the “golden section hy-
ciality” and “commonality,” people being
pothesis,” whereby individuals apply the pos-
“validating agents” for the testing of construc-
itive poles of their constructs to others
tions, and dependency. (See Kalekin-Fishman
and assign themselves and others to the
& Walker 1996 and Stringer & Bannister 1979
same poles of constructs approximately 62%
by City University of New York, The Graduate Center on 11/01/10. For personal use only.

for further elaboration of this area.) Kelly’s

of the time (Benjafield & Adams-Webber
Annu. Rev. Psychol. 2007.58:453-477. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org

approach of choosing the alternatives that ap-

1976).
pear to offer greatest opportunities to extend
Others take a more critical stance on the
and define our system can be applied to friend-
individualistic approach of Western society
ship and partner choices. Duck (1979) pro-
and psychology. A “community of selves”
poses that individuals actively assemble vali-
metaphor moves away from an interpretation
dation of their worldview, seeking those with
of the person as the intellectual controller,
similar constructs. Personal relationships de-
dispensing constructs, to one of “patterned
pend on sharing of constructs, and the type
movement,” of “a remarkably powerful sense
of shared construing varies with the process
of actions, interactions, transactions and
of friendship, with advanced friendships evi-
counteractions” (Mair 1977, p. 142). Dispar-
dencing commonality in less superficial con-
ities between different self-constructions, in-
struing than acquaintanceships. This model
cluding “self,” “ideal self,” and “self as others
is supported cross-sectionally, longitudinally,
see me,” are more predictive of self-esteem
and across different ages and genders.
(Moretti & Higgins 1990) and neuroticism
Holding an apparently identical construct
(Watson & Watts 2001) than are those indi-
does not ensure similarity in construct use,
vidual selves.
but such “functional similarity” is greater
This multiple-selves perspective is com-
among dyads who perceive one another more
patible with subsequent approaches, such as
positively (Neimeyer & Neimeyer 1981).
social constructionism. Nevertheless, individ-
Acquaintances use physical constructs most
uals, despite seeing themselves as different de-
similarly, followed by interactional, then psy-
pending on the interpersonal context, over-
chological, whereas friends apply psycholog-
whelmingly report the importance of “being
ical constructs most similarly. Evidence that
myself,” which is only possible in interactions
intimate partners have comparably complex
in which they do not feel self-conscious (Butt
construct systems (Adams-Webber 2001) fur-
et al. 1997).
ther supports the importance of similarity in
The “multiple self-awareness” group, in
the structure as well as content of partners’
which each participant selects one of his or
construing.
her selves to be part of a joint venture with
The choice of marriage partners may be
each other participant’s selected self, is an ap-
viewed as a decision to elaborate some aspects
plication of this approach (Sewell et al. 1998).
of construing relative to others (Neimeyer &
The resulting interactions are a powerful ve-
Hudson 1985). Marriages involve the devel-
hicle for understanding others’ reactions to
opment of many construct subsystems, and
the selected roles.
can be seen “. . . as a vital form of intimate

www.annualreviews.org • Personal Construct Psychology 457

ANRV296-PS58-18 ARI 17 November 2006 1:32

colleagueship in which two personal scientists tionalized (Walker et al. 1988). Consistent
develop an enduring collaboration with re- with Kelly’s predictions, people with rela-
spect to one another’s important life projects” tively undispersed dependencies have fewer
(p. 129). Those marriages with which the constructs about dependency than those with
partners are satisfied are characterized by more dispersed dependencies, and they dif-
partners’ similar use of constructs (particu- fer in the type of construing employed. De-
larly when these are superordinate) and better velopmental trajectories of dependency based
capacity to predict each other’s use of super- on Kelly’s views concerning transition have
ordinates. A taxonomy of disordered relation- also been elaborated (Chiari et al. 1994),
ships from a PCP perspective has been pro- and this position has been differentiated
posed (Neimeyer & Neimeyer 1985). At least from the integration of PCP with attachment
one disordered relationship cannot be under- theory.
stood readily from other positions: “negative
by City University of New York, The Graduate Center on 11/01/10. For personal use only.

relationships,” in which spouses embody their

Annu. Rev. Psychol. 2007.58:453-477. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org

partner’s nonpreferred construct poles. Emotions

Kelly’s (1962) elaboration of construing In 1955, Kelly redefines emotions in ways
within a cultural and subcultural matrix pro- challenging our conventional understandings.
vides impetus for one of the most impor- He rejects the distinction between thought
tant elaborations, the family construct system and feeling, using construing to encompass
(Procter 1981). From this perspective, fam- both (Bannister 1977b). He links the expe-
ily members hold shared as well as idiosyn- rience of emotions to transitions and defines
cratic ways of making sense of the world. The them phenomenologically, from the perspec-
family’s unique system structures how they see tive of the experiencer rather than that of the
their lives, justifies their actions, and governs recipient. However, the repertoire of emo-
their interactions. An important difference tions reinterpreted is limited to aggression,
from other family therapists’ formulations is hostility, guilt, anxiety, threat, and fear. An ex-
the assumption that this family construct sys- tension of this list interprets positive emotions
tem intrinsically includes contrasts to where as indications of validation of construing and
the family is currently construed. Formaliz- negative emotions of invalidation of constru-
ing his position in relation to Kelly, Proc- ing (McCoy 1981). Such an approach views
ter (1981) proposes two additional corollar- (in)validation as similar to negative and posi-
ies to those in Kelly’s theory. The Group tive reinforcement, a link Kelly (1955) rejects.
Corollary states that “to the extent that a per- Confirmation of a view of oneself as worth-
son can construe the relationships between less is unlikely to be experienced positively,
members of a group, he may take part in for example, irrespective of its corroboration
a group process with them” (Procter 1981, of our self-construction. The linkage between
p. 354). The Family Corollary indicates that anger and hostility is also criticized by those
“for a group of people to remain together over concerned to elaborate the concept of anger
an extended period of time, each must make (Cummins 2003).
a choice, within the limitations of his sys-
tem, to maintain a common construction of
the relationships in the group” (Procter 1981, Relationship to Other Theories
pp. 354–55). A similar focus on shared con- Considering historical precursors of PCP,
struing is evident in applications within orga- Kelly’s theory has been argued to represent
nizational psychology concerning corporate an approach more usually found in the do-
construing (e.g., Balnaves & Caputi 2000). main of philosophy, rather than “mere” psy-
Kelly’s distinction between dispersed and chology (Warren 1998, 2003). Kelly’s most
undispersed dependency has been opera- explicit debt is to pragmatism and Dewey’s

