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Precalculus Notes - precalculo

Cálculo diferencial (Universidad CNCI)

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1
Benemérita Universidad Autónoma de Puebla

Facultad de Ingenierı́a

Precalculus notes

Autors

M. C. Luis Fernando Gómez Ceballos

Karla D. Martı́nez Martı́nez
Pamela D. Bello Sánchez

Autumn 2023

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Contents

I Number set 7
1 Real numbers 11
1.1 Real numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.2 Powers, exponents and logarithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.2.1 Exponents and radicals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.2.2 Logarithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.2.3 Notable products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

2 Complex numbers 19
2.1 Complex numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.1.1 Geometric representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.1.2 Product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.2 Polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.3 Partial fractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.3.1 Fundamental Theorem in the decomposition of a fraction into partial fractions 22

II Functions and trigonometry 25

3 Trigonometry 27
3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.2 Trigonometric functions of angles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.3 Trigonometric identities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.3.1 Addition and subtraction formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.3.2 Double angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.3.3 Half angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.3.4 Sum formula to product formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.4 Law of sines and cosines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

4 Inequalities and functions 33

4.1 Inequalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
4.2 Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
4.2.1 Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
4.3 Properties and graphics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
4.4 Function transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
4.4.1 Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3

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4 CONTENTS
III Analytic geometric 43
5 Analytic geometric 45
5.1 Parabolas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

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CONTENTS 5
Asignment’s name: Precalculus

Knowledge area : Basic sciences and mathematics

Curricular placement: Basic Level

Objectives: To develop in the student the ability to acquire the concepts and properties of
algebra, trigonometry and analytical geometry to apply them as a basic tool in the resolution of
engineering problems.

Figure 1: Precalculus course map

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6 CONTENTS

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Part I

Number set

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9
The knowledge of higher algebra is indispensable for the mathematical formation of the student
who has decided to devote himself to engineering. The present notes mark a relatively short path
from elementary algebra to the study of the abstract methods of modern algebra. algebra. The
notes are a compendium of higher algebra comprising the knowledge of this science for engineering
students. for the engineering students of the Faculty of Engineering.

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Chapter 1

Real numbers

In this chapter we will study the sets of numbers that we use in daily life.

1.1 Real numbers

Instead of going straight into what the real numbers are, let’s start by defining subsets of it.
The first set known to man was the set of natural numbers N and it is defined as the set of
numbers that we use to count. The set of numbers that we use for counting and explicitly is
N = {1, 2, 3, 4, . . . }
When man understood how to eliminate (subtract) things he observed that there existed a larger
set which is called the set of integers Z and explicitly is:
Z = {. . . , −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . }
At the time when man’s needs were greater, the set of integers was insufficient and a larger one
was created, the set of rational numbers Q and it was insufficient and a larger one was generated,
that of the rational numbers Q and is:
 
p
Q= with, p and q ∈ Z, q ̸= 0
q
At some point man realized that there are numbers that could not be written as the ratio of two
integers, those numbers that met this condition were called the set of irrational numbers I
√
I = {± π, ± 2, . . . }
Having the concept of integers, rational and irrational numbers we are able to understand the
definition of real numbers. To understand the definition of real numbers. The real numbers is the
union of the rational and irrational, i.e.
R=Q∪I
From here we conclude that the naturals are subset of the integers, these in turn of the rationals,
and these in turn of the reals, and these in turn of the reals and also that the irrationals are subset
of the reals.
N⊂Z⊂Q⊂R
11

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12 CHAPTER 1. REAL NUMBERS

The relationship that exists between the real numbers is perfectly established in the following
scheme

Real

Rationals Irrationals

Integers

Negative integers Zero Natural

Figure 1.1: Types of number sets used in algebra

Property 1.1. Let a, b, c ∈ R then, the properties of real numbers are:

1. a + b ∈ R Closure

2. a + b = b + a Commutative

3. (a + b) + c = a + (b + c) Associative

4. ∃ 0 ∈ R ∀a ∈ R a + 0 = 0 + a = aNeutral additive element

5. ∀ a ∈ R ∃ − a ∈ R a + (−a) = (−a) + a = 0 Additive inverse element

6. ab ∈ R Closure

7. ab = ba Commutative

8. (ab)c = a(bc) Associative

9. ∃ 1 ∈ R ∀ a a · 1 = 1 · a = a Multiplicative neutral element

10. ∀ ∈ Ra ∃ a−1 ∈ R aa−1 = a−1 a = 1 Inverse multiplicative element.

