Notes 1

University College Dublin, Advanced Macroeconomics Notes, 2021 (Karl Whelan) Page 1
Introducing the IS-MP-PC Model

As this is the second module in a two-module sequence, following Intermediate Macroeco-
nomics, I am assuming that everyone in this class has seen the IS-LM and AS-AD models. In
the first part of this course, we are going to revisit some of the ideas from those models and
expand on them in a number of ways:
Rather than the traditional LM curve, we will describe monetary policy in a way that
is more consistent with how it is now implemented, i.e. we will assume the central bank
follows a rule that dictates how it sets nominal interest rates. We will focus on how the
properties of the monetary policy rule influence the behaviour of the economy.
We will have a more careful treatment of the roles played by real interest rates.
We will focus more on the role of the public’s inflation expectations.
We will model the zero lower bound on interest rates and discuss its implications for
policy.
Our model is going to have three elements to it:
A Phillips Curve describing how inflation depends on output.
An IS Curve describing how output depends upon interest rates.
A Monetary Policy Rule describing how the central bank sets interest rates depend-
ing on inflation and/or output.
Putting these three elements together, I will call it the IS-MP-PC model (i.e. The Income-
Spending/Monetary Policy/Phillips Curve model). I will describe the model with equations.
I will also merge together the second two elements (the IS curve and the monetary policy
rule) to give a new IS-MP curve that can be combined with the Phillips curve to use graphs
to illustrate the model’s properties.1
Model Element One: The Phillips Curve
Perhaps the most common theme in economics is that you can’t have everything you want. Life
is full of trade-offs, so that if you get more of one thing, you have to have less of another thing.
In macroeconomics, there are important trade-offs facing governments when they implement
policy. One of these relates to a trade-off between desired outcomes for inflation and output.
What form does this relationship take? Back when macroeconomics was a relatively young
discipline, in 1958, a study by the LSE’s A.W. Phillips seemed to provide the answer. Phillips
documented a strong negative relationship between wage inflation and unemployment: Low
unemployment was associated with high inflation, presumably because tight labour markets
stimulated wage inflation. Figure 1 shows one of the graphs from Phillips’s paper illustrating
the kind of relationship he found.
In 1960, a paper by MIT economists Robert Solow and Paul Samuelson (both of whom
would go on to win the Nobel prize in economics for other work) replicated these findings
for the US and emphasised that the relationship also worked for price inflation. Figure 2
reproduces the graph in their paper describing the relationship they found. The Phillips curve
1
Though the particular model that will be presented in these lectures can’t be found in any specific article
or book, models that are very similar have been presented by a number of economists. In particular, the
article linked to on the website by Walsh (2002) presents a similar model. I have provided a links to Walsh’s
paper on the website but only for those interested in seeing a versions of our model that consider some more
advanced issues such as optimal monetary policy rules.

quickly became the basis for the discussion of macroeconomic policy decisions. Economists
advised that governments faced a tradeoff: Lower unemployment could be achieved, but only
at the cost of higher inflation.
However, Milton Friedman’s 1968 presidential address to the American Economic Asso-
ciation produced a well-timed and influential critique of the thinking underlying the Phillips
curve. Friedman pointed out that it was expected real wages that affected wage bargaining.
If low unemployment means workers have a strong bargaining position, then high nominal
wage inflation on its own is not good enough: They want nominal wage inflation greater than
price inflation.
Friedman argued that if policy-makers tried to exploit an apparent Phillips curve tradeoff,
then the public would get used to high inflation and come to expect it. Inflation expectations
would move up and the previously-existing tradeoff between inflation and output would disap-
pear. In particular, he put forward the idea that there was a “natural” rate of unemployment
and that attempts to keep unemployment below this level could not work in the long run.
Evidence on the Phillips Curve
Monetary and fiscal policies in the 1960s were very expansionary around the world, partly
because governments following Phillips curve “recipes” chose booming economies with low
unemployment at the expense of somewhat higher inflation.
At first, the Phillips curve seemed to work: Inflation rose and unemployment fell. However,
as the public got used to high inflation, the Phillips tradeoff got worse. By the late 1960s
inflation was rising even though unemployment had moved up. Figure 3 shows the US time
series for inflation and unemployment. This stagflation combination of high inflation and high
unemployment got even worse in the 1970s. This was exactly what Friedman had predicted.
Today, the data no longer show any sign of a negative relationship between inflation and
unemployment. If fact, if you look at the scatter plot of US inflation and unemployment data
shown in Figure 4, the correlation is positive: The original formulation of the Phillips curve
is widely agreed to be wrong.

