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EMT 207: FLUID MECHANICS 1

1. FLUIDS AND THEIR

PROPERTIES

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1. Fluids and their Properties Fluid Mechanics 1

1.1 Introduction
− Fluid mechanics is a branch of engineering science which deals with the behavior
of fluids (liquid or gases) at rest as well as in motion.
1.2 Properties of Fluids
• Density or Mass Density
− Density or mass density of fluid is defined as the ratio of the mass of the fluid to
its volume.
− Mass per unit volume of a fluid is called density.
− It is denoted by the symbol ‘’ (rho).
− The unit of mass density is kg per cubic meter i.e. kg/m3.
− Mathematically,
Mass of fluid
=
Volume of fluid

− The value of density of water is 1000 kg/m3.

• Specific Weight or Weight Density

− Specific weight or weight density of a fluid is defined as the ratio of weight of a
fluid to its volume.
− Thus, weight per unit volume of a fluid is called weight density.
− It is denoted by the symbol ‘w’.
− Mathematically,
Weight of fluid
w=
Volume of fluid

(Mass of fluid)(Acceleration due to gravity)

=
Volume of fluid
(Mass of fluid)g
=
Volume of fluid
= g
w= g

− The value of specific weight of water is 9.81 X 1000 N/m3 in SI unit.

• Specific Volume
− Specific volume of a fluid is defined as the volume of a fluid occupied by a unit
mass of fluid.
− Thus, specific volume is volume per unit mass of fluid.
− It is expressed as m3/kg.

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− Mathematically,
Volume of fluid
Specific volume =
Mass of fluid

1
=
Mass of fluid
Volume of fluid
1
=


− Thus, specific volume is the reciprocal of mass density.

• Specific Gravity or Relative Density

− Specific gravity is defined as the ratio of the density (or weight density) of a
fluid to the density (or weight density) of a standard fluid.
− For liquids, standard fluid is taken (water) and for gases, standard fluid is taken (air).
− Specific gravity is also called relative density.
− It is dimensionless quantity and is denoted by symbol S.
− Mathematically,
Weight density (Density) of liquid
S(for liquid) =
Weight density (Density) of water
Weight density (Density) of gas
S(for gases) =
Weight density (Density) of air

− Specific gravity of mercury is 13.6.

1.2 Viscosity
− Viscosity is defined as the property of fluid which offers resistance to the
movement of one layer of fluid over another adjacent layer of fluid.
− When two layers of a fluid distance ‘dy’ apart, move one over the another at
different velocities, say u and u + du as shown in fig., the viscosity together with
relative velocity causes a shear stress acting between the fluid layers.

Fig.1.1 Velocity variation near a solid boundary

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− The top layer causes a shear stress on the adjacent lower layer while the lower
layer causes shear stress on the adjacent top layer.
− This shear stress is proportional to the rate of change of velocity with respect to
y.
− It is denoted by symbol  (Tau).
du

dy

du
 = 
dy

− Where µ (called mu) is the constant of proportionality and is known as the co-
efficient of dynamic viscosity or only viscosity.
− du/dy represents the rate of shear strain or rate of shear deformation or
velocity gradient.

=
 du 
 
 dy 

− Viscosity is also defined as the shear stress required to produce unit rate of shear
strain.
Unit:
Shear stress
=
Change of velocity
Change of distance
Force
= Area
Length 1

Time Length
Force Time
=
(Length)
2

Ns
− In SI system, Unit of viscosity is = pa s
m2
− In MKS system, Unit of viscosity is kgf sec
m2
dyne sec
− In CGS system, Unit of viscosity is (or Poise)
cm2
1Ns
Note: 1 Poise =
10 m2

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• Newton’s Law of Viscosity

− Its states that the shear stress () on a fluid element layer is directly proportional
to the rate of shear strain.
− The constant of proportionality is called the co-efficient of viscosity.
− Mathematically,
du
=
dy

1.3 Variation of Viscosity with Temperature

− The viscosity of fluid is due to two contributing factors, namely
1) Cohesion between the fluid molecules

2) Transfer of momentum between the molecules

− In the case of gases the interspace between the molecules is larger and so the
intermolecular cohesion is negligible. However in the case of liquids the
molecules are very close to each other and accordingly a large cohesion exists.
Hence in liquids, the viscosity is mainly due to molecular momentum transfer.
− The intermolecular cohesive force decreases with rise of temperature and hence
with the increase in temperature the viscosity of a liquid decreases.
− Poiseuille gave the following formula, showing interdependence of the viscosity
of a liquid on temperature.
For Liquid
 1 
 = 0  
 1 + t + t 
2

where  = viscosity of the liquid at t℃in poise

 = viscosity of the liquid at 4℃in poise

 and  are constant characteristics of the liquid

For water,

 = 0.01776 poise  = 0.03368  = 0.000221

For gas
− In this case of gases, viscosity depends mainly on transfer of molecular
momentum in a direction at right angles to the direction of motion. As the
temperature increases, the molecular agitation increases i.e. there will be large
momentum transfer and hence the viscosity increases.
 = 0 + t −t2

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1 Fluids and their Properties Fluid Mechanics 1

1.4 Classification of fluid

− The fluid may be classified into the following five types:
1. Ideal fluid 4. Non-Newtonian fluid
2. Real fluid 5. Ideal plastic fluid.
3. Newtonian fluid

Fig.1.2 Types of fluid

1. Ideal Fluid
− A fluid, which is incompressible and is having no viscosity, is known as ideal fluid.
− Ideal fluid is only an imaginary fluid because all the fluids, which exit, have some
viscosity.
2. Real Fluid
− A fluid which possesses viscosity is known as real fluid.
− All the fluids in practice are real fluids.
3. Newtonian fluid
− A real fluid, in which the shear stress is directly proportional to the rate of shear
strain (or velocity gradient), is known as the Newtonian fluid.
− Example: Water, Air, Thin motor oil
4. Non-Newtonian Fluid
− A real fluid, in which the shear stress is not proportional to the rate of shear
strain (or velocity gradient), is known as the non-Newtonian fluid.
− Example: Tooth Paste
5. Ideal-Plastic Fluid
− A fluid, in which shear stress is more than the yield value and shear stress is
proportional to the rate of shear strain (or velocity gradient), is known as
ideal plastic fluid.
− Example: Sewage sludge
1.5 Surface tension
− Surface tension is defined as the tensile force acting on the surface of a liquid
in contact with a gas or on the surface between two immiscible liquid such that
the contact surface behaves like a membrane under tension.

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− It is denoted by Greek letter  (sigma).

− SI unit of surface tension is N/m, and MKS unit is kgf/m.

Fig.1.3 Surface tension

− Consider three molecules A, B, C of a liquid in a mass of liquid.

− The molecule A is attracted in all directions equally by the surrounding molecules
of the liquid. Thus, resultant force acting on molecule A is zero.
− But molecule B, which is situated near the free surface, is acted upon by upward
and downward forces which are unbalanced. Thus, a net resultant force on
molecule B is acting in the downward direction.
− The molecule C, situated on the free surface of liquid, does experience resultant
downward force.
− All the molecules on the free surface of the liquid act like a very thin film under
tension of the surface of the liquid act as through it is an elastic membrane under
tension.
• Surface Tension on Liquid Droplet
− Consider a small spherical droplet of a liquid of radius ‘r’. On the entire surface of
the droplet, the tensile force due to surface tension will be acting.
− Let  = Surface tension of the liquid
p = Pressure intensity inside the droplet (in excess of the outside pressure)
d = Dia. of droplet

(a ) Droplet (b) Surface Tension (c) Pressure Force

Fig.1.4 Force on droplet

− Let droplet is cut into two halves.

− The forces acing on one half (say left half) will be….

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I. Tensile force due to surface tension acting around the circumference

of the cut portion as shown in fig 1.4 and is equal to
= Circumference
= d

II. Pressure force on the area

= p  d2
4

These two forces will be equal and opposite under equilibrium condition i.e.,

p d2 =  d
4
 d
p = 
2
d
4
4
p =
d

− Equation shows that with increase of diameter of the droplet, pressure

intensity inside the droplet decreases.