Property 1.2. Distributive property:

(a + b)c = ac + bc (1.1)

Definition 1.1. The real number b is less than the real number a, which is denoted as b < a if
a − b is a positive number.

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1.2. POWERS, EXPONENTS AND LOGARITHMS 13

Property 1.3 (Trichotomy property). For two real numbers a and b one and only one of the
following propositions is fulfilled

a > b, a = b, a<b
this generates an order for real numbers.

Theorem 1.1. If the product of two numbers is equal to zero, at least one of the factors is equals
zero
ab = 0 ⇔ a = 0 ó b = 0 (1.2)

Example 1.1. 1. Express the statement as an inequality:

a) b is positive, b) The number 5 is less than x but greater than y − x c) The quotient of p
and q is at most 7.

2. Replace the symbol ⊔ with either = or ̸= to make the resulting statement true for all real
numbers a, b, c and d, whenever the expressions are defined.

ab + ac ab + ac
a) ⊔ b + ac b) ⊔ b+c c) − (a + b) ⊔ −a + b
a a

3. Rewrite the number without the absolute value, and simplify the result:

a) | − 5| − |2|,
b) | − 7| + |4|,
c) (−5)| − 3 − 6|,
√
d) | 2 − 1.5|

4. Fish population The population dynamics of many fishes are characterized by extremely
high fertility rates among adults and very low survival rates among juveniles. Extremely high
fertility rates among adults and very low survival rates among juveniles. A mature halibut
fish can lay up to 2.5 million eggs, but only 0.00035 % of the offspring survive to the age of
3 years. Use the scientific form to approximate the number of offspring that live to age 3.

1.2 Powers, exponents and logarithms

Algebra is one of the great branches of mathematics. It deals with the solution of algebraic
equations, i.e. it equations, i.e., it investigates the abstract means necessary for the solution of
classical problems.

Definition 1.2. A constant is a specific element in a set.

Definition 1.3. A variable is a letter or symbol that represents ”any” element or set.

Generally, the first letters of the alphabet are used to denote constants and the last letters of
the alphabet to denote variables.

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14 CHAPTER 1. REAL NUMBERS

1.2.1 Exponents and radicals
If n is a positive integer (known as an exponent or power) and a is a real number (known as a as
the base) then

an = a
| · a · a{z· . . . · a} (1.3)
n n times n
0
a = 1 (1.4)
 n
−n 1 1
a = = n (1.5)
a a
a ̸= 0 (1.6)
n m
a ·a = an+m (1.7)
(an )m = anm (1.8)
(ab)n = an bn (1.9)
(1.10)

 a n an
= (1.11)
b bn
an 1
m
= an−m = m−n (1.12)
b a
 a n an
= n (1.13)
b b
Definition 1.4. Let n be a positive integer greater than 1, and let a be a real number.
√
i) If a = 0 , so ( n a = 0).
√
ii) If a > 0, so n a is the real number b positive such that bn = a
√
iii) If a < 0 and n is even, so n a is not a real number.

Property 1.4. √ √ √
n n
ab = n a b (1.14)
r √
a n
a
n
= √ (1.15)
b n
b
q
n √ √
m
a = nm a (1.16)

Definition 1.5. Let m/n √ be a rational number where n is a positive number greater than 1. If a
is a real integer such that n a exist, so
√
i) a1/n = n a
√ m √
ii) am/n = ( n a) = n am

m
iii) am/n = a1/n = (am )1/n

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1.2. POWERS, EXPONENTS AND LOGARITHMS 15

Example 1.2. 1. Simplify a) (8x3 y −5 )/(4x−1 y 2 ), b) (x2 y 3 )(−2xz 2 )(x3 y −2 )
√ p
2. Simplify the radical a) 3 320, b) 3 16x3 y 8 z 4

3. Replace the symbol ⊔ with either = or ̸= to make the resulting statement true, whenever the
expressions has meaning. Given a reason for your answer.
√ √ 1
a) ax by ⊔ (ab)xy b) ar ⊔ ( a)r c) a1/k ⊔
ak

4. The disadvantages of weightlifters O’Carroll’s formula is used for the disadvantages

of weightlifters. disadvantages of weightlifters. If a lifter who weighs b kilograms lifts w
kilograms of weight, then the weight of the weightlifter W is given by
w
W = √
3
b − 35
Suppose two lifters weighing 75 kilograms and 120 kilograms lift weights of 180 kilograms
and 250 kilograms, respectively. Use O’Carroll’s formula to determine the best weight lifter