Figure 1: One of A. W. Phillips’s Graphs

Figure 2: Solow and Samuelson’s Description of the Phillips Curve

Figure 3: The Evolution of US Inflation and Unemployment

Figure 4: The Failure of the Original Phillips Curve

Equations: Variables, Parameters and All That
We will use both graphs and equations to describe the models in this class. Now I know many
students don’t like equations and believe they are best studiously avoided. However, that
won’t be a good strategy for doing well in this course, so I strongly encourage you to engage
with the technical material in this class. It isn’t as hard is it might look to start with.
Variables and Coefficients: The equations in this class will generally have a certain format.
They will often look a bit like this.
yt = α + βxt (1)
There are two types of objects in this equation. First, there are the variables, yt and xt .
These will correspond to economic variables that we are interested in (inflation or GDP for
example). We interpret yt as meaning “the value that the variable y takes during the time
period t”). For most models in this course, we will treat time as marching forward in discrete
intervals, i.e. period 1 is followed by period 2, period t is followed by period t + 1 and so on.
Second, there are the parameters or coefficients. In this example, these are given by α and
β. These are assumed to stay fixed over time. There are usually two types of coefficients:
Intercept terms like α that describe the value that series like yt will take when other variables
all equal zero and coefficients like β that describe the impact that one variable has on another.
In this case, if β is a big number, then a change in the variable xt has a big impact on yt while
if β is small, it will have a small impact.
Some of you are probably asking what those squiggly shapes — α and β — are. They
are Greek letters. While it’s not strictly necessary to use these shapes to represent model
parameters, it’s pretty common in economics. So let me introduce them: α is alpha (Al-Fa),
β is beta (Bay-ta), γ is gamma, δ is delta, θ is theta (Thay-ta) and π naturally enough is pi.
Dynamics: One of the things we will be interested in is how the variables we are looking at
will change over time. For example, we will have equations along the lines of
yt = βyt−1 + γxt (2)
Reading this equation, it says that the value of y at time t will depend on the value of x at
time t and also on the value that y took in the previous period i.e. t − 1. By this, we mean
that this equation holds in every period. In other words, in period 2, y depends on the value
that x takes in period 2 and also on the value that y took in period 1. Similarly, in period 3,
y depends on the value that x takes in period 3 and also on the value that y took in period
2. And so on.
Subscripts and Superscripts: When we write yt , we mean the value that the variable y
takes at time t. Note that the t here is a subscript – it goes at the bottom of the y. Some
students don’t realise this is a subscript and will just write yt but this is incorrect (it reads
as though the value t is multiplying y which is not what’s going on).
We will also sometimes put indicators above certain variables to indicate that they are
special variables. For example, in the model we present now, you will see a variable written
as πte which will represent the public’s expectation of inflation. In the model, πt is inflation at
time t and the e above the π in πte is there to signify that this is not inflation itself but rather
it is the public’s expectation of it.