• Surface Tension on a Hollow Bubble

− A hollow bubble like a soap bubble in air has two surfaces in contact with air,
one inside and other outside.
− Thus two surfaces are subjected to surface tension.

p d2 = 2( d)
4
2 d
p = 
2
d
4
8
p =
d

• Surface Tension on a Liquid Jet

− Consider a liquid jet of diameter ‘d’ and length ‘L’ as shown in fig 1.5.
Let  = Surface tension of the liquid

p = Pressure intensity inside the liquid jet above the outside pressure

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Fig.1.5 Forces on liquid jet

− The equilibrium of the semi jet, we have

Force due to pressure =p area of semi jet
=pLd
Force due to surface tension =2L

− Equating the forces we have

p Ld = 2L
2
p =
d

1.6 Capillarity or Meniscus Effect

− Capillarity is defined as a phenomenon of rise or fall of s liquid surface in a small
tube relative to the adjacent general level of liquid when tube is held vertically in
the liquid.
− The rise of the liquid surface is known as capillarity rise while the fall of liquid
surface is known as capillarity depression or fall.
− It is expressed in terms of cm or mm of liquid.
− Its value depends upon the specific weight of the liquid, diameter of the tube and
surface tension of the liquid.
• Expression for Capillarity Rise
− Consider a glass tube of small diameter ‘d’ opened at the both ends and is
inserted in a liquid, say water. The liquid will rise in the tube above the level of
liquid.

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Fig.1.6 Capillarity rise

− Let h=height of liquid in the tube.

− Under a state of equilibrium, weight of liquid of height h is balanced by the force
at the surface of the liquid in the tube. But the force at the surface of the liquid
in the tube is due to the surface tension.
− Let  = Surface tension of liquid
 = Angle of contact between liquid and glass tube.

Weight of liquid of height h in the tube = (Area of tube  h)g


= d2 hg (1)
4

where  = density of liquid

Vertical component of the surface tensile force = (Circumference)cos

=dcos (2)
For equilibrium, equating (1) and (2)

 2
d hg =  dcos
4
 dcos
h =
 2
d g
4

4cos
h =
gd

− The value of  between water and clean glass tube is approximately equal to zero
and hence cos is equal to unity.
− Then rise of water is given by
4
h=
gd

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• Expression for Capillarity Fall

− If the glass tube is dipped in mercury, the level of mercury in the tube will be
lower than general level of the outside liquid as shown in fig 1.7.

Mercury

Fig.1.7 capillarity fall

− Let h = height of depression in tube

− Then in equilibrium, two forces are acting on the mercury inside the tube. First
one is due to surface tension acting in the downward direction and is equal to
= dcos (1)

− Second force is due to hydrostatic force acting upward and is equal to intensity
of the pressure at the depth ‘h’ X Area

= p d2
4

=gh d2 (2)
4

− Equating the two forces


 dcos =gh d2
4
4cos
h =
gd

− Value of  for mercury and glass tube is 128.

1.8 Vapor Pressure and Cavitation

− A change from a liquid state to gaseous state is known as vaporization.
− Vaporization (which is depend upon the prevailing pressure and temperature
condition) occurs because of continuous escaping of the molecules through the
free liquid surface.

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− Consider a liquid (say water) which is confined in a closed vessel.

− Let the temperature of liquid is 20C and pressure is atmospheric. This liquid is
vaporized at 100C.
− When vaporization takes place, the molecules escape from the free surface of
the liquid. These vapor molecules get accumulated in the space between the free
liquid surface and top of the vessel.
− These accumulated vapors exert pressure on the liquid surface. This pressure is
known as vapor pressure of the liquid or this is the pressure at which the liquid is
converted into vapors.
− Again, consider the same liquid at 20C at the atmospheric pressure in the
closed vessel. If the pressure above the liquid surface is reduced by some
means, the boiling temperature will also reduce.
− If the pressure is reduced to such an extent that it become equal to or less than
vapor pressure, the boiling of liquid will start, though the temperature of liquid is
20C.
− Thus, a liquid may boil even at ordinary temperature, if the pressure above
the liquid surface is reduced so as to be equal or less than the vapor pressure
of the liquid at that temperature.
− Now consider a flowing liquid in a system. If the pressure at any point in this
flowing liquid becomes equal to or less than the vapor pressure, the vaporization
of the liquid starts.
− The bubbles of these vapors are carried by the flowing fluid into the region of the
high pressure where they collapse, giving rise to high impact pressure.
− The pressure developed by the collapsing bubbles is so high that the material
from adjoining boundaries gets eroded and cavities are formed on them. This
phenomenon is known as cavitation.
− Hence the cavitation is the phenomenon of formation of vapor bubbles of a
flowing liquid in a region where the pressure of the liquid falls below the vapor
pressure and sudden collapsing of these vapor bubbles in a region of higher
pressure.
− When vapor bubbles collapse, a very high pressure is created. The metallic
surface, above which the liquid is flowing, is subjected to these high pressures,
which cause pitting action on the surface. Thus, cavities are formed on the
metallic surface and hence the name is cavitation.

1.9 Compressibility and bulk modulus

− Bulk modulus is defined as the ratio of compressive stress (increase in pressure)
to volumetric strain.
− Consider a cylinder fitted with a piston as shown in fig 1.8.
− Let the pressure is increase to p + dp, the volume of gas decrease from V to
V −dV.

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Fig 1.8

Then increase in pressure = dp kgf / m2

Decrease in volume = dV m3
dV
Volumetric strain = −
V

(-ve sign means the volume decreases with increase of pressure)

Increase of pressure
Bulk modulus K =
Volumetric strain
dp
=
dV
− V
−dp
= V
dV
1
Compressibility =
K

• Kinematic viscosity
− It is define as the ratio between the dynamic viscosity and density of fluid.
− It is denoted by the Greek symbol (called ‘nu’).
− Thus mathematically,
Viscosity
=
Density

 =


Unit

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Force Time
=
Mass
Length

Length
Mass  Time
(Time) (Length)
2 2

= =
Mass Time
Length

− In MKS system and SI the unit of kinematic viscosity is m2/s.

− In CGS system it is cm2/s.

NOTE :

1.10 Hypothesis of continuum

− Fluids are aggregation of molecules, widely spaced for a gas, closely spaced for a
liquid.
− The distance between molecules is very large compared with the molecules
diameter.
− Molecules are not fixed in a lattice but move about freely relative to each other.
Thus, fluid density, or mass per unit volume, has no precise meaning because
the number of molecules occupying a given volume continuously changes.
− To illustrate consider a large container filed with a very small mass of gas such
that only a few molecules are present. Due to the lesser number of molecules
the force exerted per unit area on the tank wall due to boundary off the
molecules, will depends on probability of molecules bouncing of a particular wall
at a time.
− The pressure will vary in discontinuous fashion. Therefore, distribution of
matter is not continuous i.e., continuum does not exist.
− Similarly, in case of very small of volumes of a dense gas which contains very few
molecules, the continuum will not exist.
− It is necessary to consider that the actual molecular structure is replaced by
hypothetical continuous medium, called the continuum.
− Without the concept of continuum, one would have to take into account the
action of each molecule or group of molecules in a flow.

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1.11 LIST OF FORMULA

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REVISION QUESTIONS
Example 1: A 50 mm diameter shaft rotates with 500 rpm in a 80mm long
Journal bearing with 51 mm internal diameter. The annular space between the shaft
and bearing is filled with lubricating oil of dynamic viscosity 1 poise. Determine the
torque required and power absorbed to overcome friction.

Solution:
Given data:
d = 50 mm = 0.050 m N = 500 rpm
L = 80 mm = 0.08 m  = 1 poise = 0.1 Ns / m2
D = 51 mm = 0.051 m
Find:
T=?
P=?

Fig. 1.9 Journal bearing

2NT
→ Power P = (1)
60
d (2)
→ Torque T = F
2
→ Shear Stress
du
=
dy
F du
 =
A dy
u−0
F = A
dy
u−0
F = dL 
dy

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Example 2: A plate, 0.03 mm distant from a fixed plate, moves at 70 cm/s and
requires a force of 3N/m2 to maintain this speed. Calculate the Fluid viscosity
between the plates.

Solution:
Given data:
dy = 0.03 mm = 0.0310−3m
F = 3 N / m2
u = 70 cm / s = 0.7 m / s
Find:
= ?
→ Here force F is given in N / m2 which is the shear stress 
du
=
dy
u−0
=
dy
0.7 − 0
3 = 
0.0310−3
 = 1.28 10−4 Ns / m2
 = 1.28 10−3 poise

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Example 3: The pressure outside the droplet of water of diameter 0.04 mm is 10.21
N/cm2 (at atmospheric pressure). Calculate pressure within the droplet if surface
tension is given as 0.075 N/m of water.

