i

PRODUCTION OF LIQUID SULFUR DIOXIDE

AND

BIOCOMPOSITES DERIVED FROM CASHEWNUT SHELL

A PROJECT REPORT
Submitted by
S.SAKELAN(18CHR080)

in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the degree of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY IN

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
SCHOOL OF CHEMICAL AND FOOD SCIENCES

KONGU ENGINEERING COLLEGE

(Autonomous)

PERUNDURAI, ERODE - 638060

MAY – 2021
 ii

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

KONGU ENGINEERING COLLEGE

(Autonomous)

PERUNDURAI, ERODE - 638060

BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the Project Report entitled “PRODUCTION OF LIQUID

SULFUR DIOXIDE and BIOCOMPOSITES DERIVED FROM CASHEWNUT
SHELL” is the bonafide record of project work done by S.SAKELAN(18CHR080), in
partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the Degree of Bachelor of
Technology in Chemical Engineering of Anna University, Chennai during the year 2020-
2021.

SUPERVISOR HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT

(Ms.P.MANJULA,M.Tech) (Dr.K.KANNAN)

Submitted for the end semester viva voce examination held on 27.05.2021

INTERNAL EXAMINER EXTERNAL EXAMINER

 iii

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

KONGU ENGINEERING COLLEGE
(Autonomous)

PERUNDURAI, ERODE – 638 060

MAY- 2021

DECLARATION

We affirm that the Project Report entitled “PRODUCTION OF LIQUID

SULFUR DIOXIDE and BIOCOMPOSITES DERIVED FROM CASHEWNUT
SHELL” being submitted in partial fulfillment of requirements for the award of Bachelor
of Technology is the original work carried out by us. It has not formed the part of any
other project report or dissertation on the basis of which a degree or award was conferred
on an earlier occasion on this or any other candidate.

Date: (Signature of the candidates)

S.SAKELAN(18CHR080)

I certify that the declaration made by the above candidates are true to the best of my
knowledge.

Date: Name and Signature of the Supervisor with seal

 iv

ABSTRACT
PRODUCTION OF LIQUID SULFUR DIOXIDE

Liquid sulfur dioxide (SO2 ) is a colorless, versatile chemical with many uses both
in the liquid form and also in the gaseous state. Liquid sulfur dioxide is widely
used in the paper and pulp industry, mining industry and in food industry as a
preservatives. They also used as a refrigerant, heat transfer fluid and selective
solvent. In our project the production of liquid sulfur dioxide is produced by the
burning of the molten sulfur with a special type of burner with addition of
controlled amount of air and it was followed by the compression and cooling
process to form the liquid sulfur dioxide. In the combustion chamber, the sulfur
dioxide was produced upto 18%. By further cooling process, the percentage of
SO2 will tends to get increases. After SO 2 is sended to the absorber only small
amount of SO2 will get lost in the exhaust. The vapor SO 2 from the steaming
tower is cooled and then passed to the drier with addition of 98% sulfuric acid as
drying agent. At finally the gaseous SO 2 is compressed and condensed at the
desired pressure and temperature then the liquid sulfur dioxide is stored in a
cylindrical pressure vessel tank.

BIOCOMPOSITES DERIVED FROM CASHEWNUT SHELL

Cardanol–formaldehyde thermoset resin was reinforced with raw and chemically

modified fibers of bamboo (Bambusoideae). Modified fibers were treated with
alkali solutions of NaOH (5% and 10%) and bleached with sodium hypochlorite
NaClO/H2O (1:1) at 60C–75C. The biocomposites were fabricated with a hand lay-
up technique. This study investigated the fibers microstructure before and after
alkali treatment, as the interaction between matrix and reinforce by scanning
electron microscopy. The Fourier transform infrared spectra allowed the
identification of characteristic stretching frequencies attributed to the methyl
groups of lignin. A considerable increase in thermal stability was observed in the
materials studied, which was verified by thermogravimetric analysis and
confirmed by X-ray diffraction. The tensile tests showed that the mechanical
properties (tensile modulus, tensile strength, and elongation at break) of
bamboo fibers improved after alkali treatment, as well as the increase in the
 v

biodegradation in simulated soil, showing that the alkaline treatment acted

removing the macro components of the fibers (lignin and hemicellose), making
them more susceptible to the action of microorganisms
 vi

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First of all we thank the almighty, who is behind all our endeavours and blessed
us in completing the Project successfully. We thank our beloved Correspondent Thiru
P.SACHIDANANDAN and all the members of Kongu Vellalar Institute of Technology
Trust at this high time for providing us with plethora of facilities to complete our project
successfully.

We take it a privilege to express our profound thanks to our beloved Principal

Dr.V.BALUSAMY B.E (HONS), M.Tech, Ph.D who has been a bastion of moral
strength and a source of incessant encouragement to us.