458 Walker · Winter

ANRV296-PS58-18 ARI 17 November 2006 1:32

writings, which emphasize the utility of these positions concern whether or not reality
constructions rather than correspondence to exists independently of our knowing it. Closer
reality. Also relevant is Dewey’s rejection to the realist pole is epistemological construc-
Personal construct
of many dualisms often taken for granted tivism, which assumes that there are many psychotherapy: a
and Mead’s emphasis on interaction with differing interpretations of external reality. therapeutic approach
others as integral to selfhood (Butt 2006). This contrasts with hermeneutic construc- that aims to facilitate
Kelly’s position regarding language is related tivism, which focuses on subject/object inter- reconstruing
by McWilliams (1996) to Korzybski’s (1933) dependence. Opinions differ on which form of Constructivism:
General Semantics approach, which argues constructivism best characterizes Kelly’s the- approaches that
consider that
for the elimination of the verb “to be” in En- ory. Minimum realism, whereby some fea-
individuals construct
glish, resulting in greater awareness of re- tures of reality are assumed to be independent their knowledge of
sponsibility for our constructions. Remarks of our experiences, may be linked to Kelly’s the world
such as “she is X” are replaced by “she be- views that truth can be approached (Stevens
by City University of New York, The Graduate Center on 11/01/10. For personal use only.

haves like an X,” or “she gives the appearance 1998). Others express concern that PCP
Annu. Rev. Psychol. 2007.58:453-477. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org

of an X,” statements more conducive to the may “sink without trace” if subsumed under
facilitation of change. the constructivist umbrella (Fransella 1995,
Turning to contemporary psychological p. 131).
approaches, despite Kelly (1969f) being at
pains to point out that his is not a cogni-
tive theory, frequently he is seen as the pre- Testing the Theory
cursor of the “cognitive revolution.” Several Although personal construct theory is rela-
of the references to PCP in the Annual Re- tively abstract, some key assumptions may be
view of Psychology are in the context of it being formulated in testable ways. Research sup-
a pioneering cognitive approach, such as the portive of the theory is reviewed in other sec-
statement that Kelly was “the first truly cogni- tions of this article (see also Adams-Webber
tive personologist” (Wiggins & Pincus 1992, 2003), but we focus here on whether constru-
p. 496). Debts to Kelly are acknowledged ing should be viewed as bipolar, as this is a
by leading cognitive therapists, although per- key differentiator between PCP and other ap-
sonal construct psychotherapy can be dif- proaches. In practice (at least in most methods
ferentiated from at least the original “ra- of repertory grid administration), construing
tionalist” versions of these approaches both is widely treated as dimensional rather than di-
theoretically and empirically. However, more chotomous. The issue of whether construing
recent cognitive approaches, showing greater is universally bipolar (having two contrasting
concern with processes (as opposed to the poles), rather than unipolar (as in a single con-
content) of cognition, arguably are more com- cept) or multipolar (one pole having a number
patible with PCP. Nevertheless, several per- of opposite poles), is more important since it
sonal construct theorists (e.g., Epting 1984) links to the central issue of change. If a feature
consider PCP more aligned with the human- of the world, such as oneself, is viewed as lying
istic tradition, albeit a “rigorous humanism” on one pole of a construct, if one chooses or
(Rychlak 1977). is forced to change, the opposite pole is the
PCP’s relationships to postmodernism perceived alternative.
(Botella 1995) and constructivism (Mahoney Researchers have compared how a set of
1988) have also been discussed. There are al- elements is rated on each pole of a construct,
ternative constructions of the latter relation- and have found that although such ratings are
ship, with writers proposing differing cate- negatively correlated, they are by no means
gories of constructivism. For example, Chiari perfectly dichotomous. One of these studies
& Nuzzo (1996) locate different positions on included the variation of allowing some par-
a dimension contrasting realism and idealism; ticipants to specify additional contrasts for

www.annualreviews.org • Personal Construct Psychology 459

ANRV296-PS58-18 ARI 17 November 2006 1:32

each of their construct poles and concluded Grid-Based Methods

that the results do not contradict Kelly’s
Construct-element grids. Kelly is perhaps
position of construing as entailing both simi-
best known for devising the repertory grid
larity and contrast, but rather challenge the
technique, in which a series of elements (e.g.,
view of constructs as strictly dichotomous
“myself now,” “my partner”) is sorted in terms
(Riemann 1990). Another study ingeniously
of a number of constructs (e.g., “kind-mean”).
overcame methodological problems in pre-
Indeed, more than 90% of personal construct
vious research by using a lexical decision
research employs this technique (Neimeyer
task to explore construct dichotomy (Millis
et al. 1990). A major reason for the popularity
& Neimeyer 1990). The finding that a con-
of grids is their flexibility. A wide range of el-
struct pole on which a particular priming el-
ements has been employed, including not just
ement was highly rated and its contrast pole
people matching role titles, as in the original
both resulted in quicker reaction times than
by City University of New York, The Graduate Center on 11/01/10. For personal use only.

procedure, but also different selves, relation-

construct poles unrelated to the element pro-
Annu. Rev. Psychol. 2007.58:453-477. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org