Solution:

Given data:
Diameter of droplet d = 0.04 mm = 0.04 10−3m
Pressure outside the droplet = 10.32 N / cm2 = 10.32 104 N / m2
Surface tension = 0.075 N / m
Find:
pressure within the droplet =?

→ The pressure inside the droplet, in excess of outside pressure is given by equation

 Pressure inside the droplet = p +pressure outside the droplet

= 0.725 + 10.31
= 11.045 N / cm2

Assignment:
1. Define the following terms; viscosity, surface tension, capillarity, specific gravity,
vapor pressure and ideal plastic fluid.
2. State the difference between the following types of fluids
i. Ideal fluid and real fluid
ii. Newtonian fluid and non-Newtonian fluid.
3. Explain the phenomenon of cavitation.
4𝜎
4. Show that the expression for capillary rise is given by the expression h = .
𝜌𝑔𝑑
5. Calculate specific weight, mass density, specific volume and specific gravity of a
liquid having a volume of 4m3 and weighing 29.43kN. (w=7357.58N/m3, =750
kg/m3, =1.33 x10−3 m3/kg, S=0.75).
6. Determine the minimum size of the glass tubing that can be used to measure water
level if capillary rise is not to exceed 2.5mm. Take σ = 0.0736 N/m. (D=12mm).

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2
PRESSURE AND HEAD

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2.1 Pressure
− When a certain mass of fluids is held in static equilibrium by confining it within solid
boundaries, it exerts force along direction perpendicular to the boundary in contact. This
force is called fluid pressure. (Fig. 2.1)
− It is defined as a normal force exerted by a fluid per unit area. Unit: 1 Pa = 1 N/m2
1 bar = 105 N/m2

Fig. 2.1 Normal force exerted by a fluid to the boundary of surface

2.2 Types of Pressures

2.2.1 Atmospheric Pressure
− Air above the surface of liquids exerts pressure on the exposed surface of the liquid
and normal to the surface. This pressure exerted by the atmosphere is called
atmospheric pressure.
− Atmospheric pressure at a place depends on the elevation of the place and the
temperature.
− Atmospheric pressure is measured using an instrument called ‘Barometer’ and hence
atmospheric pressure is also called Barometric pressure.

Fig. 2.2 Relationship between pressures

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2.2.2 Absolute Pressure

− It is defined as the pressure which is measured with reference to absolute zero pressure.
It is given by pabs = pgauge + patm ( Fig. 2.2)
− Absolute pressure at a point can never be negative since there can be no pressure less
than absolute zero pressure.
2.2.3 Gauge Pressure
− It is defined as the pressure which is measured above the atmospheric pressure.
− It can be measured by pressure measuring instrument in which atmospheric pressure is
taken as datum and it marked as zero.
2.2.4 Vacuum Pressure (Negative Gauge Pressure)
− It is defined as the pressure below the atmospheric pressure. It is given
by pvac = patm − pabs .
2.3 Pascal’s Law
Pascal’s law: “Pressure or Intensity of pressure at a point in a static mass of fluid is equal
in all directions.”

Fig. 2.3 Forces on a fluid element

Proof:
− Let us consider an arbitrary fluid element of wedge shape (ABC =  ) in fluid mass at
rest with three planes around a point shown in Fig. 2.3. Let px, p y and pz are the
intensity of pressure acting on the face in different directions with width of element
perpendicular to the plane of paper is unity(dz = 1) . The system of forces should be in
equilibrium.
The forces acting on the elements are:
1. Pressure forces normal to the surfaces and,
2. Weight of the fluid element in the vertical direction.
Pressure force on the face AB = px  Area of face AB = px  dy  dz
Pressure force on the face BC = pz  Area of face BC = pz  ds  dz
Pressure force on the face AC = py  Area of face AC = py  dx  dz

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
Weight of element = (Mass of element) g = (Volume   )  g =  dx  dy  dz    g

 2 
Resolving the forces in x direction,  Fx = 0 thus we have,
(px  dy  dz) − (pz ds  dz)cos = 0
px  dy 1− ((pz ds 1)cos) = 0 ( ds cos = dy)
px = pz ......................................................................................................(2.1)
Resolving the forces in y direction,  Fy = 0 thus we have,

(py  dx  dz) − (pz ds  dz ) sin −dx  dy  dz    g = 0

2

py  dx 1− pz  ( ds 1)sin −dx × dy 1   g = 0 ( ds sin = dx)

2
Neglect the weight of very small element,
py = pz .......................…………………………………….….. (2.2)
From equation (2.1) and (2.2) we have,
px = py = pz.......................................................................................................(2.3)
The above equation shows that intensity of pressure at a point in a static mass of fluid is
equal in all directions.

2.4 Pressure Variation in Fluid at Rest (Hydrostatic Law)

Hydrostatic law states that the rate of increase of pressure in vertically downward
direction (dp/dz) must be equal to the weight density (ρg) of the fluid at that point.
Proof:
Consider the small cylindrical fluid element as shown in Fig. 2.4.

Fig. 2.4 Forces on a fluid element

Let, A = Cross sectional area of element
Z = Height of fluid element
p = Pressure on face AB
Z = Distance of fluid element from free surface

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2.5 Measurement of Pressure

Various devices used to measure fluid pressure can be classified into,
1. Manometers 2. Mechanical gauges

2.5.1 Manometers
− Manometers are the pressure measuring devices which are based on the principal of
balancing the column of the liquids whose pressure is to be measured by the same liquid
or another liquid.
Classification of Manometers
Manometers are broadly classified into:
A. Simple Manometers
B. Differential Manometers

2.5.2 Mechanical Gauges

− Mechanical gauges consist of an elastic element which deflects under the action of
applied pressure and this movement will operate a pointer on a graduated scale.

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The mechanical pressure gauges are:

1. Diaphragm pressure gauge
2. Bourdon tube pressure gauge
3. Dead weight pressure gauge
4. Below pressure gauge

2.6. Simple Manometers

Simple monometers consist of glass tube having one of its end connected to a point where
pressure is to be measured and other end is open to atmosphere.
Types of Simple manometers are:
1. Piezometer
2. U-tube manometer
3. Single column manometer
4. Inclined column manometer

2.6.1 Piezometer

Fig. 2.5 Piezometer

− It consists of a glass tube inserted in the wall of the vessel or pipe at the level of point at
which the intensity of pressure is to be measured as shown in Fig. 2.5. The other end of
the piezometer is exposed to air. The height of the liquid in the piezometer gives the
pressure head from which the intensity of pressure can be calculated.
− If at a point A, the height of liquid say water h in piezometer tube, then pressure at
point A is given by  gh according to the Hydrostatic law. So, In equilibrium condition, pA
=  gh
− To minimize capillary rise effects the diameters of the tube is kept more than 12mm.
Merits
1. Simple in construction
2. Economical
Demerits
1. Not suitable for high pressure intensity.
2. Pressure of gases cannot be measured.