We express our sincere thanks to Head of the Chemical Engineering Department

Dr.K.KANNAN, M.Tech, Ph.D for his valuable guidance and suggestion.

We take immense pleasure to express our heartfelt thanks to our beloved project
guideMrs.P.MANJULA, M.Tech, Assistant Professor, Department of Chemical
Engineering, Kongu Engineering College, Perundurai for his guidance and support.

We would like to thank our Class Advisors Mr.P.SHANMUGAM M.Tech and

Ms.ARUNA PAGIDI, M.Tech, Assistant Professors, Department of Chemical
Engineering, Kongu Engineering College, Perundurai for their guidance and support.

We also thank the staff members of Chemical Engineering Department and all our
fellow students who stood with us to complete our project successfully. We also extend
our warm thanks to our beloved parents
 vii

PRODUCTION OF LIQUID SULFUR DIOXIDE

TABLE OF CONTENT

CHAPTER NO TITLE PAGE NO

ABSTRACT iv
LIST OF TABLES viii
LIST OF FIGURES ix

1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 LIQUID SULFUR DIOXIDE 1
2. PROPERTIES
2.1 PROPERTIES OF LIQUID SULFUR DIOXIDE 2
2.2 APPLICATIONS 3
2.3 USES
3. PROCESS DESCRIPTION 4
4. MATERIAL BALANCE
4.1 BURNER 6
4.2 COMBUSTION CHAMBER 8
4.3 SHELL AND TUBE HEAT EXCHANGER 9
4.4 ABSORBER 10
4.5 DESORBER 12
4.6 COOLER 13

4.7 DRY TOWER 13

4.8 CONDENSER 14
5. ENERGY BALANCE
5.1 SHELL AND TUBE HEAT EXCHANGER 15
5.2 ABSORBER 15
5.3 COOLER 16
5.4 DRYER 16
5.5 CONDENSER 18
 viii

6. DESIGN CALCULATION
6.1 FLUIDIZED BED DRYER 19
6.2 SHELL AND TUBE HEAT EXCHANGER 23
7. COST ESTIMATION 26
8. CONCLUSION 31
9. REFERENCE 32
10. INTRODUCTION 33
11. LITERATURE REVIEW 34

LIST OF TABLES

TABLE NO TITLE PAGE NO

2.1 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF LIQUID SO 2 2

2.2 LIQUID PROPERTIES OF LIQUID SO2 3

4.1 MATERIAL BALANCE FOR BURNER 7
4.2 MATERIAL BALANCE FOR 9

COMBUSTION CHAMBER
4.3 MATERIAL BALANCE FOR SHELL AND 9
TUBE HEAT EXCHANGER
4.4 SOLUBILITY DATA 10
4.5 GAS INPUT FOR ABSORBER 11
4.6 WATER INPUT FOR ABSORBER 11
4.7 LIQUID INPUT FOR ABSORBER 11
4.8 OUTPUT FROM THE ABSORBER 12
4.9 INPUT TO THE DESORBER 12
4.10 OUTPUT FROM THE DESORBER 12
4.11 MATERIAL BALANCE FOR COOLER 13
4.12 MATERIAL BALANCE FOR DRY TOWER 14
4.13 MATERIAL BALANCE FOR CONDENSER 14
 ix

LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE NO TITLE PAGE NO

3.1 FLOW SHEET FOR PRODUCTION OF 5

LIQUID SULFUR DIOXIDE
4.1 BURNER 6
4.2 COMBUSTION CHAMBER 8
4.3 SHELL AND TUBE HEAT EXCHANGER 9
4.4 ABSORBER 10
4.5 COOLER 13
4.6 DRY TOWER 13

4.7 CONDENSER 14
5.1 SHELL AND TUBE HEAT EXCHANGER 15
5.2 ABSORBER 15
5.3 COOLER 16
5.4 DRYER 16
5.5 CONDENSER 18
 1

PART-B

PRODUCTION OF LIQUID SULFUR

DIOXIDE CHAPTER-1

INTRODUCTION

Liquid sulfur dioxide has been produced commercially from the

following raw materials: elemental sulfur, pyrites, sulfide ores of non
ferrous metals, waste sulfuric acid and sulfates, gypsum and anhydrite,
hydrogen sulfide containing waste gases, and flue gases from the
combustion of sulfurous fossil fuels. It is most commonly produced by
burning sulfur but can be produced by burning pyrites in a special furnace or
by purifying and compressing sulfur dioxide gas from smelting operations.

Liquid sulfur dioxide has been produced by burning of molten sulfur in a

special burner with a controlled amount of air. The burner gas, free of dust
and cooled, is dissolved in water in a series of two towers. In a third tower,
the solution is sprayed at the top and flows down while steam is injected at
the base. The gas issuing from the third tower is then cooled to remove the
moisture and passed up a fourth tower against a counter current of sulfuric
acid. The dried gas is liquefied by the compression.