ships, parental roles, body parts, life events,

vides support for the assumption of construct
pictures, and video clips. Constructs have not
bipolarity. Further support is provided by
only been elicited from the individual, but
Bell’s (2000) investigation of the application
also have been supplied. When constructs are
of supplied constructs to a common set of
elicited, this has not always been by Kelly’s
elements.
original procedure, in which, for successive
The issue of whether bipolarity of constru-
triads of elements, the person is asked in what
ing is universal is not addressed in these stud-
important way two of the elements are similar
ies. Preemptive construing, whereby an ele-
and thereby different from the third. Instead,
ment is construed in only one way, does not
particularly with those who find the triadic
always appear to be bipolar, having, at best,
procedure too complex, constructs have been
a nondiscriminating contrast (Walker et al.
elicited by comparison of pairs of elements,
1988). Bipolar constructs may be considered
description of single elements, or an inter-
more useful (Walker 2003) because they pro-
view. Finally, in assigning elements to con-
vide alternatives for movement should the
struct poles, Kelly’s dichotomous method has
application of one pole to an element be in-
been largely replaced by ranking or rating the
validated, as in Sewell’s (2003) view of un-
elements in terms of the constructs, result-
elaborated contrast poles as “Plan B.” These
ing in a matrix of numbers in a grid in which
positions extend, but do not challenge, the
the constructs constitute one axis and the el-
importance of bipolar construing.
ements the other. There has been consider-
able research on the effects of such proce-
dural variations on grid scores. For example,
METHOD various studies, reviewed by Fransella et al.
A variety of assessment techniques has been (2004), indicate, consistent with Kelly’s the-
developed from PCP (Neimeyer 1993); they ory, that elicited constructs are more mean-
can be divided into grid- and nongrid-based ingful and used more complexly than are sup-
methods. These techniques may be viewed as plied constructs. In addition, approximately
ways of structuring conversations and as in- half of the variance of ratings on personal con-
terventions rather than neutral reflections of structs is unique, in comparison with supplied
reality (Fransella et al. 2004, Jankowicz 2003). constructs reflecting the Big Five personality
However, they are still sometimes applied as traits (Grice 2004).
if they were standardized, objective tests, per- Grid versatility can be illustrated by con-
haps reflecting the divorce of techniques from sidering two applications. With couples and
their theoretical basis. families, modifications allow exploration of

460 Walker · Winter

ANRV296-PS58-18 ARI 17 November 2006 1:32

such areas as empathy and power balance in Construct-construct grids. In two proce-
relationships. These include the completion dures linked to Hinkle’s (1965) theory of
not only of individual grids, but also grids as implications, both grid axes are formed by
it is imagined that others will complete them, constructs. In the implications grid, individ-
grids completed together with a partner, and uals are asked, for each construct, if they
grids using both the individual’s and family were to change from one pole to the other,
members’ constructs (Feixas et al. 1993). The on what other constructs they would be
personal meaning of death has been explored likely to change. A variation involves ask-
in an extensive research program utilizing a ing the person, for each construct pole, what
form of grid termed the “threat index,” in other poles would characterize an individ-
which death threat is assumed to be indicated ual so described (Fransella 1972). Implica-
by discrepancies in how constructs are applied tion grids may be analyzed by mapping the
to the element “death” and to the self and ideal implicative relationships between constructs
by City University of New York, The Graduate Center on 11/01/10. For personal use only.

self (Neimeyer & Epting 1992). and counting the number of implications for
Annu. Rev. Psychol. 2007.58:453-477. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org

A bewildering array of methods of anal- each construct or in the grid as a whole.

ysis has been developed, accompanied by In the resistance-to-change grid, individuals
computer packages, including programs pio- are presented with constructs in pairs and
neered by Slater (1977) not only for individual asked, if they had to change from the pre-
grid analysis but also for the comparison of ferred to the nonpreferred pole on one of
grids and the derivation of “consensus grids” these, on which constructs they would find
for groups. Computer packages provide mea- this most difficult. The resistance-to-change
sures of properties of constructs and elements score for each construct is the number of
and their interrelationships (including hierar- times the person would prefer not to change
chical relationships; Bell 2004), which may be on it.
represented visually. They also provide mea-
sures of the structure of the construct system.
These follow a tradition developed by Bieri Element-element grids. Kelly’s (1955) sit-
(1955) and Crockett (1965) with measures of uational resources repertory test, or depen-
“cognitive complexity,” the former grid-based dency grid, involves asking to whom, out of a
and the latter not, which generated much list of people (resources), a person would turn
research, particularly concerning social pre- for help in various difficult situations. Sub-
diction. Subsequent measures have been de- sequent variations include changes in the sit-
veloped of the extent of differentiation and uations and resources used and asking who
integration in a construct system, of the tight- would turn to the individual for help in
ness or looseness of construct relationships, the situations concerned. The major post-
and of logical inconsistencies in construing Kellian development is the derivation of quan-
(Fransella et al. 2004). titative measures of the degree of disper-
Kelly was somewhat dismissive of tradi- sion of dependencies, which have been found
tional psychometric requirements of reliabil- to be reliable and valid (Bell 2001, Walker
ity and validity, and indeed, since there is 1997).
no standard form of grid, general statements The coordinate grid, in which elements
about its psychometric properties are not very are ranked in terms of their similarity to each
meaningful. Nevertheless, the literature indi- other, allows the derivation of measures of in-
cates relatively high test-retest reliability of tegrative complexity and logical inconsistency
particular grid measures and their validity, for (Chambers 1983). The perceiver element
example, in differentiating between certain grid is a qualitative method in which family
groups or predicting behavior (Fransella et al. members indicate how they view each other
2004). (Procter 2005).

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ANRV296-PS58-18 ARI 17 November 2006 1:32

Nongrid-Based Methods cult to articulate; and that more superordinate

than subordinate constructs concern existen-
Laddering and pyramiding. Laddering
tial and moral themes, and fewer concern spe-
Laddering: a technique (Hinkle 1965) is seemingly simple
technique designed cific interests and relationships.
in its description, complex in application, and
to elicit increasingly The pyramiding technique elicits subor-
can be powerful in impact. The interviewer
superordinate dinate constructs (Landfield 1971). It is re-
progressively elicits constructs of increasing
constructs stricted to exploring three levels of ordina-
superordinacy by asking which pole of a
Self- tion. The questions focused on are “how”
construct the respondent prefers and why.
characterization: or “what,” so that starting with a construct
an assessment When a new construct pole is thus elicited,
pole the interviewer might ask, “How would I
method involving its contrast pole determined, and preference
the writing of an know if someone was an X? What would they
established, the “why?” question is repeated.
autobiographical do?” The interviewer works on each pole of
This continues until the person cannot or
sketch in the third each construct, eliciting both similarity and
by City University of New York, The Graduate Center on 11/01/10. For personal use only.

prefers not to respond (Fransella 2003b).

person contrast, resulting in one construct at the first
Annu. Rev. Psychol. 2007.58:453-477. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org