1.2.2 Logarithms
Definition 1.6. Let b > 0 and b ̸= 1, so

y = logb x (1.17)

is equal to x = by
Identities For b > 0, b ̸= 0
logb bx = x (1.18)
logb x
b =x (1.19)
Property 1.5. If b, M and N are positive real numbers, (b ̸= 1), and p is a real number, then

logb bu = u (1.20)
logb (M N ) = logb M + logb N (1.21)
N
logb = logb N − logb M (1.22)
M
logb M p = p logb M (1.23)
logb 1 = 0 (1.24)

Theorem 1.2. The logarithm of a positive number N in base a is equal to the logarithm of N in
another base b, divided by the logarithm of a in base b, that is, the logarithm of a in base b.
logb N
loga N = (1.25)
logb a
Theorem 1.3. Natural logarithm definition

ln x = loge x, ∀x > 0 (1.26)

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16 CHAPTER 1. REAL NUMBERS

.

Example 1.3. 1. Find the number, if possible:

(a) log10 100, (b) log2 (1/32), (c) log7 1, (d) log3 (−2)
2. Change to exponential form: (a) log x = 50, (b) ln x = 0.1
3. Solve the equation: (a) log4 x = log4 (8 − x), (b) log7 (x − 5) = log7 (6x)
4. Write the expression as a logarithm: (a) log3 x + log3 (5y), (b) log4 x − 3 log4 (7y) + 4 log4 5x

1.2.3 Notable products

(a ± b)2 = a2 ± 2ab + b2 (1.27)
(a + b)(a − b) = a2 − b2 (1.28)
3 3 2 2
a + b = (a + b)(a − ab + b ) (1.29)
a3 − b3 = (a − b)(a2 + ab + b2 ) (1.30)
Definition 1.7. Let n ∈ N, then the factorial is defined as:

n! = n(n − 1)(n − 2)(n − 3) · · · 1

Note: 0! ≡ 1
Definition 1.8 (Newton’s Binomial). let n be a natural number and a, b real, then
n(n − 1) n−2 2 n(n − 1)(n − 2) n−3 3
(a + b)n = an + nan−1 b + a b + a b + ... + bn (1.31)
2! 3!
Example 1.4. factor the polynomials
1. 12x2 − 36xy + 27y 2
2. 4x4 y − 11x3 y 2 6x2 y 3
3. 27x3 + 8x3
4. 64a6 7 − b3
5. (3 − x)5
6. (x − 2y)8
Example 1.5 (Electrical condenser). A schematic of a simple electrical circuit consisting of a
resistor and an inductor is shown in the figure. The current I at time t is given by the formula
I = 20e−Rt/L , where R is the resistance and L is the inductance. Solve this equation for t.
Example 1.6. Richter scale Use the Richter scale formula R = log(I/I0 ) to find the magnitude
of an earthquake that has an intensity
1. 100 times that of I0
2. 10 000 times that of I0
3. 100 000 times that of I0

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1.2. POWERS, EXPONENTS AND LOGARITHMS 17

Figure 1.2: Circuit RLC example 1.5

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18 CHAPTER 1. REAL NUMBERS

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Chapter 2

Complex numbers

2.1 Complex numbers

To solve the quadratic equation x2 + 1 = 0 , is to look for a number that satisfies the condition
that x2 = −1, but as we know in the field of real numbers there is no such number in the field of
real numbers that squared generates a negative number. This is the reason why the algebraists
decided to construct (or perhaps they discovered) a larger set than that of the real numbers, then,
in order to solve the above equation we introduce a new number given as:
√
Definition 2.1. The quantity −1 is called the imaginary unit. It is represented by the symbol i
and has the property that i2 = −1.
Definition 2.2. A number of the form z = a + ib where a, b ∈ R is called a complex number.
A a =Rez is called the real part of z and b=Imz is called the imaginary part of z. Then the
set of the complex numbers generates a field denoted as

C = {(a, b) | a, b ∈ R} (2.1)
Property 2.1. Let z1 = a + ib and z2 = c + di be two complex numbers, then

(a) z1 = z2 ⇐⇒ a = c and b = d or Re z1 = Re z2 and Im z1 = Im z2

(b) z1 + z2 = a + c + i(b + d)

(c) z1 z2 = (a + ib)(c + id) = (ac − bd) + i(bc + ad)

(d) z̄1 = a − ib
z1 z1 z¯2 ac+bd+i(bc−ad)
(e) z2
= z2 z¯2
= c2 +d2

2.1.1 Geometric representation

Let z = a + ib ∈ C this complex number can be represented geometrically in the plane (called
the complex plane) as shown in Figure 2.1.