Our Version of the Phillips Curve
We will use both graphs and equations to describe the various elements of our model. One
convention that I want to flag here is that all of the parameters in our model will be assumed
to be positive. If a right-hand-side variable has a negative effect on the left-hand-side variable,
we will put a minus sign in front of the parameter.
The first element of the model is an expectations-augmented Phillips curve which we
will formulate as a relationship in which inflation depends on inflation expectations, the gap
between output and its “natural” level and a temporary inflationary shock. Our equation for
this is the following:
πt = πte + γ (yt − yt∗ ) + πt (3)
In this equation π represents inflation and by πt we mean inflation at time t. The equation
states that inflation at time t depends on three factors:
1. Inflation Expectations, πte : This term—which puts an e superscript above the πt —
represents the public’s inflation expectations at time t. We have put a time subscript
on this variable because the public’s expectations may change over time. Note that
a 1 point increase in inflation expectations raises inflation by exactly 1 point. This
is because we are assuming that people bargain over real wages and higher expected
inflation translates one-for-one into their wage bargaining, which in turn is passed into
price inflation.
2. The Output Gap, (yt − yt∗ ): This is the gap between GDP at time t, as represented
by yt , and what we will term the “natural” level of output, which we term yt∗ . This
is the level of output at time t that would be consistent with unemployment equalling
its natural rate. (Note we are describing inflation as being dependent on the output
gap rather than the gap between unemployment and its natural rate because this would
require adding an extra element to the model, i.e. the link between unemployment and
output). We would expect this natural level of output to gradually increase over time as
productivity levels improve. The coefficient γ (pronounced “gamma”) describes exactly
how much inflation is generated by a 1 percent increase in the gap between output and
its natural rate.
3. Temporary Inflationary Shocks, πt : No model in economics is perfect. So while
inflation expectations and the output gap may be key drivers of inflation, they won’t
capture all the factors that influence inflation at any time. For example, “supply shocks”
like a temporary increase in the price of imported oil can drive up inflation for a while.
To capture these kinds of temporary factors, we include an inflationary “shock” term,
πt . ( is a Greek letter pronounced “epsilon”). The superscript π indicates that this is
the inflationary shock (this will distinguish it from the output shock that we will also
add to the model) and the t subscript indicates that these shocks change over time.
The Phillips Curve Graph
Figure 5 shows how to describe our Phillips curve equation in a graph. The graph shows a
positive relationship between inflation and output. The key points to notice are the markings
on the two axes indicating what happens when output is at its natural rate. This graph
illustrates the case when there are no temporary inflationary shocks so πt = 0. In this case,
the Phillips curve is just
πt = πte + γ (yt − yt∗ ) (4)
So when yt = yt∗ we get πt = πte . This is a key aspect of this graph. If you are asked to draw
this graph in the final exam and you just draw an upward-sloping curve without describing
the key points on the inflation and output axes, you won’t score many points.
The curve can move up or down depending on what happens to the inflationary shocks,
πt , and with inflation expectations. Figure 6 illustrates what happens when there is a positive
inflationary shock so that πt goes from being zero to being positive. In this case, even when
output equals its natural level (i.e. yt = yt∗ ) we still get inflation being above its expected
level. Figure 7 illustrates how the curve changes when expected inflation rises from π1 to π2 .
The whole curve shifts upwards because of the increase in expected inflation.
Figure 5: The Phillips Curve with πt = 0
Inflation
Output
Figure 6: The Phillips Curve as we move from πt = 0 to πt > 0

(An Aggregate Supply Shock)
Inflation PC ( > 0)
PC ( =0)
Output
Figure 7: The Phillips Curve as we move from πte = π1 to πte = π2
Inflation PC ( )
PC ( )
Output
Model Element Two: The IS Curve
The second element of the model is one that should be familiar to you: An IS curve relating
output to interest rates. The higher interest rates are, the lower output is. However, I want
to stress something here that is often not emphasised in introductory treatments of the IS
curve. The IS relationship is between output and real interest rates, not nominal rates. Real
interest rates adjust the headline (nominal) interest rate by subtracting off inflation.
Think for a second about why it is that real interest rates are what matters. You know
already that high interest rates discourage aggregate demand by reducing consumption and
investment spending. But what is a high interest rate? Suppose I told you the interest rate
was 10 percent. Is this a high interest rate?
You might be inclined to say, “Yes, this is a high interest rate” but the answer is that it
really depends on inflation. Consider the decision to save for tomorrow or spend today. The
argument for saving is that it can allow you to consume more tomorrow. If the real interest
rate is positive, then this means that you will be able to purchase more goods and services
tomorrow with the money that you set aside. For instance, if the interest rate if 5% but
inflation is 2%, then you’ll be able to buy 3% more stuff next year because you saved. In
constrast, if the interest rate if 5% but inflation is 8%, then you’ll be able to buy 3% less stuff
next year even though you have saved your money and earned interest. For these reasons, it
is the real interest rate that determines whether consumers think saving is attractive relative
to spending.
The same logic applies to firms thinking about borrowing to make investment purchases.
If inflation is 10%, then a firm can expect that its prices (and profits) will be increasing by
that much over the next year and a 10% interest rate won’t seem so high. But if prices are
falling, then a 10% interest rate on borrowings will seem very high.
With these ideas in mind, our version of the IS curve will be the following:
yt = yt∗ − α (it − πt − r∗ ) + yt (5)
Expressed in words, this equation states that the gap between output and its natural rate
(yt − yt∗ ) depends on two factors:
1. The Real Interest Rate: The nominal interest rate at time t is represented by it , so
the real interest rate is it − πt . The coefficient α (pronounced “alpha”) describes the
effect of a one point increase in the real interest rate on output. As noted above, all of
our parameters are assumed to be positive, so α > 0. Note, though, there is a negative
sign in front of it. This means increases in the real interest rate have a negative effect
on output. The equation has been constructed in a particular way so that it explicitly
defines the real interest rate at which output will, on average, equal its natural rate.
This rate can be termed the “‘natural rate of interest” a term first used by early 20th
century Swedish economist Knut Wicksell. Specifically, we can see from the equation
that if yt = 0 then a real interest rate of r∗ will imply yt = yt∗ .
2. Aggregate Demand Shocks, yt : The IS curve is an even more threadbare model of
output than the Phillips curve model is of inflation. Many other factors beyond the
real interest rate influence aggregate spending decisions. These include fiscal policy,
asset prices and consumer and business sentiment. We will model all of these factors
as temporary deviations from zero of an aggregate demand “shock”, yt . Note that this
shock has a superscript y to distinguish it from the “aggregate supply” shock πt that
moves the Phillips curve up and down.