Laddering has been used extensively in

level, two at the second, and four at the third.
marketing to explore construing governing
product choice. Reynolds & Gutman (1988)
ABC technique. The ABC technique high-
elaborate the laddering process as three stages
lights impediments to movement (Tschudi
(means-end analysis). Constructs first elicited
1977). Constructs are elicited at three levels,
are product attributes, which are followed by
beginning with the construct on which move-
consequences and finally become end states
ment is desired; then why change is desir-
or values. This tradition of research has ex-
able, eliciting advantages of the pole to which
perimented with different formats, for exam-
movement is desired and disadvantages of the
ple, hard and soft laddering. The former, of-
current position; and finally the impediments
ten conducted by questionnaire or computer,
to change, ascertaining advantages of the cur-
involves the successive production of individ-
rent situation and disadvantages of the posi-
ual ladders, giving answers within each lad-
tion of movement.
der at increasing levels of abstraction. The
latter involves the derivation of ladders from
Self-characterization and textual analysis.
a free-flowing interview. Russell et al. (2004)
The self-characterization technique involves
conclude that the relative utility of the for-
writing an autobiographical sketch in the third
mats depends on the researcher’s goals, char-
person (Kelly 1955). More specific character
acterizing soft laddering as the gold stan-
sketches have been proposed and researchers
dard. The technique’s fertility is illustrated by
have developed categorical methods of explor-
the astonishing range of applications, includ-
ing sketches. Jackson’s (1988) categories are
ing perceptions of wrestling (Deeter-Schmelz
linked to Kelly’s corollaries, reflecting, for ex-
& Sojka 2004), consumer goals for recycling
ample, choice, sociality, commonality, and or-
(Bagozzi & Dabholkar 1994), and food pref-
ganization, while Klevjer & Walker’s (2002)
erences (Zanoli & Naspetti 2002).
involve dispositional traits, personal concerns,
Strong evidence of the validity of ladder-
and narrative.
ing and related theoretical assumptions is pro-
Longer autobiographical sketches or chap-
vided by Neimeyer et al. (2001). This in-
ter headings (e.g., “Before the baby was born,”
cludes findings that more concrete constructs,
“Since I’ve been in graduate school”) and sum-
concerning films, lead to longer ladders than
maries for these (Neimeyer 1985) have also
do constructs concerning family members;
been employed. Constructs and elements may
that constructs higher in hierarchies (elicited
be extracted from such sketches, or indeed any
later in the series of “why” questions) have
text, which may then be analyzed as a grid
greater response latency and are more diffi-
(Feixas & Villegas 1991).

462 Walker · Winter

ANRV296-PS58-18 ARI 17 November 2006 1:32

Interview methods. Content analysis scales parties (Theodoulou 1996). This methodol-
have been applied to verbalizations, gener- ogy has potential uses in other areas.
ally obtained from open-ended interviews,
by Viney & Caputi (2005). Of these scales, Visual techniques. There is increasing
which concern a range of emotions, sociality, awareness that verbal symbols of constru-
psychosocial stages, and experiences of con- ing can be supplemented by the nonverbal.
trol, cognitive anxiety is most closely linked Ravenette’s (1999) work with children, which
to Kellian concepts. Nevertheless, the over- pioneers the use of drawings (and their op-
all framework of Viney’s research program is posites), is influential and may be extended
informed by PCP, and her approach enables to use with adults, as in the exploration of
important problems to be explored less intru- choices confronting women dealing with the
sively than by more formal techniques. menopause (Foster & Viney 2006).
Interview methods for children have been A procedure in which a person is asked to
by City University of New York, The Graduate Center on 11/01/10. For personal use only.

developed by Ravenette (2003), for example, take a series of photographs to answer the
Annu. Rev. Psychol. 2007.58:453-477. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org

to explore their “troubles” (in PCP terms, ex- question “Who am I?” provides a measure
periences of invalidation). There are also in- of the degree of constriction (drawing in of
terview procedures for the elicitation of core the boundaries of application) of the construct
constructs (Leitner 1985) and to explore the system, reflected in the range of categories of
links between family members’ constructions the resulting photographs (Bailey & Walker
of others and their actions (Feixas et al. 1993). 2003). Consistent with Kelly’s theorizing, de-
pression is associated with a more constricted
Construct content analysis. Despite PCP’s system (Hanieh & Walker 2007).
emphasis on process, content has not been ig-
nored, and various methods have been devel-
oped to categorize constructs elicited by any APPLICATIONS
of the methods described above (Green 2004).
Clinical Applications
One of the first such systems, consisting of 22
categories (e.g., forcefulness), most with sub- Kelly’s two-volume magnum opus evolved
categories (e.g., high, low), was provided by from the handbook of clinical procedures he
Landfield (1971). Problems with this system wrote for his students, and the clinical field is
have been addressed by Feixas et al. (2002) in a that in which PCP has been most widely used.
scheme for the classification of personal con- The primary advances are in the understand-
structs using categories of moral, emotional, ing of disorder and of therapy, with the devel-
relational, personal, intellectual/operational, opment and evaluation of new approaches to
values/interests, existential, and concrete de- personal construct psychotherapy.
scriptors, each with subcategories.
Disorder. Kelly (1955) views disorder as
Questionnaires. Because of PCP’s idio- “any personal construction which is used re-
graphic emphasis, questionnaires have rarely peatedly in spite of consistent invalidation”
been used, with two exceptions. The Personal (p. 831). His classification of disorders into
Construct Inventory (Chambers & O’Day those of construction and of transition con-
1984) provides measures of processes of con- tains several inconsistencies, and it has been
struing and has been revised based on its psy- suggested that the notion of disorder car-
chometric properties (Watson et al. 1997). ries mechanistic implications antithetical to
Statements from newspapers illustrative of Kelly’s philosophy (Walker & Winter 2005).
types of construing have been used to develop Kelly’s definition of disorder implies a
a questionnaire on economic attitudes that failure to complete the process of experi-
differentiates supporters of different political mentation described in his Validation and

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ANRV296-PS58-18 ARI 17 November 2006 1:32

Experience Cycle. The earlier the blockage who differentiate it from paranoia in terms of
in the Experience Cycle, the more severe the the earlier age at which major invalidation has
likely resulting disorder (Neimeyer 1985a). been experienced, and Gara et al. (1989), who
The failure to test construing adequately has associate it with unelaborated (poorly devel-
been termed “nonvalidation” (Walker 2002), oped) self-construing.
and it may be regarded as a strategy to avoid A single profound invalidation may lead to
reconstruing. It may be associated with an im- fragmentation of construing, as indicated in
balance in the use of the pairs of processes that studies associating post-traumatic stress dis-
Kelly considers central to construing, e.g., order with unelaborated construing of the
loosening versus tightening and dilation ver- traumatic event (Sewell 1997). This leads to
sus constriction. Although, optimally, there “constructive bankruptcy” (p. 209), in which
is a cyclical and balanced interplay of con- the person cannot relate the trauma to other
trasting processes, disorders may involve the life experiences. Childhood sexual abuse is
by City University of New York, The Graduate Center on 11/01/10. For personal use only.