19

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20 CHAPTER 2. COMPLEX NUMBERS

Imz

b z = a + ib

Rez
a

Figure 2.1: Graphing a complex number in the complex plane

Example 2.1. Let z1 = 3 + 4i, z2 = 2 + i and z3 = 5 + 2i calculate:

1. z1 − 2z2 + z3
2. 2z1 z3 + 3z2
3. (z1 − 2z2 )/(z2+z3 )
4. z12 − 3z3 z2
Theorem 2.1. ∀z, w ∈ C and a∈R
i) Re(z + w) = Rez + Rew
ii) Im(z + w) =Imz +Imw
iii) Re(aZ) = aRez, Im(az) = aImz.
iv) z + w = z̄ + w̄
v) zw = z̄ w̄
z

z̄
vi) If w̄ ̸= 0 ⇒ w
= w̄

Definition 2.3 (module of z). Let z = x + iy ∈ C then we define the norm of z as:
√ p
|z| = z z̄ = x2 + y 2 (2.2)
Definition 2.4 (argument of z). The angle generated by rotating the complex z in the complex
plane is known as the z-argument and is defined as the argument of z and is defined as
y
arg(z) = θ = arctan (2.3)
x
Definition 2.5 (polar or trigonoometric form). Let z = x + iy with x = r cos θ and y = r sin θ,
then z can be written in its polar or trigonometric form, as:
z = r(cos θ + i sin θ) (2.4)

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2.2. POLYNOMIALS 21
2.1.2 Product
Let z1 = r1 (cos θ1 + i sin θ1 ), z2 = r2 (cos θ2 + i sin θ2 ), then

z1 z2 = r1 r2 (cos(θ1 + θ2 ) + i sin(θ1 + θ2 )

Property 2.2. (a) |z1 |2 = |z1 |2

(b) |z1 |2 = |z2 |2 ⇔ |z1 | = |z2 |

(c) |z1 z2 |2 = (|z1 ||z2 |)2 ⇔ |z1 z2 | = |z1 ||z2 |

Proposition

i) ∀ z ∈ C |Re(z)| ≤ |z| y |Im(z)| ≤ |z|

ii) ∀ z, w C |z + w| ≤ |z| + |w|

Definition 2.6 (Moive formula). Let z = r(cos θ + i sin θ) and (n ∈ N) then

z n = rn (cos nθ + i sin nθ) (2.5)

and
z −n = r−n (cos nθ − i sin nθ) (2.6)
also     
1/n 1/n θ + 2kπ θ + 2kπ
z =r cos + i sin (2.7)
n n
with 0 ≤ k ≤ n − 1

Example 2.2. Let z1 = 3 + 4i, z2 = 2 + i and z3 = 5 + 2i calculate:

1. z1 5

2. 2z1 4 + 3z2 2

3. z3 8

2.2 Polynomials
Definition 2.7. To any expression of the following type

f (x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a1 x + a0 (2.8)

With ai ∈ R, i = 1, 2, 3, . . . , n, we call it a polynomial of one variable with real coefficients.

If an ̸= 0 we say that the degree of the polynomial is n and is denoted as: gradf = n.

Definition 2.8. Let f (x) be a polynomial, c ∈ C we call c a root of f (x) if f (c) = 0.

Theorem 2.2 (Fundamental theorem of algebra). Every polynomial of degree n ≥ 1 has at

least one root

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22 CHAPTER 2. COMPLEX NUMBERS

Theorem 2.3. Any polynomial of degree n ≥ 1 has exactly n roots.

Example 2.3. Find the roots of f(x), and the multiplicity state of each root.

1. x4 − 2x3 − 9x2 + 2x + 8 = 0

2. x5 + x4 − 6x3 − 14x2 − 11x − 3 = 0

3. 6x3 − 17x2 − 26x − 8 = 0

4. 26x6 + 76x5 + 58x4 − 39x3 − 76x2 − 37x − 6 = 0

2.3 Partial fractions

2.3.1 Fundamental Theorem in the decomposition of a fraction into
partial fractions
Definition 2.9. A given fraction is improper if the order of the polynomial of the numerator is
greater than or equal to the order of the polynomial of the denominator.