They can also recovered commercially by liquefying gas obtained during

smelting of nonferrous metals such as lead, copper, and nickel. Much of this
smelter by-product is recovered and oxidized to sulfur trioxide for
producing sulfuric acid. Sulfur dioxide recovery.

Most of the sulfur dioxide produced is for captive use in the sulfuric acid
and wood pulp industries. It is also used for refrigeration. The major
producers of sulfur dioxide in 1989 include ChemDesign Corporation,
Coulton chemical corporation, Dow chemical, Hoeschst Celenese
corporation, Industrial chemicals corporation, Rhone-poulene, Inc.,
 2

CHAPTER-2

PROPERTIES AND APPLICATION OF LIQUID SULFUR DIOXIDE

2.1 PROPERTIES OF LIQUID SULFUR DIOXIDE

Sulfur dioxide is a clear, colourless liquid. At standard temperature and
pressure, it is colourless liquid with a sharp rotten egg smell odour. Liquid
SO2 is almost 1½ times greater than the density of water. As the
temperature of liquid sulfur dioxide rises, its vapor pressure increases.
Liquid sulfur dioxide is not flammable and not explosive but it is intensely
gives irritating to the eyes and respiratory tract.However, when even a small
amount of moisture is present in sulfur dioxide will react with the moisture
to form sulfuric acid which will corrode the metals.

Table 2.1 Physical properties of Liquid sulfur dioxide

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF LIQUID SULFUR DIOXIDE

Colour Colourless as a gas or liquid

Odour Intense, pungent, irritating

Not flammable, not explosive in either the

Flammability
gaseous or liquid state
Molecular Formula SO2

Molecular Weight 64.063

Boiling Point -10.1°C (14°F) at 101.3 kPa, 1.0 atm

Freezing Point -75.5°C (-103.9°F) at 101.3 kPa, 1.0 atm

Specific Gravity – Gas 2.2636 at 0°C, 1 atm

Critical Temperature 157.5°C (315.5°F)

Critical Pressure 7883 kPa (1143.3 psia)

Critical Volume 122 cm³/mol

 3

Table 2.2 Liquid properties of liquid sulfur dioxide

LIQUID PROPERTIES OF LIQUID SULFUR DIOXIDE

Specific Gravity 1.437 @ 0°C (32°F) / Water @ 4°C (39.2°F)

Dielectric Constant 16.5 @ -10.1°C (14°F)

Thermal Conductivity 0.0005715 cal/s cm °C

Flammability Not Flammable

2.2 APPLICATIONS OF LIQUID SULFUR DIOXIDE

Liquid sulfur dioxide is used in the pulp and paper industry, mining
industry, and in food industry as a preservative. It can function as a reducing
agent, an oxidizing agent, a P H controller, purifying agent, preservative, a
germicide and bleaching agent. Liquid SO 2 can also be used as a refrigerant,
heat transfer fluid and selective solvent.

2.3 USES OF LIQUID SULFUR DIOXIDE

• In the manufacture of sulfuric acid used in making detergents, fertilizers, paints
and many medicines.
• It prevents growth of microbes-used to increase life of foods.
• Used in sugar industry for deodourizing and decolorizing.
• Used to prevent decolorization of dried fruits.
• Used in the preparation of sulfur trioxide and sulfites.
• Used as a catalyst in manufacturing of paper.
• Used as a bleaching agent to remove the excess chlorine.
• Used as a reducing agent in several industrial processes.
 4

CHAPTER-3

PROCESS DESCRIPTION

Sulfur dioxide may be produced by the burning of sulfur or by the

roasting of metal sulfides. It may be obtained also by the recovery of waste
gases of the other reactions. Its production and the subsequent compression
and cooling to form liquid sulfur dioxide, which boils at -10⁰c with very
careful control of the amount of air entering the combustion chamber,
Sulfur-dioxide can be produced up to 18 %. As the gases from the
combustion chamber passes through the heat exchanger, they heat the water
for the boilers. The cooled gases, containing from 16 to 18 % SO 2 are
pumped into the absorbers through acid-proof pumps. The strength of the
solution from the absorbers is dependent upon the temperature and the
strength of the gases entered, but the concentration usually runs about 1.3 %
with the temperature close to 30⁰c. A very small amount of the SO 2 is lost in
the exhaust from the second absorber-about 0.02 %. The temperature of the
vapors coming from the steaming tower depends upon its design but usually
runs at 70⁰ c. The vapors are cooled and passed through a drying tower in
which 98 % sulfuric acid is used. Other drying agents may be employed and
some plants by special procedure eliminate the use of this sulfuric acid drier
altogether. The SO2 is liquefied by compressing to about 7 atm and cooling.
It is stored or put into cylinders.