virtually exclusive use of one process. How- one trauma that has received considerable at-
Annu. Rev. Psychol. 2007.58:453-477. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org

ever, the distinction between optimal func- tention from a PCP perspective (Erbes &
tioning and disorder extends beyond individ- Harter 2002).
ual processes to such aspects of interpersonal In contrast to schizophrenic thought dis-
relationships as the “egalitarian outlook,” order, a pattern of tight construing may char-
which combines an acceptance of individuality acterize individuals with anxiety disorders
with cooperativeness and lack of oppression (Winter 1985). There is evidence that those
(Warren 1992), and “sociality” (Leitner & diagnosed as agoraphobic may constrict their
Pfenninger 1994). worlds to avoid anxiety associated with inter-
Kelly (1955) and subsequent personal con- personal conflict, the agoraphobic’s constru-
struct theorists (Raskin & Lewandowski 2000) ing of which tends to be at a low level of aware-
criticize psychiatric nosology for its tendency ness (Winter 1989).
to lead to preemptive construing, in which In one of Kelly’s (1961) own elaborations,
a person is seen solely in terms of a diag- he distinguishes different types of suicidal
nostic label. Nevertheless, much post-Kellian acts. Suicide as a “dedicated act,” as in many
clinical research considers clients defined by cases of suicide bombings, is “designed to val-
conventional psychiatric diagnostic categories idate one’s life . . . to extend its essential mean-
(Button 1985), partly to facilitate commu- ing” rather than to terminate it (Kelly 1961,
nication with a community steeped in such p. 260). Kelly differentiates this from “mere
constructions. One of the first such research suicide,” which may occur in circumstances of
programs associated schizophrenic thought realism (certainty) and indeterminacy (chaos).
disorder with loose construing, specifically In the former, “the course of events seems
when psychological constructs are applied to so obvious that there is no point in waiting
people (Bannister 1962, Bannister & Salmon around for the outcome,” whereas in the lat-
1966). Evidence was provided that this may ter, “everything seems so unpredictable that
result from serial invalidation of constru- the only definite thing one can do is to aban-
ing (Bannister 1965), and the Grid Test of don the scene altogether” (Kelly 1961, p. 260).
Schizophrenic Thought Disorder (Bannister This taxonomy has been extended to en-
& Fransella 1966) was developed as a diagnos- compass nonfatal acts of deliberate self-harm
tic instrument. Bannister’s research spawned (Neimeyer & Winter 2006). Some of this re-
numerous studies, and although some pro- search associates high suicidal intent with con-
posed alternative explanations for his results, striction of the construct system, although the
none was entirely convincing (Winter 1992). findings are not entirely consistent.
Schizophrenia has also been explored from a PCP perspectives have been provided on
PCP perspective by Lorenzini et al. (1989), numerous other clinical problems, including

464 Walker · Winter

ANRV296-PS58-18 ARI 17 November 2006 1:32

obsessive-compulsive disorder, depression, ior, Fransella (1972) proceeded from evidence

eating disorders, substance abuse, psychopa- that stuttering provides an elaborated “way
thy, and psychosexual problems (Winter of life” for people who stutter to develop a
1992). Such applications are not limited to therapeutic approach focusing on elaborating
the adult mental health setting, but extend to an alternative, fluent way of life. Her findings
work with children (Butler & Green 1998), are supported by a study using a text-based
older people (Viney 1993), people with learn- measure of the complexity of construct sys-
ing disabilities (Davis & Cunningham 1985) tems (DiLollo et al. 2005). Since Fransella’s
and autism (Procter 2001), and those with work, there have been numerous elaborations
physical illnesses (Viney 1983). They include of personal construct psychotherapeutic ap-
books aimed at facilitating clients’ under- proaches for various disorders and types of
standing of their difficulties and of solutions client, both individually and with their part-
to them (e.g., Rowe 2003). ners or families (Leitner & Dunnett 1993,
by City University of New York, The Graduate Center on 11/01/10. For personal use only.

Neimeyer & Neimeyer 1987, Winter & Viney

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Psychotherapy. Most personal construct 2005).

studies of psychotherapy use grid technique, Personal construct psychotherapy is tech-
which is an indication of its value as a ther- nically eclectic, employing a range of tech-
apy research measure (Winter 2003). In pio- niques from various orientations but con-
neering work by Landfield (1971) and in sub- ceptualizing them from a PCP perspective.
sequent investigations, aspects of construing In Neimeyer’s (1988b) view, this has evolved
have been predictive of therapeutic outcome, to “theoretically progressive integrationism,”
in some studies differentiating between re- allowing not only techniques but also con-
sponses to particular therapies (Winter 1990). cepts to be borrowed from other approaches
For example, there is evidence that tight sharing PCP’s metatheoretical assumptions.
construing predicts a poor response to ex- There are various reviews of personal con-
ploratory psychotherapy. Studies of the ther- struct psychotherapy in the context of more
apeutic process reveal patterns of construing, general developments in constructivist ther-
such as cyclical alternations of loose and tight apies (e.g., Neimeyer & Mahoney 1995,
construing, occurring during therapy, while Neimeyer & Raskin 2001). One particular
outcome studies indicate the reconstruction integrative direction views psychotherapy as
associated with successful therapy. involving reconstruction of narratives, as in
PCP now views an optimal therapeutic Neimeyer’s (2001) work on bereavement and
process as involving experiences of invalida- loss, which regards meaning reconstruction as
tion within an overall climate of validation. central to grieving. PCP has also been influ-
When invalidation predominates, or threat- ential in the development of other therapeutic
ens core constructs, the client may resist ther- approaches, such as cognitive analytic therapy
apy, this being an understandable attempt to (Ryle 1990).
preserve the integrity of the construct system There have been some adaptations of
(Fransella 1993). Therapists who fail to heed Kelly’s own therapeutic techniques. His fixed-
this warning and adjust their approach accord- role therapy procedure, in which the client is
ingly may be faced with a therapeutic casualty asked to take on a new role for a limited pe-
(Winter 1996). There have been some stud- riod, has been modified to include mini fixed
ies of the process of personal construct psy- roles to tackle particular problems (Epting
chotherapy, which has been shown to differ 1984) and adapted for use in marital therapy
significantly from that of rationalist cognitive (Kremsdorf 1985). Developments in personal
therapy (Winter & Watson 1999). construct group psychotherapy have included
In one of the first demonstrations of the various structured approaches, notably the
relationship between construing and behav- Interpersonal Transaction Group (Landfield