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2.6.2 U-tube Manometer

− A U-tube manometer consists of a glass tube bent in U-Shape, one end of which
is connected to the point at which pressure is to be measured and the other end
is exposed to atmosphere. U-tube consists of a liquid of specific of gravity is
greater than the specific gravity of the liquid whose pressure intensity is to be
measured.
(A) For Gauge Pressure
− Let B be the point at which pressure is to be measured, whose value is p . Take a
datum line A − A as shown in Fig. 2.6 (a).
Let h1 = Height of the light liquid above the datum line
h2 = Height of the heavy liquid above the datum line
S = Specific gravity of light liquid and  is density of light liquid
1 1

S 2 = Specific gravity of heavy liquid and  2 is density of heavy liquid

Fig. 2.6 U-tube manometer

− As the pressure is the same for the horizontal surface. Hence pressure above the
horizontal datum line A − A in the left column and in the right column of U-tube
manometer should be same.
Pressure above datum line above A − A in the left column = p1 +1 gh1
Pressure above datum line above A − A in the right column = 2gh2
Hence equating the two pressures p +  gh =  gh
1 1 2 2
p =  gh −  gh
2 2 1 1

(B) For Vacuum Pressure

− For measuring vacuum pressure, the level of the heavy liquid in the manometer will be
as shown in Fig. 2.6 (b).
Pressure above datum line above A − A in the left column =  gh + gh + p
2 2 1 1

Pressure above datum line above A − A in the right column = 0

Hence equating the two pressures 2gh2+  1gh 1+ p = 0
p = −(2gh2 + 1gh1 )

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2.6.3. Single Column Manometer

− A single column manometer is a modified form of U-tube manometer in which reservoir
having large cross sectional area (100 times) as compared to cross sectional area of U –
tube connected to it as shown in Fig. 2.7.
− For any change in pressure, change in the level of manometric liquid in the reservoir is
small and change in level of manometric liquid in the U- tube is large. The other limb
may be vertical or inclined. Thus, there are two type of single column manometer as:
1. Vertical single column manometer
2. Inclined single column manometer
1. Vertical Single Column Manometer
− Fig. 2.7 shows the vertical single column manometer. Let X − X be the datum line in
the reservoir and in the right limb of the manometer, when it is not connected to the
pipe. When the manometer is connected to the pipe, due to high pressure at A, the
heavy liquid in the reservoir will be pushed downwards and will rise in the right limb.

Fig. 2.7 Vertical single column manometer

Let
h = Fall of the heavy liquid in reservoir
h2 = Rise of heavy liquid in right limb
h1 = Height of center of pipe above X − X
pA = Pressure at A, which is to be measured
A = Cross section area of the reservoir
a = Cross section area of the right limb
S1 = Specific gravity of liquid in pipe and 1 is density of liquid in pipe
S2 = Specific gravity of heavy liquid in reservoir and right limb and 2 is density of
liquid in reservoir
Fall of heavy liquid in reservoir will cause a rise of heavy liquid level in the right limb.
Ah = a  h2

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2. Pressure and its measurement Fluid Mechanics 1

a  h2
h = ……………………………………………………………………………(2.5)
A
Now consider the datum lineY −Y . Then pressure in the right limb above Y − Y
= 2  g (h + h2 )
Then pressure in the left limb above Y − Y
= 1  g  (h + h1 ) + pA
Equating the pressures we have,
2g (h + h2 ) = 1g (h + h1 ) + pA
pA = h   2 g − 1g  + 2gh2 − 1gh1
a  h2
Substituting the h = in above equation, we get
A

a
As the area A is very large compared to a, hence becomes very small and can be
A
neglected. Then
pA = 2gh2 − 1gh1................................................................................................................................................. (2.6)

2. Inclined Single Column Manometer

Fig. 2.8 Inclined single column manometer

− Fig. 2.8 shows the inclined single column manometer. This manometer is more sensitive.
Due to inclination the distance moved by the heavy liquid in the right limb will be more.
Let L = length of heavy liquid moved in right limb form X − X
 = Inclination of right limb with horizontal
h2 = Vertical rise of heavy liquid in right limb from X − X = Lsin
From equation (2.6), the pressure at A is,

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2.7 Differential Manometers

− Differential manometers are used to measure the pressure difference between two
points. They consist of a U-tube, containing heavy liquid, whose two ends are
connected to the two points, whose difference of pressure is to be measured.
Types of differential manometers are:
1. U-tube Differential manometers
2. Inverted U-tube differential manometers
2.7.1 U-Tube Differential Manometers

Fig. 2.9 U-tube differential manometer

− In Fig. 2.9 (a), the two points A and B are at different level and also contained liquids of
different specific gravity. These points are connected to the U-tube manometer. Let the
pressure at A and B are PA and pB .
Let h = Difference of mercury level
y = Distance of the center of B, from the mercury level in the right limb
x = Distance of the center of A, from the mercury level in the right limb
1 = Density of liquid at A
2 = Density of liquid at B
g = Density of heavy liquid
Taking at datum line at X − X .
Pressure above X − X in the left limb = 1g (h + x) + pA
Pressure above X − X in the right limb = g gh + 2gy + pB
Equating the two pressures, we have
1g ( h + x) + pA =  g gh + 2gy + pB
pA − pB = g gh + 2gy − 1g (h + x)
In Fig. 2.9 (b), the two points A and B are at same level and contained liquids of density.
Pressure above X − X in the right limb = g gh + 2gx + pB

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Pressure above X − X in the left limb = 1g (h + x) + pA

Equating the two pressures, we have
g gh + 2gx + pB = 1g ( h + x ) + pA
pA − pB = g gh + 2gx − 1g (h + x)

2.7.2 Inverted U-Tube Differential Manometers

− It consists of an inverted U-tube having two ends are connected to the pipes at points A
and B whose difference of pressure is to be measured as shown in Fig. 2.10. It is used for
measuring the difference of low pressures. Let the pressure at A is more than the
pressure at B.

Fig. 2.10 Inverted U-tube differential manometer

Let h1 = Height of liquid in left limb below the datum line X − X
h2 = Height of liquid in right limb
h = Difference of light liquid
1 = Density of liquid at A
2 = Density of liquid at B
s = Density of light liquid
pA = Pressure at A
pB = Pressure at B

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2.8 Mechanical Pressure Gauges

2.8.1 Bourdon Tube Pressure Gauge
− This gauge is consist of elastic bent in circular arc, fixed at one end and free at other
end as shown in Fig. 2.11. The fixed end is attached at the side of application of
pressure and free end attached with the sector through adjustable link. The sector is in
mesh with the pinion which is fixed with the pointer on the calibrated scale.
− When the pressure inside the tube is increase, tube will uncoil. So that the pointer gives
a reading on the scale due to movement of the pinion through sector and free end of
tube.
− Tube material: Brass, copper, stainless steel etc.
− Advantages: Simple construction, Low cost, high pressure range (up to 700 kPa),
Accuracy is good
− Disadvantage: Susceptibility to shock and vibration, spring constant effect is major
consideration.

Fig.2.11. Burdon tube pressure gauge

[Note: Alloy steel Burdon tube used for measure the pressure up to 6000 bar.]

2.8.2 Diaphragm Pressure Gauge

− A diaphragm is a thin plate of circular shape clamped with its edge. When pressures are
applied on the diaphragm, it is deflected. This deflection of the diaphragm is
proportional to the pressure.
− Fig. 2.12 shows a construction of the diaphragm pressure gauge. If the pressure applied
on the lower side of the diaphragm is greater than atmospheric pressure, the diaphragm
deflected in upward. Then pointer indicates a pressure on the calibrated scale.
− Diaphragm shape & material: Flat or corrugated, metallic (brass, stainless steel,
phosphor bronze) or Non-metallic (rubber, leather, Teflon, nylon)
− Advantage: Small size & medium cost, measures all types of pressure, useful also for
slurry materials, good linearity, withstand with high pressure.

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− Dis-advantages: Lack of shock and vibration, limited to relatively small pressure,

repairing is much difficult.

Fig.2.12. Diaphragm Pressure Gauge pressure gauge

2.8.3 Bellows Pressure Gauge

− Bellows is elastic material element, longitudinally expansible and collapsible
member. As per fig. 2.13 shows pressure is applied inside the bellows gauge, it
acts outside of the bellows gets compressed and moves against the opposite force
of the spring. This free end movement is transmitted to the pointer and gives a
reading on the calibrated scale.
− Advantage: Simple and robust construction, medium cost, measure all types of
pressure, well for low to medium pressure measurement.
− Dis-advantages: not suitable for high pressure, Temperature changes is affect, not
suitable for dynamic pressure measurement.

Fig.2.13. Bellows pressure gauge

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REVISION QUESTIONS
Example 1: The pressure intensity at a point in a fluid is given 5N/cm2. Find the
corresponding height of fluid when fluid is (i) water (ii) oil of specific gravity=0.80 and (iii)
kerosene of specific gravity = 0.74.
Solution:
Given: p = 5N/cm2 = 50000 5N/m2
specific gravity = density of object/ density of water
density of water = 1000 Kg/m3
𝑝
p = ρgh or h =
𝜌𝑔
Therefore,
50000
h for water = = 5.096 m
1000×9.81
50000
h for oil = = 6.37 m
0.8×1000×9.81
50000
h for kerosene = = 6.886 m
0.74×1000×9.81

Example 2: A U-tube manometer contains the mercury as monomeric liquid. One end of
manometer is connected to a pipe in which a fluid of sp. gravity 0.8. The level of mercury
in right limb is 8 cm above the center of pipe. Calculate pressure of fluid in a pipe when the
difference of mercury level in two limbs 18 cm. Take density of mercury = 13.6 × 103 kg/m3.