Theorem 2.4. Any proper fraction, reduced to its minimum expression, can be expressed as a
sum of partial fractions of the following type.

1. To each linear factor ax+b that appears only once as a factor of the denominator, corresponds
a partial fraction of the form A/(ax + b) where A ̸= 0 is a constant.

2. To each linear factor ax + b that appears k times as a factor of the denominator, corresponds
the sum of k partial fractions of the form

A1 A2 Ak
+ 2
+ ··· +
ax + b (ax + b) (ax + b)k

where A, A2 , . . . Ak are constants and Ak ̸= 0

3. To each quadratic factor ax2 + bx + c (irreducible in the field of real numbers) which appears
only once as a factor of the denominator, corresponds a partial fraction of the form

Ax + B
ax2 + bx + c

4. To each quadratic factor ax2 + bx + c (irreducible in the field of real numbers) that appears k
times as a factor of the denominator, corresponds the sum of k partial fractions of the form

A1 x + B1 A2 x + B2 Ak x + Bk
2
+ 2 2
+ ··· +
ax + bx + c (ax + bx + c) (axk + bx + c)k

Where A1 , B1 , A2 , B2 , . . . , Ak , Bk are constant and Ak and Bk are not simultaneously null.

The types of fractions mentioned in the theorem are called simple partial fractions [1].

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2.3. PARTIAL FRACTIONS 23

Example 2.4. In each of the exercises decompose the given fraction into its simple partial frac-
tions. simple partial fractions.
3+13x+8x2
(a) −2−x+2x2 + x3
7x
(b) 2x2 −5x−3
x4 −x3 +3x2 +12x−10
(c) x4 −8x3 +3x2 +2x−1
s4 +1
(d) 3s4 −13s3 +14s2 +4s−8

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24 CHAPTER 2. COMPLEX NUMBERS

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Part II

Functions and trigonometry

25

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Chapter 3

Trigonometry

3.1 Introduction
Definition 3.1 (Angle). The angle is the set
of points determined by two rays or semi-lines,
as shown in the Figure a (denoted by: < AOB)

Figure a. Generated angle by two rays l1 and l2

Definition 3.2 (Radian). A radian is the measure of the central angle of a circle subtended by
an arc equal in length to the circle radius (Figure 3.1).

Figure 3.1: Central angle θ

A radian is equal to 57.29580 or 1800 π, then π rad = 1800

Definition 3.3. The arc s is defined as:

s = rθ (3.1)

and the subtended area between the radii r and the arc s is: A = r2 θ/2
27

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28 CHAPTER 3. TRIGONOMETRY

H
CO
θ

CA

Figure 3.2: Triangle where CA is the adjacent leg, CO is the opposite leg, H is the Hypotenuse
and θ is the angle subtended between the hypotenuse and the adjacent leg.

3.2 Trigonometric functions of angles

Given the triangle in the figure 3.2 the trigonometric functions are defined.
Definition of trigonometric functions
CO
sin θ = (3.2)
H
CA
cos θ = (3.3)
H
CO
tan θ = (3.4)
CA
CA
cot θ = (3.5)
CO
H
sec θ = (3.6)
CA
H
csc θ = (3.7)
CO
Example 3.1. Find the exact value of the trigonometric function of the given real number.

7π 17π 5π
a) cos 4π b) tan c) cos d) sin
6 4 3

3.3 Trigonometric identities

With the ecuations (3.2 - 3.7) the relation between the trigonometric functions known as reciprocal
identities are defined:
1
sin θ = (3.8)
csc θ
1
cos θ = (3.9)
sec θ
1
tan θ = (3.10)
cot θ
Theorem 3.1 (Pythagoras theorem). In every right triangle, the square of the hypotenuse is
equal to the square of the addition of the legs.