Sulfur dioxide is shipped as a liquid under 2 or 3 atm pressure. It is

obtainable in the steel cylinders from 50 to 100 lb. capacity, in 1-ton tanks,
or in 15-ton tank cars. Its uses are numerous. A quite pure commercial grade
containing not more than 0.05 % of moisture is suitable for most of its
applications. However, a very pure grade, containing less than 50 p.p.m of
moisture, is supplied for refrigeration.
 5

Fig 3.1 Flow sheet for Production of liquid sulfur dioxide

 6

CHAPTER – 4

MATERIAL BALANCE

MASS IN – MASS OUT = ACCUMULATION

ASSUMPTION:

Production of liquid SO 2 = 1460 tons / Annum

1 year = 365 Working days (Continuous process)

= 4 tons / day = 151 kg/hr

4.1 MATERIAL BALANCE FOR BURNER:

100 kg/hr Molten sulphur 14%So2

Burner
Air 5% O2

21mol% of O2 81% N2

79 mol% of N2

Fig 4.1 Burner

REACTION:

S (g) + O2 (g) SO2 (g) ∆H = -297 KJ / Mol (EXOTHERMIC RXN)

Feed of the sulfur entering in the burner is about 100 kg / hr with 90% purity.
Gas leaving from the burner = 14% of SO 2 , 5% of O2 and 81% of N 2

Amount of O2 in the burner = 14.0 + 5 = 19 kmol / hr

Burner contains = 81 kmol of N2

Amount of O2 the air supplied = 81 * 21(O2) / 79(N2)

O2 in air = 21.5316 kmol.

BURNED SULFUR:
 7

90% Purity of sulfur burned

90 kg = 90/ 32.064 (Molecular weight of sulfur)

= 2.8068 kmol

Amount of SO3 forming by O2 consuming = 21.5316 – 19

= 2.5316 kmol

SO3 leaving from the burner = 2.5316*(1/1.5)

= 1.6877 kmol

Total sulfur burned to produce SO3

14.0 (14% of SO2) + 1.6877 = 15.687 kmol

2.8068 = X * (15.687 / 100 (100 kg/hr of sulfur))

X= (100/15.687) * 2.8068 (SO3 free burner)

X= 18.6970 kmol / hr

COMPOSITION LEAVING THE BURNER:

SO2 = 0.14 (14% SO2) * 18.6970 = 2.6175 kmol
O2 = 0.05 (5% O2)* 18.6970 = 0.9348 kmol
N2 = 0.81 (81% N2)* 18.6970 = 15.1445 kmol
TOTAL= 18.6970 kmol / hr

Table 4.1 Material balance of burner

NO.OF MOLES NO.OF MOLES
ENTERING INTO LEAVING FROM
COMPONENT MOLE %
THE BURNER THE BURNER
(kmol / hr) (kmol / hr)
S(SULFUR) 2.8068 0 0
SO2(SULFUR DIOXIDE) 0 2.6175 14
N2(NITROGEN) 15.1445 15.1445 81
O2(OXYGEN) 0.9348 0.9348 5
TOTAL 0 18.6970 100
 8

4.2 MATERIAL BALANCE FOR COMBUSTION CHAMBER:

21%O2
79%N2

14%S02 Combustion 83%N2

chamber
5%O2 7.5%O2
81%N2 9.5%S02

90% Purity of sulfur burned

90 kg = 90/ 32.064(Mw of sulfur)

= 2.8068 kmol

2.8068 = Y * (12.09 / 100(Feed-100 kg/hr))

Y = (100/12.09)*2.8068

Y= 23.2158 kmol

COMPOSITION LEAVING FROM COMBUSTION CHAMBER:

Gas leaving from the combustion chamber = 9.5% SO2, 7.5% O2, 83% N2
SO2 = 0.095(9.5% SO2) * 23.2158 = 2.2025 kmol
O2 = 0.075(7.5% O2) * 23.2158 = 1.7411 kmol
N2 = 0.83(83% N2) * 23.2158 = 19.2691 kmol
FOR BURNER:

N2 Composition = 15.1445 kmol

FOR COMBUSTION CHAMBER:

N2 Composition = 19.2691 kmol

(19.2691-15.1445)* (100/79(79 % N2)) = 5.2210 kmol

5.2210 kmol of Secondary air was used as a feed in the combustion chamber
 9

Table 4.2 Material balance for combustion chamber

NO.OF MOLES
NO.OF MOLES
ENTERING INTO
LEAVING FROM
THE
COMPONENT THE COMBUSTION MOLE %
COMBUSTION
CHAMBER
CHAMBER
(kmol / hr)
(kmol / hr)
SO2(SULFUR DIOXIDE) 2.6175 2.2055 9.50003
N2(NITROGEN) 15.1445 19.2691 83.0002
O2(OXYGEN) 0.9348 1.7411 7.499
SECONDARY AIR 5.2210 0 0
TOTAL 0 23.2157 99.999