Solution: Given Data: To be Calculated:

a)

 In equilibrium condition, from fig.

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Example 3: A single column manometer is connected to a pipe containing a liquid of specific

gravity 0.9 as shown in fig. Find the pressure in pipe if the area of the reservoir is 100 times the
area of the tube for the manometer reading as shown in t h e figure shown below. The specific
gravity of mercury is 13.6.

Solution
Given Data: To be Calculated:
a)

 In equilibrium condition, from fig.

Where,

Example 4: A U-tube differential manometer containing two pipes at A and B. The pipe A
contains a liquid of specific gravity 1.5 under a pressure of . The pipe B contains oil
of specific gravity 0.8 under a pressure of . The pipe A i s 3 m above the pipe B.
The height of liquid in the left limb is 4m below point A. sketch the manometer and calculate the
difference in mercury level in the differential manometer. Take density of mercury = 13.6 ×
103 kg/m3.

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Solution: Given Data: To be Calculated:

a)

 In equilibrium condition, from fig.

Using above data,

100×103 + (1.5×103 × 9.81 × 4) + (13.6×103 × 9.81 × h) = 175×103 + ((0.8×103 × 9.81 × (4+h-3))
16140 = (13.6×103 × 9.81 × h) - (0.8×103 × 9.81 × (1+h))
16140 = 133416h – 7848– 7848h
23988 = 125568h
h = 0.191m

Assignment:
1. Define pascals law and hydrostatic law.
2. Show that pressure (P) at a point in a static liquid is given by the expression P=ρgz.
Where ρ = density of the liquid
g=acceleration due to gravity
z=depth of the point from the liquid surface
3. Briefly describe two classification of pressure measuring devices.
4. Derive an expression that shows that intensity of pressure at a point in a static mass of
fluid is equal in all directions.

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3
STATIC FORCES ON SURFACE AND
BUOYANCY

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3.1 Total Pressure and Centre of Pressure

1. Total pressure is defined as the force exerted by a static fluid on a surface either
plane or curved when the fluid comes in contact with the surface and this force
always normal to the surface.
2. Centre of pressure is defined as the point of application of the total pressure on the
surface.
3. There are two cases of submerged surfaces on which the total pressure force and
center of pressure is to be determined.
4. The submerged surfaces may be:
1. Plane surface submerged in static fluid
− Horizontal plane surface
− Vertical plane surface
− Inclined plane surface
2. Curved surface submerged in static fluid
3.2 Horizontal Plane Surface Submerged in Liquid
1. Consider a plane horizontal surface immersed in a static fluid is shown in Fig. 3.1.
Since every point of the surface is at the same depth from the free surface of the
liquid, the pressure intensity will be equal on the entire surface is given by p =
gh.
2. Let, A = Total area of the surface
G = Centre of gravity of plane surface
P = Centre of pressure
h̄ = Distance of COG of the area from free surface of liquid = h is the depth of
the surface
hc = Distance of center of pressure from free surface of liquid = h

Fig. 3.1 Horizontal plane surface submerged in liquid

3. Total pressure force, F on the surface,
F = p  Area =  gh  A
 F = ghA

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3.3 Vertical Plane Surface Submerged in Liquid

1. Consider a plane surface of arbitrary shape immerged in a liquid as shown in Fig. 3.2.

Fig. 3.2 Vertical plane surface submerged in liquid

2. Let, A = Total area of the surface
−
h = Distance of COG of the area from free surface of liquid
G = Centre of gravity of plane surface
P = Centre of pressure
hc = Distance of center of pressure from free surface of liquid
Total pressure force (F)
− The total pressure on the surface may be determined by dividing the entire surface
into a number of small parallel strips.
− Consider a strip of thickness dh and width b at depth of h from free surface of
liquid as shown in Fig. 3.2.
Pressure intensity on the strip, p =  gh (Hydrostatic law)
Area of strip, dA = b dh
Total pressure force on strip, dF = p  Area =  ghb dh
Total pressure force on whole surface,
F =  dF =   ghb dh =  g  b  h  dh
But,  b  h  dh =  h  dA = Moment of surface area about the free surface of liquid
=Area of surface Distance of COG from free surface = A h̄

 F = gh̄A .......(3.1)

3.4 Inclined Plane Surface Submerged in Liquid

1. Consider an inclined plane surface of arbitrary shape immerged in a liquid such a way
that the surface makes an angle  with the free surface as shown in Fig. 3.3.
Let, A = Total area of an inclined surface
 = An angle at which the immersed surface is inclined with the liquid surface
0 − 0 = An axis perpendicular to the plane of surface and plane of surface
intersects free liquid surface at '0 '
G = Centre of gravity of plane surface
P = Centre of pressure
ȳ = Distance of COG of the surface from 0 − 0

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yc = Distance of center of pressure from 0 − 0

h = Depth of small strip from free surface of liquid
h̄ = Depth of COG of the area from free surface of liquid
hc = Depth of COG of the area from free surface of liquid

Fig. 3.3 Inclined plane surface submerged in liquid

Total pressure force (F)
− Consider the small strip of area dA at a depth h from the free surface at a distance
y from the axis 0 − 0.

From fig. we can write,

− The pressure acting on strip is,

p =  gh = gy sin ( y sin = h)
− The pressure force acting on strip is,
dF = P dA = gy sindA
− Total pressure force on whole surface is,
F =  dF =   gy sin dA =  g sin  ydA

3.5 Curved Surface Submerged in Liquid

1. Consider a curved surface AB wholly submerged in static fluid as shown in Fig. 3.4.
The total pressure force on the curved surface is F. Take two component of the total
pressure force one is horizontal (Fx) and second is vertical (Fy).

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Fig. 3.4 Curved surface submerged in liquid

First component: Horizontal component (Fx)

1. Let us consider surface AB as a vertical plane submerged in the fluid as shown in fig.
3.4. So, Pressure force on the surface,
Fx = gh̄A

Second component: Vertical component (Fy)

2. We know the weight of the fluid gives the total force value on the horizontal
plane. Hence vertical component pressure force is equal to weight of the fluid
carrying by the surface AB.
3. Vertical component,
Fy = m g
 Fy =  V  g
 Fy= Vg
Where, V = Volume of fluid above the surface AB = Volume of surface ABCD
4. And Position of Fy is a position of COG of surface AB
5. Total pressure forces on the curved surface is,

F = Fx 2 + Fy 2
6. The direction of resultant force F with horizontal is,

Fig. 3.5
(Note: In above case fluid is inside of the surface AB but sometimes fluid acts at the outside of the
surface AB, in this vertical component Fy acts upward – opposite in the case of first one – figure 3.5)

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3.6. Buoyancy and Centre of Buoyancy

3.6.1. Buoyancy
• “When a body is immersed in a fluid an upward force exerted by the fluid on the
body, this upward force is called the force of buoyancy.”
(Note: Buoyancy force = weight of the fluid displaced by the body)
3.6.2. Centre of Buoyancy
7. It is defined as the point through which the force of buoyancy is supposed to act.
(Note: Centre of buoyancy is a Centre of gravity of the fluid displaced by body)

3.7. Meta-Center and Meta Centric Height

Meta-center
− “It is defined as the point about which a body starts oscillating or floating when the body
is tilted by a small angle.” The Meta center may also be defined as “the point at which
the line of action of the force of buoyancy will meet the normal axis of the body when
the body is given a small angular displacement.”
− Consider a body floating in a liquid as shown in Fig. 3.6 (a). Let the body is in equilibrium
and G is the center of gravity and B the center of buoyancy. For equilibrium, both the
points lie on the normal axis, which is vertical.

Fig. 3.6 Meta-center

− Let the body be given a small angular displacement in the clockwise direction as shown
in Fig. 4.1 (b). The center of buoyancy, which is the center of gravity of the displaced
liquid or center of gravity of the portion of the body submerged in liquid, will now be
shifted towards right from the normal axis. Let it be at B1 . The line of action of the
force of buoyancy in new position will intersect the normal axis of the body at
some point say M. This point is called metacenter.
Meta Centric height
− “It is the distance (MG) between the metacenter of the floating body and the center of
gravity of the body.”