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3.3. TRIGONOMETRIC IDENTITIES 29

Taking the right triangle of figure 3.2, the theorem in mathematical form is:

H 2 = CO2 + CA2 (3.11)

Using this theorem and doing simple algebra, the following identities are obtained:

cos2 θ + sin2 θ = 1 (3.12)

1 + tan2 θ = sec2 θ (3.13)
1 + cot2 θ = csc2 θ (3.14)

3.3.1 Addition and subtraction formulas

cos(u ± v) = cos u cos v ∓ sin u sin v (3.15)

sin(u ± v) = sin u cos v ± sin v cos u (3.16)
tan u ± tan v
tan(u ± v) = (3.17)
1 ∓ tan u tan v

3.3.2 Double angle

cos 2θ = cos2 θ − sin2 θ = 1 − 2 sin2 θ = 2 cos2 θ − 1 (3.18)

sin 2θ = 2 sin θ cos θ (3.19)
2 tan θ
tan 2θ = (3.20)
1 − 2 tan2 θ

3.3.3 Half angle

r
θ 1 − cos θ
sin = ± (3.21)
2 r 2
θ 1 + cos θ
cos = ± (3.22)
2 r 2
θ 1 − cos θ 1 − cos θ sin θ
tan = ± = = (3.23)
2 1 + cos θ sin θ 1 + cos θ

3.3.4 Sum formula to product formulas

   
A±B A∓B
sin A ± sin B = 2 sin cos (3.24)
2 2
   
A+B A−B
cos A + cos B = 2 cos cos (3.25)
2 2
   
A+B A−B
cos A − cos B = −2 sin sin (3.26)
2 2

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30 CHAPTER 3. TRIGONOMETRY
Example 3.2. Solve the exercises in Example 3.1 using the corresponding identity.

Example 3.3. Prove each identity:

√
sin α+ 3cosα
a) sin(α + 600 ) = 2
sin(A+B) tan A+tan B
c) sin(A−B)
= tan A−tan B
2
e) (tan θ + cot θ) tan θ = sec θ

√ tan s+1
b) tan s + π6 = √33−tan s
sin 2x cos x
d) (1+cos 2x)(1+cos x)
= tan x2
f) (1 − sin θ)(1 + tan θ) = 1

3.4 Law of sines and cosines

Theorem 3.2 (Law of sines). If ABC is an oblique triangle as shown in Figure 3.3, then

sin α sin β sin γ

= = (3.27)
a b c

Figure 3.3: Obtuse triangle

Theorem 3.3 (Law of cosines). Given the triangle in Figure 3.3, then

a2 = b2 + c2 − 2bc cos α (3.28)

b2 = a2 + c2 − 2ac cos β (3.29)
c2 = a2 + b2 − 2ab cos γ (3.30)

Example 3.4. Use the law of sines for solving the problem

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3.4. LAW OF SINES AND COSINES 31

1. A comercial fishing boat uses sonar equipment to detect a school of fish 2 miles east of the
boat and traveling in the direction of N510 W at a rate of 8 mi(hr (see figure 3.4)

(a) If the boat travels at 20 mi/hr, approximate, to the nearest 0.10 , the direction it should
head to intercept the scool of fish.
(b) Find, to the nearest minute, the time it will take the boat to reach the fish.

2. Installing a solar panel Show in the figure 3.5 is a solar panel 10 feet in width, which is
to be attached to a roof that makes an angle of 250 with the horizontal. Approximate the
length dof the brace that is needed for the panel to make an angle of 450 with the horizontal.

Figure 3.4: Taken from the Swokowski [4]

Figure 3.5: Taken from the Swokowski [4]

Example 3.5. Use the law of cosines for solving the problem

1. Finding the length of a cable A vertical pole 40 feet tall satnds on a hillside that makes
an angle of 170 with the horizontal (figure 3.6). Approximate the minimal length of a cable
that will reach from the top of the pole to a point 72 feet downhill from the base of the pole.

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32 CHAPTER 3. TRIGONOMETRY
2. Angle of a box The rectangular box shown in the figure 3.7 has dimensions 8′′ × 6′′ × 4′′ .
Approximate the angle θ formed by a diagonal of the base and a diagonal of the 6′′ × 4′′ side.

Figure 3.6: Taken from the Swokowski [4]

Figure 3.7: Taken from the Swokowski [4]

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Chapter 4

Inequalities and functions

4.1 Inequalities
Property 4.1. Let a, b, c be real numbers, then the following inequalities hold

i. If a > b and b > c ⇒ a > c Transitive

ii. If a > b ⇒ a + c > b + c ∀ c ∈ R

iii. If a > b and c > 0 ⇒ ac > bc

iv. If a > b and c < 0 ⇒ ac < bc

Definition 4.1. Let x be a real number. The absolute value of x denoted as |x| and is given by
(
x if x ⩾ 0
|x| = (4.1)
x if x < 0

Property 4.2. Let a ∈ R

i) |a| = | − a|

ii) |ab| = |a||b|

iii) −|a| ≤ a ≤ |a|

Property 4.3. Let a, b ∈ R ⇒

i) |a| < b ⇔ −b < a < b

ii) |a| > b ⇔ a > b o a < −b

iii) |a| = b ⇔ a = b o a = −b

Note: Properties 4.3 also accomplish when the inequality isn´t absolute.