4.3 MATERIAL BALANCE FOR SHELL AND TUBE HEAT EXCHANGER:

H20=555.5kmol
Tc1=293k

Th1=773k Th2=372.3032k
Heat Exchanger
So2=2.2055 kmol Tc2=299k

N2=19.2691 kmol So2=2.2055 Kmol

O2=1.7411 kmol N2=19.2691 kmol

O2=1.7411 kmol

Fig 4.3 Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger

Table 4.3 Material balance for Shell and tube heat exchanger
NO.OF MOLES NO.OF MOLES
ENTERING INTO LEAVING FROM
COMPONENT THE HEAT THE HEAT MOLE %
EXCHANGER EXCHANGER
(kmol / hr) (kmol / hr)
SO2(SULFUR DIOXIDE) 2.2055 2.2055 9.500
N2(NITROGEN) 19.2691 19.2691 83.0002
O2(OXYGEN) 1.7411 1.7411 7.4996
H2O(WATER) 555.55 0 0
TOTAL 0 23.2157 99.999
 10

4.4 MATERIAL BALANCE FOR ABSORBER:

H20=155.2672 kg/hr

So2=141.152 kg/hr So2=141.142 kg/hr

Absorber
N2=539.534 kg/hr N2=539.5338 kg/hr

O2=55.7152 kg/hr O2=55.7162 kg/hr

The solubility of sulfur dioxide in water is very high, so the amount of water required for the
absorption of sulfur dioxide is equal amount of water.

Water for absorption = 141.152* 1.10 = 155.2672 kg / hr (10 % of extra water is used
to scrub all the sulfur dioxide produced).

Total Sulfur dioxide absorbed = 141.152 kg / hr

Table 4.4 Solubility data

COMPONENT SOLUBILITY (kg / kg of water)

SO2(SULFUR DIOXIDE) 3.77 * 10^-2

N2(NITROGEN)
1.346*10^-5
O2(OXYGEN)
2.5*10^-5

During the absorption of SO2 in water, oxygen, nitrogen is also absorbed by a small
quantities.

Nitrogen absorbed = 155.2672 * (1.346*10^-5)

= 2.0898 * 10^-3 kg / hr

Sulfur dioxide absorbed = 155.2672 * (3.77*10^-2)

= 5.8535 kg / hr

Oxygen absorbed = 155.2672*(2.5*10^-5)

= 3.881*10^-3 kg / hr
 11

Table 4.5 Gas input for absorber

COMPONENT WEIGHT (kg / hr)

SO2(SULFUR DIOXIDE) 141.152

N2(NITROGEN)
539.5348
O2(OXYGEN) 55.7152

TOTAL GAS 736.402

RECYCLED AND PURGED STREAM CALCULATION:

Sulfur dioxide recycled = 141.152-5.8535

= 135.2985 kg / hr

Nitrogen recycled = 539.5348– (2.0898 * 10^-3)

= 539.5327 kg / hr

Oxygen recycled = 55.7152 – (3.881*10^-3)

= 55.71131 kg / hr

Table 4.6 Water input for absorber

COMPONENT WEIGHT (kg / hr)

155.2672
H2O (WATER)

TOTAL INPUT
891.6692
Table 4.7 Liquid input for absorber

COMPONENT WEIGHT (kg / hr)

SO2(SULFUR DIOXIDE) 135.2985

N2(NITROGEN) 539.5327

O2(OXYGEN) 55.7113

TOTAL 730.5425
 12

Table 4.8 Output from the absorber

COMPONENT WEIGHT (kg / hr)

SO2(SULFUR DIOXIDE) 5.8535

N2(NITROGEN) 0.0021

O2(OXYGEN) 0.0039

TOTAL 5.8595

TOTAL OUTPUT 736.402

4.5 MATERIAL BALANCE FOR DESORBER:

The amount of water used for absorbing sulfur dioxide in the absorber is desorbed with
the help of desorber.