Model Element Three: A Monetary Policy Rule
Thus far, our model has described how inflation depends on output and how output depends
on interest rates. We can complete the model by describing how interest rates are determined.
Traditionally, in the IS-LM model, this is where the LM curve is introduced. The LM
curve links the demand for the real money stock with nominal interest rates and output, with
a relationship of the form

mt
= δ − µit + θyt (6)
pt
For a given stock of money (mt ) and a given level of prices (pt ), this relationship can be
re-arranged to give a positive relationship between output and interest rates of the form
!
1 mt
yt = − δ + µit (7)
θ pt
This positive relationship between output and interest rates is combined with the negative
relationship between these variables in the IS curve to determine unique values for output and
interest rates, something that can be illustrated in a graph with an upward-sloping LM curve
and a downward-sloping IS curve. Monetary policy is then described as taking the form of
the central bank adjusting the money supply mt in a way that sets the position of the LM
curve. The determination of prices is usually described separately in an AS-AD model.
We will not be using the LM curve, for three reasons.
1. Realism 1: In practice, no modern central bank implements its monetary policy by
setting a specified level of the monetary base. Instead, they use their power to supply
potentially unlimited amounts of liquidity to set short-term interest rates to equal a
target level. The supply of base money ends up being whatever emerges from enforcing
the interest rate target. This approach — which has been the practice at all the major
central banks for at least 30 years — makes the LM curve (and the money supply) of
secondary interest when thinking about core macroeconomic issues. Our approach will
be to describe how the central bank sets interest rates and we won’t focus on the money
supply.
2. Realism 2: The traditional approach is for IS-LM to describe the determination of
output and interest rates. Then a separate AS-AD model is used to describe the deter-
mination of prices (and thus, implicitly, inflation). However, the reality is that rather
than being determined independently of inflation, most modern central banks set inter-
est rates with a very close eye on inflationary developments. A model that integrates
the determination of inflation with the setting of monetary policy is thus more realistic.
3. Simplicity: In simplifying the determination of output, inflation and interest rates
down to a single model, this approach is also simpler than one that requires two different
sets of graphs.
We will consider two different types of monetary policy rules that may be followed by the
central bank in our model. The first one is a simple one in which the central bank adjusts its
interest rate in line with inflation with the goal of meeting an inflation target. Specifically,
the first rule we will consider is the following one:
it = r∗ + π ∗ + βπ (πt − π ∗ ) (8)
In English, the rule can be intepreted as follows: The central bank adjusts the nominal interest
rate, it , upwards when inflation, πt , goes up and downwards when inflation goes down (we
are assuming that βπ > 0) and it does so in a way that means when inflation equals a target
level, π ∗ , chosen by the central bank, real interest rates will be equal to their natural level.
That’s a bit of a mouthful, so let’s see that this is the case and then try to understand
why the monetary policy rule would take this form. First, note what the nominal interest
rate will be if inflation equals its target level (i.e. πt = π ∗ ). The term after the final plus sign
in equation (8) will equal zero and the nominal interest rate will be
it = r∗ + π ∗ (9)
In this case, because πt = π ∗ , we can also write this as
i t = r ∗ + πt (10)
So the real interest rate will be
i t − πt = r ∗ (11)
Now think about why a rule of this form might be a good idea. Suppose the central bank
has a target inflation rate of π ∗ that it wants to achieve. Ideally, it would like the public to
understand that this is the likely inflation rate that will occur, so that πte = π ∗ . If that can
be achieved, then the Phillips curve (equation 3) tells us that, on average, inflation will equal
π ∗ provided we have yt = yt∗ . And the IS curve tells us that, on average, we will have yt = yt∗
when it − πt = r∗ . So this is a policy that can help to enforce an average inflation rate equal
to the central bank’s desired target, provided the public adjusts its inflationary expectations
accordingly.
The IS-MP Curve
That’s the model. It consists of three equations. Let’s pull them together in one place. They
are the Phillips curve:
πt = πte + γ (yt − yt∗ ) + πt (12)
The IS curve:
yt = yt∗ − α (it − πt − r∗ ) + yt (13)
And the monetary policy rule:
it = r∗ + π ∗ + βπ (πt − π ∗ ) (14)
Now you may recall that I had promised a graphical representation of this model. However,
this is a system of three variables which makes it hard to express on a graph with two axes.
To make the model easier to analyse using graphs, we are going to reduce it down to a system
with two main variables (inflation and output). We can do this because the monetary policy
rule makes interest rates are a function of inflation, so we can substitute this rule into the
IS curve to get a new relationship between output and inflation that we will call the IS-MP
curve.
We do this as follows. Replace the term it in equation (13) with the right-hand-side of
equation (14) to get
yt = yt∗ − α [r∗ + π ∗ + βπ (πt − π ∗ )] + α (πt + r∗ ) + yt (15)
Now multiply out the terms in this equation to get
yt = yt∗ − αr∗ − απ ∗ − αβπ (πt − π ∗ ) + απt + αr∗ + yt (16)