3.8. Condition for Stability of Submerged Body

− The position of center of gravity and center of buoyancy in case of a completely
sub- merged body are fixed.

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(a) Stable Equilibrium

− Consider a balloon which is completely submerged in air. Let lower portion of the
balloon contained heavy material, so that its center of gravity is lower than center of
buoyancy.
− Let the weight of balloon be W acting through G vertically downwards direction while
the buoyant force FB is acting vertically up through B. For the equilibrium of the
balloon W = FB . Now if the balloon is given an angular displacement in the clockwise
direction as shown in Fig. 3.7 (a), then W and FB constitute a couple acting in the anti-

clockwise direction and brings the balloon in the original position. Thus the balloon in
this position is in stable equilibrium.
− Thus if W = FB and point B is above G, the body is said to be in stable equilibrium.

Fig. 3.7 Stabilities of sub-merged bodies

(b) Unstable Equilibrium
− If W = FB and point B is below G, the body is said to be in unstable equilibrium as
shown in Fig. 3.7 (b). If the slight angular displacement given to the balloon in the
clockwise direction, then W and FB constitute a couple also acting in the clockwise
direction. Thus, the balloon does not return to its original position and it is in unstable
equilibrium.
(b) Neutral Equilibrium
− If W = FB and point B and G are at the same point as shown in Fig. 3.7 (c), then the
body is said to be in neutral equilibrium.

3.9. Condition for Stability of Floating Body

− The stability of a floating body is determined from the position of Meta-center. In case
of floating body, the weight of the body is equal to weight of the liquid displaced.
(a) Stable Equilibrium
− If the point M is above G, the floating body will be in stable equilibrium as shown in
Fig. 3.8 (a). If the slight angular displacement given to the balloon in the clockwise
direction, the center of buoyancy sifted from B to B1 such that the vertical line through
B1 cuts at M. Then the buoyant force FB through B1 and weight W through G
constitute a couple acting in the anticlockwise direction. Thus, bringing the floating
body in original position.

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3. Static Forces on Surfaces and Buoyancy Fluid Mechanics 1

Fig.3.8 Stabilities of floating bodies

(b) Unstable Equilibrium
− If the point M is below G, the floating body will be in unstable equilibrium as shown in
Fig. 3.8 (b). If the slight angular displacement given to the balloon in the clockwise
direction. Then the couple due to buoyant force FB and weight W constitute a couple
also acting in the clockwise direction and thus overturning the floating body.
(c) Neutral Equilibrium
− If the point M is at the center of gravity of the body, the floating body will be in
neutral equilibrium.

3.10. Analytical Method for Meta Centric Height

− Consider a body floating in a liquid as shown in Fig. 3.9 (a). Let the body be in
equilibrium, G be the center of gravity and B the center of buoyancy. For
equilibrium, both the points lie on the normal axis, which is vertical.
− Let the body be given a small angular displacement in the clockwise direction. The new
center of buoyancy is at B1 . The vertical line through B1 cuts the normal axis at M . This
M is called metacenter and GM is meta-centric height.
Consider (see fig.3.9), a small strip on the body having a length of the strip is dl and
width is b.
− Disturbing couple produced by the oscillation of the strip is balanced by the anti-
clockwise moment of couple produced by the strip.
dV = Volume of fluid displaced by strip,
g1 = Centre of gravity of oaa1 and
g2 = Centre of gravity of obb1
 = Tilted angle or oscillation angle of body
l = Total length of the body

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3. Static Forces on Surfaces and Buoyancy Fluid Mechanics (2141906)

Fig. 3.9 Meta-centric height of floating body

− Now Buoyancy force on strip, dFB = weight of fluid displaced by strip = mg = Vg

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3. Static Forces on Surfaces and Buoyancy Fluid Mechanics 1

3.11. Archimedes’ Principle

Archimedes’ principle states that: the buoyant force on an object is equal to the weight of
the fluid displaced by the object. Mathematically written as:
Fb = ρ x g x V.
Where: Fb is the buoyant force
ρ is the density of the fluid
V is the submerged volume
g is the acceleration due to gravity.

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3.12. Archimedes’ Principle Derivation

Density(ρ) = mass(M)/volume(V)
Therefore, the mass of the displaced liquid can be written as follows:
Mass(M) = Density(ρ) × volume(V)
The weight of the displaced liquid can be calculated as follows:
Weight = M × g = ρVg
From Archimedes’ principle, the apparent loss of weight is equal to the weight of the water
displaced therefore the thrust force is given by the following equation:
F = ρVg

Example 1
Calculate the buoyant force of a steel ball of radius 6 cm which is fully immersed in water.
Solution:

Assignment
1. Define the following terms: Buoyancy, meta-center, meta-centric height, total pressure,
center of pressure.
2. Show that the total pressure force of an inclined surface submerged in a liquid is given
by the expression F = ρgh̄A
3. Show that the meta-centric height of a body floating in a liquid is given by the
1
expression GM = 𝑉 – BG
4. Define the Archimedes’ Principle and show that the buoyant force is given by the
expression Fb = ρVg
5. Calculate the buoyant force, if a floating body is 95% submerged in water. The density
of water is 1000 kg.m-3.

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4
MOTION OF FLUID PARTICLES AND
STREAMS

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4. Motion of Fluid Particles and Streams Fluid Mechanics 1

4.1 Introduction
− Kinematics is defined as that branch of science which deals with motion of fluid particles
without considering the forces causing the motion. The velocity at any point in a flow
field at any time is studied in this branch of fluid mechanics. Once the velocity and the
pressure distribution is known, then the forces acting on the fluid can be determined.

4.2 Methods of Describing the Fluid Motion

The fluid motion is described by two methods. (1) Langrangian method (2) Eulerian Method
(1) Langrangian Method
In Langrangian method, a single fluid particle is followed during its motion and its
velocity, acceleration, density etc., are described.
(2) Eulerian Method
In Eulerian Method, the velocity, acceleration, density etc., are described at point in flow
field.

4.3 Types of Fluid Flow

The fluid flow is classified as below:
1. Steady and unsteady flow
2. Uniform and non-uniform flow
3. Laminar and turbulent flow
4. Compressible flow and incompressible flow
5. Rotational and irrotational flow
6. One, two and three dimensional flow

4.3.1 Steady and Unsteady Flow

− Steady flow is defined as the type of flow in which the fluid characteristics at a point
do not change with time.
Mathematically,

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− Non-uniform flow is defined as the type of flow in which the velocity at any given
time changes with space (length of direction of flow).
Mathematically,

4.3.2 Laminar and Turbulent Flow

− Laminar flow is defined as the type of flow in which the fluid particles move along
well-defined paths or stream line and all the streamlines are straight and parallel.
Thus, the particles move in laminas or layers gliding smoothly over the adjacent layer.
This type of flow is also called stream line flow or viscous flow.
− Turbulent flow is defined as that type of in which the fluid particles move in zig-zag
manner. Thus, eddies formation takes place which are responsible for high energy loss.
For pipe flow, the type of flow can be determined by Reynolds number (Re)
− Reynolds number is given by,
VD
Re =

where  = Density of fluid
V = Velocity of fluid
D = Diameter of pipe
 = Dynamic viscosity of fluid
If the Reynolds number is less than 2000, the flow is called laminar.
If the Reynolds number is more than 2000, the flow is called turbulent.
If the Reynolds number lies between 2000 and 4000 the flow is called transition flow.

4.3.3 Compressible and Incompressible Flow

− Compressible flow is defined as the type of flow which the density of fluid changes from
point to point or density is not constant for the fluid. i.e.,   Constant (for gases).
− Incompressible flow is defined as that type of in which the density of fluid is constant for
the fluid. i.e.,  = Constant (for liquids).

4.3.4 Rotational and Irrotational Flow

− Rotational flow is defined as the type of flow which the fluid particles flows along
stream lines while rotating about their own axis.
− Irrotational flow is defined as the type of flow which the fluid particles flows along
stream lines and do not rotate about their own axis.