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ANRV296-PS58-18 ARI 17 November 2006 1:32

& Rivers 1975, Neimeyer 1988a). This in- however, that Piaget’s view of reality is more
volves a phase of rotating dyads in which absolutist than is Kelly’s.
group members briefly interact with every Personal construct approaches to educa-
other member concerning a provided topic, tional psychology have also been developed,
followed by a plenary phase in which members and the implications of PCP for the process
discuss these dyadic experiences. One partic- of learning have been elaborated.
ular variant of personal construct psychother-
apy emphasizing the intimate client-therapist Children’s construing. A series of studies,
relationship, rather than techniques, is Leit- mostly using grids (Salmon 1976), provides
ner’s (1988) experiential approach. He argues evidence for elaboration of construing during
that such relationships pose the danger of in- childhood. Mancuso (2003) views child devel-
validation of core constructs and may there- opment as the construction of self-guiding an-
fore be terrifying; this is less likely if an op- ticipatory narratives, essentially stories based
by City University of New York, The Graduate Center on 11/01/10. For personal use only.

timal therapeutic distance, balancing connec- on children’s self-constructions and determin-

Annu. Rev. Psychol. 2007.58:453-477. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org

tion and separateness, is maintained between ing their actions. He identifies, and provides
therapist and client. training in, the characteristics of expert par-
Although conventional outcome research ents, those who most facilitate their children’s
has been regarded by some personal con- development. One way in which a parent may
struct psychotherapists as incompatible with attempt to develop a child’s construing is by
constructivism, there is a growing evidence reprimand, which Mancuso considers a pos-
base for this form of therapy with a wide sible outcome of rule violation, the invalida-
range of client groups (Viney et al. 2005). tion of a person’s construction of an event by
Meta-analysis of the studies concerned, which another. Invalidation by a child of an adult’s
compare the outcome of personal construct construction of how a learner should behave
psychotherapy with either no treatment, stan- may lead to the child being construed pre-
dard care, or other types of intervention, has emptively in terms of a diagnosis such as at-
indicated effect sizes comparable to those tention deficit/hyperactivity disorder. This is
in cognitive-behavioral and psychodynamic likely to impair the child’s ability to develop a
therapies (Viney et al. 2005). This research construction of self as a competent learner.
is complemented by numerous uncontrolled,
single-case, and/or qualitative studies. Educational psychology and learning.
Personal construct educational psychology
was pioneered by Ravenette (1999), who de-
Educational Applications veloped methods for elicitation of children’s
Another major area of application of PCP is construing. These exemplify such features of
the educational setting. Although Kelly ran a PCP as the credulous approach (taking the
traveling service to schools, he devotes little client’s views at face value), the emphasis on
attention in his writing to the process of the contrast, and that assessment itself may pro-
development of construing. However, PCP mote reconstruction. Ravenette stresses that
has subsequently been elaborated as a psy- problems in which the educational psycholo-
chology of personal growth, and both similar- gist is asked to intervene are generally not pre-
ities and differences have been noted with Pi- sented by children themselves but by adults
aget’s epistemological position (Salmon 1970, interacting with them. He considers that such
Soffer 1993). For example, both approaches problems occur “when a person cannot make
view the individual as an active experimenter, sense out of an event, and feels that he should”
and both focus on structural aspects of devel- (Ravenette 1988, p. 103; italics in original).
opment rather than the content of the per- Resolution is as likely to require reconstru-
son’s view of the world. It has been suggested, ing by an adult as by the child. For example,

466 Walker · Winter

ANRV296-PS58-18 ARI 17 November 2006 1:32

he describes how a boy was no longer con- lection procedures, employee induction, per-
strued by his teacher as a “problem child” but formance appraisal, facilitation of decision-
rather as simply “having reading difficulties” making, team building exercises, exploration
when the teacher understood that the boy’s of communication, conflict resolution, and
withdrawal from her had invalidated her core analysis of how managers and employees
construction of herself as a caring person. view a company’s work (Brophy et al. 2003,
Some of Kelly’s post-1955 publications Coopman 1997, Jankowicz 1990). The results
indicate the importance of personal mean- are often fed back to participants, allowing the
ings in the learning process (Kelly 1970, planning of change processes such as retrain-
1979, 2003), and this theme has been contin- ing programs, which in turn may be evaluated
ued (Pope & Denicolo 2001). For example, by grids. A particularly helpful outcome may
Thomas & Harri-Augstein (1985) promote be the facilitation of construing not only of
self-organized learning, in which people are individuals’ own construction processes, but
by City University of New York, The Graduate Center on 11/01/10. For personal use only.

helped to reflect upon their learning processes also those of other stakeholders in the or-
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by engaging in learning conversations. Oth- ganization. A personal construct understand-

ers focus on making teachers more aware of ing of transitions and resistance to change is
the learner’s and their own construing (Pope central to much of this work (e.g., Fournier
2003), in some cases using fixed-role ther- 1995).
apy and grids (Diamond 1991) or techniques The range of settings in which such ap-
developed to explore constructions of educa- proaches have been applied is considerable.
tional progression (Salmon & Claire 1984). In The impact has been extensive in some cases,
Novak’s (1990) approach, the emphasis is on such as that of an airport authority where a
developing a pedagogical relationship that is PCP perspective has been applied to every as-
inviting rather than dictating. pect of its work involving people (Brophy et al.
2003).