Table 4.9 Input to the desorber

COMPONENT WEIGHT (kg / hr)

SO2(SULFUR DIOXIDE) 5.8535

N2(NITROGEN) 0.0021

O2(OXYGEN) 0.0039

TOTAL INPUT 5.8595

Table 4.10 Output from the desorber

COMPONENT WEIGHT (kg / hr)

SO2(SULFUR DIOXIDE) 129.445

N2(NITROGEN) 0.0021

O2(OXYGEN) 0.0039

TOTAL OUTPUT 129.451

 13

4.6 MATERIAL BALANCE FOR COOLER:

Tc1=25⁰c
H20=500 kg/hr

Th1=70⁰c Th2=33.8390⁰c
Cooler
So2=129 kg/hr Tc2=28⁰c
So2=129 kg/hr
Fig 4.5 Cooler
Table 4.11 Material balance for cooler
NO.OF MOLES
NO.OF MOLES
ENTERING
LEAVING FROM
COMPONENT INTO THE MOLE %
THE COOLER
COOLER
(kmol / hr)
(kmol / hr)
SO2(SULFUR DIOXIDE) 2.0225 2.0225 100

27.777 0 0
H2O(WATER)
TOTAL 0 2.0225 100

4.7 MATERIAL BALANCE FOR DRY TOWER:

98%H2SO4(93.567 kmol)

So2=2.0225 Kmol Dry Tower SO2=2.0225Kmol

Fig 4.6 Dry Tower

 14

Table 4.12 Material balance for dry tower

NO.OF MOLES NO.OF MOLES

ENTERING LEAVING FROM
COMPONENT INTO THE DRY THE DRY MOLE %
TOWER TOWER
(kmol / hr) (kmol / hr)
SO2(SULFUR DIOXIDE) 2.0225 2.0225 100

93.567 0 0
H2SO4(SULFURIC ACID)

TOTAL 0 2.0225 100

4.8 MATERIAL BALANCE FOR CONDENSER:

H20=450 kg/hr

Tc1=25⁰c

Th1=33.8390⁰c Th2=-53.7580⁰c

So2=129.451kg/hr Condenser Tc2=29⁰c

So2=129.45kg/hr
Fig 4.7 Condenser

Table 4.13 Material balance for condenser

NO.OF MOLES
NO.OF MOLES
ENTERING
LEAVING FROM
COMPONENT INTO THE MOLE %
THE CONDENSER
CONDENSER
(kmol / hr)
(kmol / hr)

SO2(SULFUR DIOXIDE) 2.0225 2.0225 100

25 0 0
H2O(WATER)

0 2.0225 100
TOTAL
 15

CHAPTER 5

ENERGY BALANCE

HEAT IN = HEAT OUT + HEAT ACCUMULATION

5.1 ENERGY BALANCE FOR SHELL AND TUBE HEAT EXCHANGER:

Th1=773k Th2=372.3k
Heat Exchanger
Tc2=299k Tc1=293k

Fig 5.1 Shell and tube heat exchanger

Mass flow rate of (SO2, N2, O2) at (500⁰c) (mSO2,N2,O2) = (2.2055*
64)+(19.2691*28)+(1.7411 * 32) = 786.1132 kg / hr
Mass flow rate of H2O at (20⁰c) (mc) = 10000 kg / hr
Specific heat capacity of (SO2, N2, O2) at (500⁰c) (CPSO2,N2,O2) =
851.38 J / kg K
Specific heat capacity of H2O at (20⁰c) (CPc) = 4187 J / kg K
mSO2,N2,O2*CpSO2,N2,O2*(Th1-Th2) = mw * CPw * (Tc2 – Tc1)
mSO2,N2,O2*CpSO2,N2,O2*(Th1-Th2) = mw * CPw * (Tc2 – Tc1)

(736.402 / 3600) * 851.38 * (773-Th2) = (10000 / 3600) * 4187 * (299-293)

176.4255* (773-Th2) = 69783.3333

773-Th2 =400.6967

Th2 = 372.3032 K

5.2 ENERGY BALANCE FOR ABSORBER:

Th1=99.303 ⁰c Th2=85.789 ⁰c
Absorber
Tc2=30 ⁰c Tc1=26 ⁰c

Fig 5.2 Absorber

 16

Mass flow rate of sulfur dioxide at (99.3022⁰c) (mSO2) = 2.2055 kmol / hr

Mass flow rate of water at (26⁰c) (mw) = 155.2672 kg / hr

Specific heat capacity of sulfur dioxide at (99.3022⁰c) (CPSO2) = 87.25 J / mol K

Specific heat capacity of water at (26⁰c) (CPw) = 4187 J / kg K

mSO2 * CPSO2 * (Th1 – Th2) = mw * CPw * (Tc2 – Tc1)

(2.2055*10^3/3600) * 87.25 * (99.3032-Th2) = 155.2672* 4187 * (30-26)

99.3032-Th2 = 13.5135

Th2 = 85.7896⁰c

5.3 ENERGY BALANCE FOR COOLER:

Th1=70 ⁰c Th2=33.839 ⁰c
Cooler

Tc2=28 ⁰c Tc1=26 ⁰c

Fig 5.3 Cooler

Mass flow rate of sulfur dioxide at (70⁰c) (mSO2) = 2.0225 kmol / hr
Mass flow rate of Water at (25⁰c) (mw) = 500 kg / hr
Specific heat capacity of sulfur dioxide at (70⁰c) (CPSO2) = 57.25 J / mol
K
Specific heat capacity of Water at (25⁰c) (CPw) = 4187 J / kg K

mSO2 * CPSO2 * (Th1-Th2) = mw * CPw * (Tc2-Tc1)