4.3.5 One, Two and Three Dimensional Flow

− One dimensional flow is defined as the type of flow which the fluid parameter such
as velocity is function of time and one space co-ordinate only say x. For steady
one-dimensional flow, the velocity is a function of one space co-ordinate only. The
variation of velocities in other two mutually perpendicular directions is assumed
negligible. Mathematically,
u = f ( x), v = 0 and w = 0

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− Two-dimensional flow is defined as the type of flow which the fluid parameter such
as velocity is function of time and two rectangular space co-ordinate only say x and y .
For steady two-dimensional flow, the velocity is a function of two space co-ordinate
only. The variation of velocity in third direction is negligible.
Mathematically,
u = f1 ( x, y ) , v = f2 (x, y ) and w = 0

− Three-dimensional flow is defined as the type of flow which the fluid parameter such as
velocity is function of time and three mutually perpendicular directions say x, y and z.
For steady three-dimensional flow, the velocity is a function of three space co-ordinate.
Mathematically,
u = f1 ( x, y, z ) , v = f2 ( x, y, z ) , w = f3 ( x, y, z )
4.4 Rate of Flow and Continuity Equation
− Rate of flow or discharge is defined as the quantity of fluid flowing per second through a
section of a pipe.
− The continuity equation is simply a mathematical expression of the principle of
conservation of mass. Thus, for fluid flowing through the pipe at all the cross sections,
the quantity of fluid per second is constant.
Consider two cross sections of pipe as shown in Fig. 4.1

Above equation (4.1) is applicable to compressible and incompressible fluids and is known as
Continuity equation.

=  u (dy  dz )

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Fig. 4.1 Fluid element

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− Convective acceleration is defined as the rate of change of velocity due to the change of
𝜕𝑢
position of fluid particles in a fluid flow. Example of convective acceleration are terms u ,
𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢
v𝜕𝑦, w𝜕𝑧 in equation 4.8.

REVISION QUESTIONS
Example 1:
The velocity vector in a fluid flow is given by, V = 4x3i−10x2yj+ 2tk. Find the velocity and
acceleration of a fluid particle at (2, 1, 3) at time t = 1.

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Example 2:
xy3 x3 𝑦
The velocity potential function () is given by an expression  = −x+ + y2.
3 3
i. Find the velocity components in x and y direction.
ii. (ii) Show that  represents a possible case of flow

+
∂y

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Example 3:
The velocity components in two dimensional flow field for an incompressible fluid are as follows:
y3 x3
u= + 2x − x 2 y and v = xy 2 − 2y − . Obtain an expression for the stream function 
3 3

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Example 4:
The velocity components in two dimensional flow field for an incompressible fluid are as follows:
y3 x3
u = 3 + 2x − x 2 y and v = xy 2 − 2y − . Show that this component represents a possible
3
case of an irrotational flow.

Solution:

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Example 5:
An open circular cylinder of 15 cm diameter and 100 cm long contains water up to a
height of 70 cm. Find the maximum speed at which the cylinder is to be rotated about its
vertical axis for the depth to become zero.

Solution:

Assignment:
Differentiate the following terms used in fluid flow:
a. Steady and unsteady flow
b. Uniform and non-uniform flow
c. Laminar and turbulent flow
d. Compressible and incompressible flow
e. Rotational and irrotational flow
f. Local and convective acceleration

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5
ENERGY EQUATION AND ITS
APPLICATION

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5.1 Momentum and Fluid Flow

− The momentum of a particle is defined as the product of its mass (m) and its velocity (V).
 Momentum = mV
− The particles of fluid stream have momentum. If the velocity of stream is changed in
magnitude or direction, there will be corresponding change in the momentum of the
fluid particles.
− According to Newton’s second law, the net force acting on the fluid mass is equal to
the change in momentum of flow per unit time in that direction.
− Consider control volume ABCD as shown in fig 5.1. There is no mass storage
within the control volume, the mass flow across the control volume is

m = 1A1V1 = 2A2V2 (1)

Fig. 5.1 Momentum in a flowing fluid

− The rate at which momentum enters the control volume across AB is
mV1 = 1A1V1V1
− Similarly, the rate at which momentum leaves control volume across CD is
mV2 = 2A2V2V2
− Thus, the rate of change of momentum across the control volume is
= 2A2V2V2 − 1A1V1V1
= 1A1V1 (V2 − V1 ) ( From the equation 1)
= ṁ(V2 − V1 ) = Mass flow per unit time  change of velocity
− According to Newton’s Second law the increase of momentum per unit time in the
direction of the motion will be caused by a force F
F =m(V2 − V1 ) = Q(V2 − V1 )
− This is the resultant force acting on the fluid element ABCD in the direction of the
motion.

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5.2 Momentum Correction Factor

− It is defined as the ratio of momentum of a flow per second based on actual
velocity to momentum of a flow per second based on average velocity across a
section.
− It is denoted by .
Momentum per second based on actual velocity
=
Momentum per second based on average velocity

5.3 Kinetic Energy Correction Factor

− It is defined as the ratio of the kinetic energy of flow per second based on
actual velocity across a section to the kinetic energy of flow per second based on
average velocity across the same section.
− It is denoted by  .
Kinetic energy per second based on actual velocity
=
Kinetic energy per second based on average velocity

5.4 Euler’s equation of motion along a stream line

− In Euler’s equation of motion, the forces due to gravity and pressure are
considered and other forces are neglected. This is derived by considering
motion of fluid element along a stream line.
− Consider a stream-line in which flow is taking place in S-direction as shown in fig 5.3.
− Consider a cylindrical element of cross-section of dA and length ds.
− The forces acting on cylindrical element are:

Fig 5.3 Forces on a fluid element

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ρdAdsas

gcosθ - as = 0

(Applying partial derivative, we have)

− This equation is known as Euler’s equation.

5.5 Mechanical energy of a flowing fluid- Bernoulli’s theorem

− The Bernoulli’s equation is obtained by integrating the Euler’s equation along the
stream line for constant density fluid.
− It relates changes in pressure, elevation and velocity of a fluid in motion.
− Integrating Euler’s equation of motion equation.

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❖ Assumptions:
1) The flow is steady.
2) The flow is ideal i.e., viscosity is zero
3) The flow is incompressible.
4) The flow is irrotational

❖ Bernoulli’s Theorem:
− In a steady, ideal, irrotational flow of an incompressible fluid, the total energy at any
point of the fluid is constant. The total energy consists of pressure energy, kinetic
energy and potential energy.

❖ Bernoulli’s Theorem for real fluid

− All the viscous fluid are viscous and hence offers resistance to flow.
− Thus, there are always some losses in fluid flows and hence in the application of
Bernoulli’s equation, these losses have to be considered.
− Thus, the Bernoulli’s equation for real fluids between point 1 and 2 is given as:

❖ Application:
− It is used for solving varieties of fluid flow problem such as in:
i. Venturi meter
ii. Orifice meter.
iii. Rotameter
iv. Pilot tube
v. Notches and weir

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5.6 Venturi meter

− It is a device used for measuring the rate of a flow of a fluid flowing through a pipe. It
consists of three parts
1. A short converging part
2. Throat
3. Diverging part.
− The working principle of venture meter is based on Bernoulli’s equation.
− Consider a venture meter is fitted in a horizontal pipe through which a fluid is
flowing as shown fig 5.4.
− Considering two sections along a pipe line the Bernoulli’s equation can be written a

Inlet Throat
Fig. 5.4 Venturimeter

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Cases for value of h given by differential U-tube manometer

Case I: Let the differential manometer contains a liquid which is heavier than the liquid
flowing through the pipe. (Horizontal Venturi meter)

Where Sh = Specific gravity of heavier liquid

So = Specific gravity of liquid flowing through pipe
X = Difference of heavier liquid in column in U-tube
Case II: Let the differential manometer contains a liquid which is lighter than the liquid
flowing through the pipe. (Horizontal Venturi meter)

Where Sl = Specific gravity of lighter liquid

So = Specific gravity of liquid flowing through pipe
X = Difference of heavier liquid in column in U-tube

Case III: Let the differential manometer contains a liquid which is heavier than the liquid
flowing through the pipe. (Inclined Venturi meter)

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Case IV: Let the differential manometer contains a liquid which is lighter than the liquid
flowing through the pipe. (Inclined Venturimeter)

5.8 Orifice meter

− Orifice meter is a device used for measuring the rate of flow of fluid through a pipe
with the using of orifice plate. The working principle is similar to venturi meter and
it is works on Bernoulli’s theorem.
− It is cheaper device compare to the Venturimeter.
− It consists of flat circular plate which has a circular sharp edge hole called orifice,
which is concentric with the pipe.
− The orifice meter generally kept 0.5 times diameter of the pipe, though it may vary
from 0.4 to 0.8 times the pipe diameter.
− Consider an orifice meter is fitted in a horizontal pipe through which a fluid is flowing
as shown fig 5.5.