Organizational Applications
An area of application of PCP that has grown Other Applications
with the recognition of the inherently social The work of post-Kellian personal construct
nature of the theory is its utility in organiza- theorists shows the theory to have a range
tional and business settings, extending beyond of convenience, or of useful application, ex-
the construct system of the individual within tending far beyond the clinical, educational,
the organization to that of the organization and organizational settings. Other spheres in
itself. which it is applied include the forensic set-
ting, politics, sport, the arts, anthropology, re-
The individual within the organization. ligion, accounting, and artificial intelligence
Personal construct work with individuals in (Fransella 2003a, Fransella & Thomas 1988,
organizations includes personal development, Horley 2003, Kalekin-Fishman & Walker
coaching, counseling (Brophy et al. 2003, 1996, Scheer & Sewell 2006).
Fransella et al. 1988), and vocational guid-
ance (Savickas 1997). It relies heavily upon,
but is not limited to, the use of grids (Stewart CONCLUSIONS
& Stewart 1981). A feature of PCP is reflexivity, the ability to
turn its concepts upon itself. How, then, has
The organization. Personal construct as- the theory fared in the past half-century when
sessment methods are also used in areas rel- evaluated in personal construct terms?
evant to broader concerns of organizations, Kelly (1955, p. 22) sets out a list of “de-
including market research, job analysis, se- sign specifications for a psychological theory

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ANRV296-PS58-18 ARI 17 November 2006 1:32

of personality,” namely that it should have an the viability of Kelly’s ideas. While there have
appropriate focus and range of convenience, been attempts to integrate the theory with,
be fertile, produce testable hypotheses, be or subsume it within, other approaches, there
valid, have generality, be amenable to op- has also been resistance to such developments.
erational definition, be modifiable and ulti- This itself supports Kelly’s view that people,
mately expendable, avoid the problems asso- even personal construct theorists, are threat-
ciated with assumptions of mental energy, be ened by the prospect of their core constructs
able to account for the choices that people being expendable. On the other hand, some
make, and recognize individuality. personal construct theorists regard the assim-
The appropriateness of the focus of con- ilation of the theory into other perspectives
venience of PCP on the “psychological re- and disciplines a natural stage in the develop-
construction of life” (Kelly 1955, p. 23) is ment of a successful theory, and one to which
particularly demonstrated by post-Kellian its followers should aspire (Neimeyer 1985).
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elaborations of personal construct psy- The lack of concepts of mental energy has
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chotherapy. The diversity of its other appli- not hampered the theory’s explanatory power,
cations indicates that its range of convenience and its notion of choice has received empir-
extends throughout human psychology, in- ical support and enabled the understanding
cluding areas in which it was initially not well of the often surprising, and sometimes appar-
elaborated. These applications, and the new ently self-defeating or destructive (Neimeyer
approaches and research programs generated & Winter 2006, Winter 2006), choices that
from PCP, also demonstrate its fertility. The people make. Finally, the idiographic applica-
theory has produced numerous hypotheses tion of the theory to such areas as individual
that have been subjected to experimental test, choice is complemented by nomothetic ap-
and the support that these have received indi- plications, such as the derivation and testing
cates something of the theory’s validity (per- of hypotheses concerning the construing of
haps a surprising concept for Kelly to employ, particular groups.
but one that essentially refers to predictive The elaboration of PCP can therefore be
efficiency). The abstractness of the theory’s considered to demonstrate that the theory
constructs enables them to have a generality meets Kelly’s design specifications, perhaps
extending far beyond the clinical realm and too well in that it has yet to become expend-
the historical context in which they were orig- able! He concludes the second volume of his
inally developed. These concepts have also book with the hope that the “unique pair of
been operationally defined, often using assess- spectacles” through which the reader has been
ment methods developed from PCP. That the offered a look will be found to fit (Kelly 1955).
theory itself, as opposed to the approaches The extent of the subsequent fit in extremely
and techniques devised from it, has been sub- diverse fields may be far greater than even
ject to little or no modification may attest to Kelly could have anticipated.

SUMMARY POINTS
1. Personal construct psychology anticipated numerous subsequent developments in
psychology.
2. It is not, as sometimes described, merely a cognitive psychology of the individual, but
is concerned with the whole person, including the person in relation to others.
3. Particular areas in which the theory has been developed include implicative relation-
ships between constructs, self-construing, social relationships, emotions, relationships
with other theories, and research testing aspects of the theory.

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ANRV296-PS58-18 ARI 17 November 2006 1:32

4. There has been considerable adaptation of Kelly’s repertory grid and self-
characterization methods for the assessment of construing; several other assessment
methods have also been developed.
5. Personal construct psychology has been applied extensively in the clinical, educational,
and organizational fields, as well as in a wide range of other areas.
6. There is a growing evidence base for personal construct psychotherapy.

FUTURE ISSUES
by City University of New York, The Graduate Center on 11/01/10. For personal use only.

1. There should be further elaboration of the position of personal construct psychology

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in relation to constructivism and other contemporary psychological approaches.

2. Various aspects of personal construct theory, such as Kelly’s view of choice, could be
subjected to further research investigation.
3. The extensive developments that have occurred in personal construct assessment
techniques have focused more on measures of the structure and content of construing
than on construing processes. The assessment of the latter should be a priority for
further developments in the area.
4. The recent reconsideration of the personal construct psychology view of psychological
disorder has scope for further elaboration.
5. There should be development of the evidence base for personal construct interven-
tions in clinical and other settings.

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Wiggins JS, Pincus AL. 1992. Personality: structure and assessment. Annu. Rev. Psychol. 43:473–
504
Winter DA. 1985. Neurotic disorders: the curse of certainty. See Button 1985, pp. 103–31
Winter DA. 1989. An alternative construction of agoraphobia. In Agoraphobia: Current Perspec-
tives on Theory and Treatment, ed. K Gournay, pp. 93–119. London: Routledge
Winter DA. 1990. Therapeutic alternatives for psychological disorder: personal construct
psychology investigations in a health service setting. See Neimeyer & Neimeyer 1990,
pp. 89–116
Winter DA. 1992. Personal Construct Psychology in Clinical Practice: Theory, Research and
Comprehensively
reviews clinical Applications. London: Routledge
applications of Winter DA. 1996. Psychotherapy’s contrast pole. In Empirical Constructivism in Europe: The
personal construct Personal Construct Approach, ed. J Scheer, A Catina, pp. 149–59. Giessen: Psychosozial-
psychology. Verlag
Winter DA. 2003. Repertory grid technique as a psychotherapy research measure. Psychother.
Res. 13:25–42
Winter DA. 2006. Destruction as a constructive choice. In Forensic Psychiatry: Influences of Evil,
ed. T Mason, pp. 153–77. Totowa, NJ: Humana
Winter DA, Viney LL. 2005. Personal Construct Psychotherapy: Advances in Theory, Practice and
Research. London: Whurr
Winter DA, Watson S. 1999. Personal construct psychotherapy and the cognitive therapies:
different in theory but can they be differentiated in practice? J. Constr. Psychol. 12:1–22
Zanoli R, Naspetti S. 2002. Consumer motivations in the purchase of organic food. Br. Food J.
104:643–53