Definition 4.2. Triangle inequality

33

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34 CHAPTER 4. INEQUALITIES AND FUNCTIONS

|a + b| ≤ |a| + |b| (4.2)

Definition 4.3. Interval

Open interval (a, b) = {x ∈ R|a < x < b}

Closed interval [a, b] = {x ∈ R|a ≤ x ≤ b}
Half-closed interval on the left (half-open on the right) [a, b) = {x ∈ R|a ≤ x < b}
Half-open interval on the left (half-closed on the right) (a, b] = {x ∈ R|a < x ≤ b}

Definition 4.4. Let A and B be two on a coordinate line l, let a and b be their respective coordi-
nates. The distance between A and B is given as:

d(A, B) = |b − a| = d(B, A) (4.3)

Example 4.1. Solve the inequality and express the solutions in terms of intervals whenever pos-
sible.

a)4x + 5 ≤ 8(x − 7) b)(x − 3)(x + 3) ≥ (x + 5) c)(x − 4)2 > x d) |x + 3| ≥ x − 1

4.2 Functions
4.2.1 Concepts
Definition 4.5. A function is a set of ordered pairs of numbers (x, y) in which there is no two
different ordered pairs that have the same first number. The set of all the possible values of x is
called the domain of the function and the set of all possible values is called a codomain, image, or
range.

Property 4.4. Let f and g be two functions defined in the set of real numbers, then the following
properties are accomplish:

a) (f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x)

b) (f g)(x) = f (x)g(x)
f f (x)
c) g
(x) = g(x)
, if g(x) ̸= 0 ∀ x ∈ dom g

Example 4.2. Find the domain of the function

x 5t + 4 1
a) f (x) = , b) f (t) = , c) h(s) = √ , d) ln(3x + 4)
3x − 1 t2 + 3t + 2 x2 − 5x
Example 4.3. Find the functions f + g, f − g and f /g and express their domain.
√
a) f (x) = x3 , g(x) = 1/x + 2, b) f (x) = ln x, g(x) = 1 + x

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4.3. PROPERTIES AND GRAPHICS 35

4.3 Properties and graphics
Definition 4.6 (Even or odd). Let f be a function such that whenever x is in the domain D,
−x is also in D, then

i) f is even if f (x) = f (−x) ∀ x ∈ D

ii) f is odd if −f (x) = f (−x) ∀ x ∈ D

Definition 4.7 (Bounded). The function y = f (x) defined in the set D, is said to be bounded
below (above), if there exists a number b such that b ≤ f (x)(b ≥ f (x)) ∀ x ∈ D
Definition 4.8 (Increasing, decreasing). A function y = f (x), defined in the set D, is denom-
inate increasing (”decreasing”) in this set if for any pair of numbers x1 and x2 of this set, such
that if:
x 1 < x2
then
f (x1 ) < f (x2 ) (f (x1 ) > f (x2 ))
Definition 4.9 (Periodic). A function y = f (x) is called periodic if there exists T ̸= 0 such that
for any x in the domain of f is verified
f (x + T ) = f (x)
Definition 4.10 (Functions composition). Let f be a function from A to B and let g be a
function from B to C. The function from A to C defined by:

Figure 4.1: Graph of the function f (x) = x

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36 CHAPTER 4. INEQUALITIES AND FUNCTIONS

Figure 4.2: Graph of the function f (x) = x2

Figure 4.3: Graph of the function f (x) = x3 .

Example 4.4. Draw the graph of f and express the domain and range of the function, as well as
the intervals in which the function is increasing, decreasing and/or the properties it fulfills.

a) |x + 5|, b) ex + 2, c) cos(2x − π/4)

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4.3. PROPERTIES AND GRAPHICS 37

Figure 4.4: Graph of the function f (x) = |x|.

√
Figure 4.5: Graph of the function f (x) = x.