Fig.5.5. Orifice meter

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5.9 Rotameter
− A rotameter is a discharge measuring device as shown in fig. 5.6. The rotameter is
installed in a vertical pipe and measure the discharge directly without any
calculation.

Fig. 5.6 Rotameter

− Rotameter consist different part like, accurately grounded glass tube and a float.
One scale is given on the glass tube which is gives the discharge rating.
− When the flow is not passing through the rotameter the float rest inside the
tube at bottom of the rotameter. When fluid enters the tube, the float moves up
and when steady at one point the discharge is measured on the calibrated
scale.
Note: Generally, discharge given by rotameter is in liter per hour.
− The rotameter is used in chemical industries where high degree of accuracy is not
required and flow variation is less.

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Advantage of Rotameter
a) Good for small flows.
b) Pressure drop is less.
c) Cheaper in cost.
d) It can handle wide variety of corrosive fluids.

Disadvantage of Rotameter
a) It must be mounted vertically.
b) It is not good for pulsating flows.
c) The glass tube can easily brake.
d) Its accuracy is less.

5.10 Measurement of velocity – Pitot static tube

− The Pitot tube is used for measure the velocity of flow at any point in a pipe or a
channel.
− It is based on the principle that if the velocity of the flow at a point becomes zero,
the pressure head increased due to velocity head is zero.
− In its simplest form, the Pitot tube consist of a glass tube, bent at right angles as
shown in fig. 5.7.

Fig. 5.7 Pitot tube

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Fig. 5.8 Pitot tube with differential U-tube manometer

− If differential U-tube manometer is used with Pitot tube the value of h can be
determine by the equation similar to venturi meter. Where, x is the reading of U-
tube differential manometer.
Note: The difference between total pressure (stagnation pressure) and static
pressure is called dynamic pressure.

5.11 Flow through orifice - Theory of small orifice

− Consider a tank fitted with a circular orifice at one of its side as shown in fig. 5.9
− Let H be the head of liquid above the center of the orifice. The liquid flows through
the orifice form a jet of liquid whose area of cross section is less than that of the
orifice.
− The area of jet of fluid decreases and at a section C-C, the area is minimum. This
section is called Vena-contracta.

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− Beyond this section, the jet diverges and is attracted in the downward direction by
the gravity.
− Consider two points 1 and 2 as shown in fig 5.9. Point 1 is inside the tank and point 2
is at the vena-contracta. Let the flow be steady and at a constant head H.

Fig. 5.9 Flow through orifice

5.12 Hydraulic coefficients

− The hydraulic coefficients are discussed below:

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Using above three eq.

− Equation above gives the relation between the hydraulic coefficients.

5.13 Flow through large rectangular orifice

− Orifice is considered large when h  5depth of orifice .
− Consider large orifice on a side of tank discharge freely into atmosphere under a
constant head, H as shown in fig 5.10.

Let H1 = height of liquid above top edge of orifice

H2 = height of liquid above bottom edge of orifice
b = breath of orifice
d = depth of orifice = H2 −H1
Cd = Co − efficient of discharge

Fig. 5.10 Flow through large orifice

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5.14 Notches and Weirs

Notches
− A notch is a device used for measuring the rate of flow of liquid through a small
channel or a tank.
− It is also defined as an opening in the side of the tank or a small channel in such way
that the liquid surface in the tank or channel is below the top edge of the opening.

Weirs
− A weir is a concrete or masonry structure, placed in open channel over which the
flow occurs.
− It is generally in the form of vertical wall, with a sharp edge at top, running all the
way across the open channel.
Note: The notch is small in size and weirs is big in size.

• Discharge through Rectangular Notches OR Weirs

− The expression for discharge over a rectangular notch or weirs are the same.
− Consider a rectangular notch or weirs provided in a channel carrying water as shown
in fig. 5.11
Let,
H = Head of water over the crest
L = Length of notch or weirs

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− Consider a small strip of water of thickness dh and length L at a depth h from the
free surface as shown in fig 5.11.

Fig. 5.11 Rectangular notch or weir

• Discharge through Triangular Notches OR Weirs

− Triangular notch is also called V-notch.
− Consider horizontal strip of the water of thickness dh at a depth of h from the free
surface of water as shown in fig.

Fig. 5.12 Triangular notch or weirs

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Let,
H = Head of water over the crest
= Angle of notch or weirs
From fig.512

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5.15 Open Channel Flow.

Open channel flow is flow in which the stream is not completely enclosed by a solid boundary
and therefore has a free surface subjected only to atmospheric pressure example rivers,
canals, streams, sewage system etc.

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5.16 List of Formula

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REVISION QUESTIONS
Examples:1 A pipe line carrying oil of specific gravity 0.9 changes in diameter
from 250 mm diameter at a position 1 to 450mm diameter at a position 2 which is
6m at a higher level. If pressure at 1 and 2 are 12 N/cm 2and 6 N/cm2
respectively and discharge is 250 liters/s. Calculate the loss of head and
direction of flow.
Solution:
Given data:
d1 = 250 mm = 0.25 m z1 = 0
d2 = 450 mm = 0.45 m z2 = 6 m
p1 = 12 N / cm2 = 12 104 N / m2
p2 = 6 N / cm2 = 6 104 N / m2
Q = 250 lit / s = 0.25 m3 / s
S = 0.9   = 0.9 1000 = 900 kg/ m3
Find:
Direction of flow = ?
hL = ?

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Example 2: In a duct of 400 mm diameter, a pitot static tube is placed in the center.
The mean velocity in the duct is 0.85 of central velocity. Determine the discharge
through the duct if the difference between the static and total pressure is 80 mm of
water. Take the co-efficient of pitot tube as Cv = 0.98.
Solution:
Given data:
D = 400 mm = 0.4 m
V = 0.85 central velocity
h = 80 mm of water = 0.08 m of water
Cv = 0.98

Example 3: An oil of specific gravity 0.8 flowing through a venturi meter

having inlet diameters 20 cm and throat diameter 10 cm. The oil- mercury
differential manometer shows a reading of 25 cm. Calculate the discharge of oil
through the horizontal venturi meter. Take Cd = 0.98 .
Solution:
Given data:
So = 0.8
Sh = 13.6
d1 = 20 cm = 20 10−2 m
d2 = 10 cm = 10 10−2 m
Cd = 0.98
Reading of differential manometer x = 25 cm
To Find:

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Example 4:
A flood control channel has a trapezoid cross-section as shown in the figure below.
This section is made of brickwork of a manning coefficient = 0.015 and channel bed
slope = 1:5000. Find the flow rate using
i. Manning equation
ii. Chezy equation given

Take Chezy constant = 80

Solution:
Q = VA
2 1
1 2
Manning equation V = 𝑛 R S𝑂 3

Chezy equation V = C√RSO

1
Given data: SO = n = 0.025 b = 3m m = 2m h = 1.5m C = 80
5000

A
R=P A = (b + mh)h = (3 + 2×1.5)1.5 = 9 m2
P = b + 2h√1 + m2 = 3 + 2×1.5√1 + 22 = 9.708

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A 9
R= = 9.708 = 0.927
P

1 1
2 2
1 2 1 1 2
a. V = 𝑛 R S𝑂 =
3 × 0.927 × (5000)
3 = 0.538 m/s
0.025

Q = VA = 0.538 × 9 = 4.84 m3/s

1
b. V = C√RSO = 80 × √0.927 × 5000 = 1.089 m/s

Q = VA = 1.089 × 9 = 4.84 m3/s

Assignment:
1. Define dynamic pressure, wetted area, wetted perimeter, hydraulic radius
2. State Bernoulli’s theorem.
3. Derive Bernoulli’s equation.
4. Differentiate between a notch and a weir.
5. Derive equation for the discharge through a venturi meter
6. With the aid of a good sketch describe the various parts of a rotameter
7. Show that the actual velocity of a pitot static tube is given by v = Cv × √2gh

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