We can bring together the two terms being multiplied by α on its own, and cancel out the
terms in αr∗ to get
yt = yt∗ − αβπ (πt − π ∗ ) + α (πt − π ∗ ) + yt (17)
which simplifies to
yt = yt∗ − α (βπ − 1) (πt − π ∗ ) + yt (18)
This is the IS-MP curve. It combines the information in the IS curve and the MP curve into
one relationship.
The IS-MP Curve Graph
What would this curve look like on a graph? It turns out it depends especially on the value of
βπ , the parameter that describes how the central bank reacts to inflation. The IS-MP curve
says that an extra unit of inflation implies a change of −α (βπ − 1) in output. Is this positive
or negative? Well we are assuming that α > 0 (we put a negative sign in front of this when
determining the effect of real interest rates on output) so this combined coefficient will be
negative if βπ − 1 > 0.
In other words, the IS-MP curve will have a negative slope (slope downwards) provided
the central bank reacts to inflation so that βπ > 1. The explanation for this is as follows.
An increase in inflation of x will lead to an increase in nominal interest rates of βπ x so real
interest rates change by (βπ − 1) x. This means that if βπ > 1 an increase in inflation leads
to higher real interest rates and, via the IS curve relation, to lower output. So if βπ > 1
then the IS-MP curve can be depicted as a downward-sloping curve. In contrast, if βπ < 1,
then an increase in inflation leads to lower real interest rates and higher output, implying an
upward-sloping IS-MP curve.

For now, we will assume that βπ > 1 so that we have a downward-sloping IS-MP curve
but we will revisit this issue after a few more lectures. Figure 8 thus shows what the IS-MP
curve looks like when the aggregate demand shock yt = 0. Again, the key thing to notice is
the value of inflation that occurs when output equals its natural rate. When yt = yt∗ we get
πt = π ∗ . As with the Phillips curve, if you are asked to draw this graph in the final exam and
you just draw an downward-sloping curve without describing the key points on the inflation
and output axes, you won’t score many points. Figure 9 shows how the IS-MP curve shifts
to the right if there is a positive value of yt corresponding to a positive shock to aggregate
demand.
Figure 8: The IS-MP Curve with yt = 0
Inflation
Output
Figure 9: The IS-MP curve as we move from yt = 0 to yt > 0