Definition 4.11 (Identity function). The identity function is defined as:

I(x) = x (4.4)
Definition 4.12 (Inverse function). Let f be a one-to-one function with domain D and codomain
B,a function g with domain B and codomain D is the inverse function of f if
(f ◦ g)(x) = f (g(x)) = I(x) ∀ x ∈ B (4.5)
(g ◦ f )(x) = g(f (x)) = I(x) ∀ x ∈ D (4.6)

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38 CHAPTER 4. INEQUALITIES AND FUNCTIONS

Figure 4.6: Graph of the function f (x) = ex .

Figure 4.7: Graph of the function f (x) = ln x.

g is called the inverse function of f and is denoted as

g = f −1

Example 4.5. Find the functions f ◦ g, as well as their domain, codomain and describe the given
function

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4.3. PROPERTIES AND GRAPHICS 39

Figure 4.8: Graph of the function f (x) = sin x.

Figure 4.9: Graph of the function f (x) = cos x.

1
a) f (x) = 1 − x2 , g(x) = , b) f (x) = sin x, g(x) = 1 + x
x

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40 CHAPTER 4. INEQUALITIES AND FUNCTIONS

Figure 4.10: Graph of the function f (x) = tan x.

Figure 4.11: Graph of the function f (x) = arcsin x.

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4.4. FUNCTION TRANSFORMATIONS 41

Figure 4.12: Graph of the function f (x) = arccos x.

Figure 4.13: Graph of the function f (x) = arctan x

4.4 Function transformations

4.4.1 Concepts
Many times, intuition is used to graph a function before using a graph. For this, we use the basic
ideas of translations of functions according to how the shift constant (c) is found (see fig. 4.14).
The function increases or decreases faster depending on whether c is mayor or minor that one

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42 CHAPTER 4. INEQUALITIES AND FUNCTIONS

x2
100
x2 + c
80 x2 − c
(x + c)2
60 (x − c)2
40

20

−10 −5 5 10

Figure 4.14: function transformations

(see figure 4.15).

100 cx2 , c > 0

cx2 , c < 0
50

−10 −5 5 10

−50

−100

Figure 4.15: function transformations, depening c is mayor or minor that one

Example 4.6. Find the functions f ◦ g, as well as their domain, codomain, graph and describe
the given function

a) f (x) = 1 − x2 , g(x) = |x|, b) f (x) = sin x, g(x) = 1 + x

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Part III

Analytic geometric

43

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Chapter 5

Analytic geometric

5.1 Parabolas
Definition 5.1 (Parabola). A Parabola is the set of all points in a plane equidistant from a fixed
point F (the focus) and fixed line l ( the directrix) that lie in the plane.

Note: F is not on l
In this case, the focus F has coordinates for some real number , and the equation of the
directrix is y = −p . (The figure 5.1 shows the case p > 0.) By the distance formula, a point
P (x, y) is on the graph of the parabola if and only if and only if d(P, F ) = d(P, P ′ ).
That is: p =p
(x − 0)2 + (y − p) (x − x)2 + (y + p)2
We square both sides ans simplify:
1 2
y= x (5.1)
4p
The equation for the parabola is given below.

45

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46 CHAPTER 5. ANALYTIC GEOMETRIC

Axis

P (x, y)

F (0, p)

V
l
P (x, 0)
′

Figure 5.1: F focus, l directriz, P point on the parabola and P ′ point on directriz

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Bibliography

[1] Ch. H. Lehman. Álgebra. Ed. Limusa. México. 1998.

[2] Barnett. Precálculo, Ed. Limusa. México. 2001.

[3] Uspensky. Teorı́a de Ecuaciones. Ed. Limusa. México. 1993.

[4] Swokowski and Cole. Algebra and trigonometry with Analytic Geometric. Ten edi-
tions Ed. Cole Publishing Company. 2010. anadaC

[5] Stewart, J., Redlin, L., and Watson, S. (2012). Precalculus: mathematics for calcu-
lus. (6a ed.) Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole: Cengage Learning

[6] Larson, Hostetler, and Edwards. Cálculo. Vol2. Sexta edición. México, 2000.

[7] Larson, R., Hostetler, R. P., Falvo, D. (2010). Precalculus. (8th ed.) Boston, Ma. :
Brooks /Cole : Cengage Learning.

[8] Efimov, Demidovich y otros. Problemas de las matemáticas superiores. Vol. I. Ed.
Mir. Moscú. 1983.

47

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