RELATED RESOURCES
Journals
Journal of Constructivist Psychology
Personal Construct Theory and Practice

476 Walker · Winter

ANRV296-PS58-18 ARI 17 November 2006 1:32

PCP information site

http://www.pcp-net.de/info/index.html. This site contains the most comprehensive range of
information about PCP resources, events, conferences, email lists, constructivist groups,
personalities, and more.
Recommended general introductions to PCP
Bannister D, Fransella F. 1986. Inquiring Man. London: Croom Helm. 3rd ed.
Dalton P, Dunnett G. 2005. A Psychology for Living: Personal Construct Theory for Professionals
and Clients. Philadelphia, PA: Whurr. 2nd ed.
Epting FR, Leitner LM, Raskin JD. 2005. George Kelly and personal construct psychology.
In Personality and Personal Growth, ed. R Frager, J Fadiman, pp. 291–310. Upper Saddle
River, NJ: Pearson. 6th ed.
The Internet Encyclopaedia of Personal Construct Psychology, ed. J Scheer, BM Walker.
http://www.pcp-net.org/encyclopaedia/
by City University of New York, The Graduate Center on 11/01/10. For personal use only.
Annu. Rev. Psychol. 2007.58:453-477. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org

www.annualreviews.org • Personal Construct Psychology 477

 Contents ARI 8 November 2006 21:2

Annual Review of
Psychology

Volume 58, 2007

Contents
by City University of New York, The Graduate Center on 11/01/10. For personal use only.
Annu. Rev. Psychol. 2007.58:453-477. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org

Prefatory

Research on Attention Networks as a Model for the Integration of

Psychological Science
Michael I. Posner and Mary K. Rothbart ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 1

Cognitive Neuroscience

The Representation of Object Concepts in the Brain

Alex Martin ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 25

Depth, Space, and Motion

Perception of Human Motion

Randolph Blake and Maggie Shiffrar ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 47

Form Perception (Scene Perception) or Object Recognition

Visual Object Recognition: Do We Know More Now Than We Did 20

Years Ago?
Jessie J. Peissig and Michael J. Tarr ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 75

Animal Cognition

Causal Cognition in Human and Nonhuman Animals: A Comparative,

Critical Review
Derek C. Penn and Daniel J. Povinelli ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 97

Emotional, Social, and Personality Development

The Development of Coping

Ellen A. Skinner and Melanie J. Zimmer-Gembeck ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 119

vii
 Contents ARI 8 November 2006 21:2

Biological and Genetic Processes in Development

The Neurobiology of Stress and Development

Megan Gunnar and Karina Quevedo ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 145

Development in Societal Context

An Interactionist Perspective on the Socioeconomic Context of

Human Development
Rand D. Conger and M. Brent Donnellan ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 175

Culture and Mental Health

by City University of New York, The Graduate Center on 11/01/10. For personal use only.
Annu. Rev. Psychol. 2007.58:453-477. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org

Race, Race-Based Discrimination, and Health Outcomes Among

African Americans
Vickie M. Mays, Susan D. Cochran, and Namdi W. Barnes ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 201

Personality Disorders

Assessment and Diagnosis of Personality Disorder: Perennial Issues

and an Emerging Reconceptualization
Lee Anna Clark ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 227

Social Psychology of Attention, Control, and Automaticity

Social Cognitive Neuroscience: A Review of Core Processes

Matthew D. Lieberman ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 259

Inference, Person Perception, Attribution

Partitioning the Domain of Social Inference: Dual Mode and Systems

Models and Their Alternatives
Arie W. Kruglanski and Edward Orehek ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 291

Self and Identity

Motivational and Emotional Aspects of the Self

Mark R. Leary ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 317

Social Development, Social Personality, Social Motivation,

Social Emotion

Moral Emotions and Moral Behavior

June Price Tangney, Jeff Stuewig, and Debra J. Mashek ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 345

viii Contents
 Contents ARI 8 November 2006 21:2

The Experience of Emotion

Lisa Feldman Barrett, Batja Mesquita, Kevin N. Ochsner,
and James J. Gross ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 373

Attraction and Close Relationships

The Close Relationships of Lesbian and Gay Men

Letitia Anne Peplau and Adam W. Fingerhut ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 405

Small Groups
by City University of New York, The Graduate Center on 11/01/10. For personal use only.

Ostracism
Kipling D. Williams ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 425
Annu. Rev. Psychol. 2007.58:453-477. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org

Personality Processes

The Elaboration of Personal Construct Psychology

Beverly M. Walker and David A. Winter ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 453

Cross-Country or Regional Comparisons

Cross-Cultural Organizational Behavior

Michele J. Gelfand, Miriam Erez, and Zeynep Aycan ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 479

Organizational Groups and Teams

Work Group Diversity

Daan van Knippenberg and Michaéla C. Schippers ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 515

Career Development and Counseling

Work and Vocational Psychology: Theory, Research,

and Applications
Nadya A. Fouad ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 543

Adjustment to Chronic Diseases and Terminal Illness

Health Psychology: Psychological Adjustment

to Chronic Disease
Annette L. Stanton, Tracey A. Revenson, and Howard Tennen ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 565

Contents ix
 Contents ARI 8 November 2006 21:2

Research Methodology

Mediation Analysis
David P. MacKinnon, Amanda J. Fairchild, and Matthew S. Fritz ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 593
Analysis of Nonlinear Patterns of Change with Random Coefficient
Models
Robert Cudeck and Jeffrey R. Harring ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 615

Indexes

Cumulative Index of Contributing Authors, Volumes 48–58 ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 639

Cumulative Index of Chapter Titles, Volumes 48–58 ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 644
by City University of New York, The Graduate Center on 11/01/10. For personal use only.
Annu. Rev. Psychol. 2007.58:453-477. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org

Errata

An online log of corrections to Annual Review of Psychology chapters (if any, 1997 to the
present) may be found at http://psych.annualreviews.org/errata.shtml

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