(An Aggregate Demand Shock)
Inflation
IS-MP ( > 0)
Output
IS-MP ( =0)
The Full Model
The full IS-MP-PC model can be illustrated in the traditional fashion as a graph with one
curve that slopes upwards (the Phillips curve) and one that slopes downwards (the IS-MP
curve provided we assume that βπ > 1.) Figure 10 provides the simplest possible example of
the graph. This is the case where both the temporary shocks, πt and yt equal zero and the
public’s expectation of inflation is equal to the central bank’s inflation target. Note that I have
labelled the PC and IS-MP curves to explicitly indicate what the expected and target rates
of inflation are and it will be a good idea for you to do the same when answering questions
about this model.
In the next set of notes, we will analyse this model in depth, examining what happens
when various types of events occur and focusing carefully on how inflation expectations change
over time.
Figure 10: The IS-MP-PC Model When Expected Inflation Equals

the Inflation Target
Inflation
IS-MP (
PC ( )
Output
A More Complicated Monetary Policy Rule: The Taylor Rule
Before moving on to analyse the model in more depth, I want to describe the more complex
version of the monetary policy rule that I alluded to earlier. This rule takes a form that is
associated with Stanford economist John Taylor. In a famous paper published in 1993 called
“Discretion Versus Policy Rules in Practice” (you will find a link on the class webpage) Taylor
noted that Federal Reserve policy in the few years before his paper was published seemed to
be characterised by a rule in which interest rates were adjusted in response to both inflation
and the gap between output and an estimated trend.
Within our model structure, we can amend our monetary policy rule to be more like this
“Taylor rule” if we make it take the following form:
it = r∗ + π ∗ + βπ (πt − π ∗ ) + βy (yt − yt∗ ) (19)
It turns out that the properties of the IS-MP-PC model don’t really change if we adopt
this more complicated monetary policy rule. If we substitute the expression for the nominal
interest rate in (19) into the IS curve equation (5), we get
yt = yt∗ − α [r∗ + π ∗ + βπ (πt − π ∗ ) + βy (yt − yt∗ )] + α (πt + r∗ ) + yt (20)
This can be re-arranged as follows (canceling out the terms involving r∗ ):
yt − yt∗ = −αβy (yt − yt∗ ) − αβπ (πt − π ∗ ) − απ ∗ + απt + yt (21)
Bringing together all the terms involving the output gap yt − yt∗ , we get
(1 + αβy ) (yt − yt∗ ) = −αβπ (πt − π ∗ ) + α (πt − π ∗ ) + yt (22)
Which can be expressed as
α (βπ − 1) 1
yt − yt∗ = − (πt − π ∗ ) + y (23)
1 + αβy 1 + αβy t
This equation shows us that broadening the monetary policy rule to incorporate interest rates
responding to the output gap doesn’t change the essential form of the IS-MP curve. As long
as βπ > 1, the curve will slope downwards and will feature πt = π ∗ when yt = yt∗ and there
are no inflationary shocks. So while the addition of an output gap response to the monetary
policy rule changes the coefficients of the IS-MP model a bit, it doesn’t change the underlying
economics. In the analysis in the next sets of notes, we will stick with the model that uses
the basic “inflation targeting” monetary policy rule.
Things to Understand from these Notes
Here’s a brief summary of the things that you need to understand from these notes.
1. The evidence on the Phillips curve.
2. The Phillips curve that features in our model and how to draw it.
3. Why real interest rates are what matters for aggregate demand.
4. The IS curve that features in our model.
5. The monetary policy that features in our model.
6. How to derive the IS-MP curve.
7. What determines the slope of the IS-MP curve.
8. How the IS-MP curve changes when the monetary policy rule takes the form of a “Taylor
rule”.

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University College Dublin, Advanced Macroeconomics Notes, 2021 (Karl Whelan) Page 1

Introducing the IS-MP-PC Model

expand on them in a number of ways:

 We will focus more on the role of the public’s inflation expectations.

Our model is going to have three elements to it:

 A Phillips Curve describing how inflation depends on output.

 An IS Curve describing how output depends upon interest rates.

ing on inflation and/or output.

to illustrate the model’s properties.1

Model Element One: The Phillips Curve

the kind of relationship he found.

advanced issues such as optimal monetary policy rules.

at the cost of higher inflation.

Evidence on the Phillips Curve

unemployment at the expense of somewhat higher inflation.

is widely agreed to be wrong.

Figure 1: One of A. W. Phillips’s Graphs

Figure 2: Solow and Samuelson’s Description of the Phillips Curve

Figure 3: The Evolution of US Inflation and Unemployment

Figure 4: The Failure of the Original Phillips Curve

Equations: Variables, Parameters and All That

They will often look a bit like this.

if β is small, it will have a small impact.

yt = βyt−1 + γxt (2)

as though the value t is multiplying y which is not what’s going on).

it is the public’s expectation of it.

Our Version of the Phillips Curve

to be positive. If a right-hand-side variable has a negative effect on the left-hand-side variable,

we will put a minus sign in front of the parameter.

The first element of the model is an expectations-augmented Phillips curve which we

this is the following:

πt = πte + γ (yt − yt∗ ) + πt (3)

states that inflation at time t depends on three factors:

1. Inflation Expectations, πte : This term—which puts an e superscript above the πt —

a 1 point increase in inflation expectations raises inflation by exactly 1 point. This

productivity levels improve. The coefficient γ (pronounced “gamma”) describes exactly

its natural rate.

3. Temporary Inflationary Shocks, πt : No model in economics is perfect. So while

To capture these kinds of temporary factors, we include an inflationary “shock” term,

The Phillips Curve Graph

the Phillips curve is just

πt = πte + γ (yt − yt∗ ) (4)

Figure 5: The Phillips Curve with πt = 0

Figure 6: The Phillips Curve as we move from πt = 0 to πt > 0

Figure 7: The Phillips Curve as we move from πte = π1 to πte = π2

Model Element Two: The IS Curve

was 10 percent. Is this a high interest rate?

yt = yt∗ − α (it − πt − r∗ ) + yt (5)

(yt − yt∗ ) depends on two factors:

that if yt = 0 then a real interest rate of r∗ will imply yt = yt∗ .

moves the Phillips curve up and down.

Model Element Three: A Monetary Policy Rule

a relationship of the form

curve. The determination of prices is usually described separately in an AS-AD model.

We will not be using the LM curve, for three reasons.

1. Realism 1: In practice, no modern central bank implements its monetary policy by

potentially unlimited amounts of liquidity to set short-term interest rates to equal a

2. Realism 2: The traditional approach is for IS-LM to describe the determination of

3. Simplicity: In simplifying the determination of output, inflation and interest rates

We will focus more on the role of the public’s inflation expectations.

A Phillips Curve describing how inflation depends on output.

An IS Curve describing how output depends upon interest rates.

πt = πte + γ (yt − yt∗ ) + πt (3)

3. Temporary Inflationary Shocks, πt : No model in economics is perfect. So while

Figure 5: The Phillips Curve with πt = 0

Figure 6: The Phillips Curve as we move from πt = 0 to πt > 0

yt = yt∗ − α (it − πt − r∗ ) + yt (5)

that if yt = 0 then a real interest rate of r∗ will imply yt = yt∗ .

πt = πte + γ (yt − yt∗ ) + πt (12)

yt = yt∗ − α (it − πt − r∗ ) + yt (13)

yt = yt∗ − α [r∗ + π ∗ + βπ (πt − π ∗ )] + α (πt + r∗ ) + yt (15)

yt = yt∗ − αr∗ − απ ∗ − αβπ (πt − π ∗ ) + απt + αr∗ + yt (16)

yt = yt∗ − αβπ (πt − π ∗ ) + α (πt − π ∗ ) + yt (17)

yt = yt∗ − α (βπ − 1) (πt − π ∗ ) + yt (18)

Figure 8: The IS-MP Curve with yt = 0

Figure 9: The IS-MP curve as we move from yt = 0 to yt > 0

yt = yt∗ − α [r∗ + π ∗ + βπ (πt − π ∗ ) + βy (yt − yt∗ )] + α (πt + r∗ ) + yt (20)

yt − yt∗ = −αβy (yt − yt∗ ) − αβπ (πt − π ∗ ) − απ ∗ + απt + yt (21)

(1 + αβy ) (yt − yt∗ ) = −αβπ (πt − π ∗ ) + α (πt − π ∗ ) + yt (22)