(2.0225*10^3 / 3600) * 57.25 * (70-Th2) = (500 / 3600) * 4187 * (28-26)

70-Th2 = 36.1609
Th2 = 33.8390⁰c
5.4 ENERGY BALANCE FOR DRYER:
ma,Ta2,x2,Tp2 Ta1,x1
H2so4
Dryer mp,Tp1,x1
Fig 5.4 Dryer
 17

m⁰a * Ha2 + m⁰p * Hp1 = m⁰a * Ha1 + m⁰p * Hp2

m⁰a – H2SO4 flow rate (kg dry H2SO4 /s)

m⁰p – Product flow rate (kg dry SO2/s)
Y – Absolute humidity (kg of water/Kg of H2SO4)
x– Product moisture content, Dry-basis (kg of water / kg of solids)
m⁰p = (2.0225*64/3600) = 0.0359 kg/s
m⁰a = 0.35 kg/s
0.35 * Ha2 + 0.0359 * Hp1 = 0.35 * Ha1 + 0.0359 * Hp2 ->1

Ha1 = Cs * (Ta1 – T0) + Y * HL

Ta1 – (Outlet temperature of H2SO4) = 21⁰C Cs = 1.005 + 1.88 * Y

HL = 1295 Cs = 1.0238
Ha1 = 1.0238 * (21 – 0) + 0.01 * 1295
Ha1 = 21.4998 + 12.95 T0 = Reference temperature = 0
Ha1 = 34.4498
Ha2 = Cs * (Ta2 – T0) + Y * HL
Ta2 = (Inlet temperature of H2SO4) = 28⁰c
Ha2 = 1.0238 *(28 – 0) + 0.01 * 1295
Ha2 = 1.0238 * 28 + 12.95
Ha2 = 41.6164

Hp = CPp (Tp – To) + x * Cpw * (Tp – To)

Hp1 = CPp (Tp1 – To) + X* Cpw * (Tp1 – To)

Specific heat capacity of SO2 (CPp) = (38.57 / 64) kj/kg
Specific heat capacity of water (CPw) = 4.187 kj/kg K
Inlet temperature of SO2 (Tp1) = 33.8390⁰c
Hp1 = (38.57 / 64) * (33.8390 – 0) + x * 4.187 * (33.8390 – 0)
Hp1 = 20.3913 + 141.6838* x

Hp2 = CPp (Tp2 – To) + x* CPw * (Tp2 – To)

 18

Outlet temperature of SO2 (Tp2) = 35.3593⁰c

Hp2 = (38.57/ 64) * (35.3593 - 0) + x * 4.187 * (26 – 0)
Hp2 = 21.3075 + 148.0493 * x
Sub Ha1, Ha2, Hp1, Hp2 in equation 1
0.35 * 41.6164+ 0.0359* (20.3913+141.6838 * x) = 0.35 * 34.4498 + 0.0359
*(21.3075+148.0493* x)
14.5657 + (0.7320+ 5.0864* x )= 12.0574+ (0.7649 +5.3149 * x)
2.4754=0.2285x
x = 10.8332 (kg of water / kg of solids)
5.5 ENERGY BALANCE FOR CONDENSER:
Th1=33.839 ⁰c Condenser Th2= -53.758 ⁰c
Tc2=29 ⁰c Tc1=25 ⁰c
Mass flow rate of sulfur dioxide at (33.8⁰c) (mSO2) = 2.0225 kmol/hr
Mass flow rate of Water at (25⁰c) (mw) = 450 kg/hr
Specific heat capacity of sulfur dioxide at (33.8⁰c) (CPso2) = 42.54 J/mol
K
Specific heat capacity of Water at (25⁰c) (CPw) = 4187 J/kg K

mSO2 * CPSO2 * (Th1-Th2) = mw * CPw * (Tc2-Tc1 )

(2.0225*10^3 / 3600) * 42.54 * (33.83-Th2) = (450 / 3600) * 4187 * (29-25)

33.83-Th2 = 87.5970

- Th2 = 53.7580 ⁰c

Th2 = -53.7580 ⁰c
 19

CHAPTER 6

DESIGN CALCULATION

6.1 DESIGN OF FLUIDIZED BED DRYER:

20
21
22
 23

6.2 DESIGN OF SHELL AND TUBE HEAT EXCHANGER:

24
25
 26

CHAPTER 7

COST ESTIMATION

Total Production Per day of liquid SO2 = 2.3593 Kmol/hr

= 150.9952 Kg/hr
= 3.6238 tonnes/day
Plant Capacity = 3.6238 tonnes/day
Total value(C) = 89,316 lakhs
ORIGINAL COST:
𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒(𝑐) 0.6
Original Cost = Value(C) * [ ]
𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦

89316 0.6
= 89316 * [ ]
3.6238

= 38546796.55
= 38.54 Crores
FIXED CAPITAL INVESTMENT COST (FCIC):
𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡
FCIC = Original Cost * [ ]
𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑡
17.48
= 38.546 * [ ]
16.97
= 39.250 Crores
TOTAL CAPITAL INVESTMENT:
DIRECT COST:
Purchased equipment Cost (8% of FCIC) = 0.08 * 39.25= 3.14 Crores
Installed Cost (18%) = 0.18 * 39.25= 7.065 Crores
Instrumentation and Control Installed (7%) = 0.07* 39.25 = 2.7475 Crores
Pipe Installation Cost (12% of PEC) = 0.12 * 39.25= 4.71 Crores
Electrical Instrument Cost (15% of PEC) = 0.15 * 39.25= 5.8875 Crores
Building and Auxiliaries Cost (13% of PEC) = 0.13 * 39.25= 5.1025 Crores
Land Cost (5% of PEC) = 0.05 * 39.25 = 1.9625 Crores
Yard Improvement (17% of PEC) = 0.17 * 39.2 = 6.6725 Crores
 27

Direct Cost = Purchased equipment Cost + Installed Cost + Instrumentation and

Control Installed +Pipe Installation Cost+ Electrical Instrument Cost+Building
and Auxiliaries Cost +Land Cost +Yard Improvement
Direct Cost = 3.14 + 7.065 + 2.7475 + 4.71 + 5.8875 + 5.1025 + 1.9625 + 6.6725
Direct cost = 37.2875 Crores
INDIRECT COST:
Engineering and Supervision Cost (15% of DC) = 0.15 * 37.2875 = 5.593 Crores
Construction Expenses (18% of DC) = 0.18 * 37.2875 = 6.71175 Crores
Contigency Cost (13% of DC) = 0.13 * 37.2875 = 4.84737 Crores

Indirect cost= Engineering and Supervision

Cost+ConstructionExpenses+Contigency Cost
= 5.593 + 6.71175 + 4.8473 = 17.152 Crores
FIXED CAPITAL INVESTMENT (FCI):
Fixed Capital Investment = Direct cost + Indirect Cost
= 37.2875 + 17.152
Fixed Capital Investment = 54.439 Crores
Working Capital Investment (16% of FCI) = 0.16 * 54.4395
= 8.71032 Crores
Total Capital Investment = Fixed Capital Investment + Working Capital
Investment
= 54.4395+8.71032
Total Capital Investment = 63.1498 Crores
TOTAL PRODUCTION COST:
Depreciation = 12% of Fixed Capital investment cost + 2% Building
= 0.12*39.25 + (0.02 * 5.1025)
= 4.81205 Crores
Local Taxes = 2% of FCIC
= 0.02 * 39.25 = 0.785 Crores
Insurance Cost = 7% of FCIC
= 0.07 * 39.25
= 2.7475 Crores
 28

Rent = 9% FCIC
= 0.09 * 39.25
Rent = 3.5325 Crores
Fixed Charge = Depreciation + Local Taxes + Insurance Cost + Rent
= 4.81205 + 0.785+ 2.7475 + 3.5325
= 11.877 Crores
𝐹𝐶
Total Production Cost = [ ]
0.15
11.87705
=[ ]
0.15

= 79.180 Crores
DIRECT PRODUCTION COST:
Raw Material Cost = (30% of TPC) = 0.3 * 79.1803= 23.754 Crores
Operating Labor Charge = (8% of TPC) = 0.08 * 79.1803 = 6.334 Crores
Direct Supervisory & Electrical Labor Charge = (17% of OLC) = 0.17* 6.334=
1.076 Crores
Utilities = (15% of TPC) = 0.15 * 79.1803 = 11.87704 Crores
Operating Supplies = (5% of FCIC) = 0.05* 39.250 = 1.9625 Crores
Labor Charges = (20% of OLC) = 0.2* 6.334 = 1.2668 Crores
Maintenance and Repair = (6% of FCIC)= 0.06* 39.250= 2.355 Crores
Direct Production Cost = Raw Material Cost +Operating Labor Charge+ Direct
Supervisory & Electrical Labor Charge+Utilities+Operating Supplies +Labor
Charge+ Maintainance and Repair.
Direct Production Cost = 23.750+ 6.334+1.076+11.877+1.9625+1.266+2.355
Direct Production Cost =48.626 Crores
Plant Overhead Cost = (10% of DPC) = 0.1* 48.6267 = 4.86267 Crores
MANUFACTURING COST:
Manufacturing Cost = Direct Product Cost+ Fixed Charges+ Plant Overhead Cost
Manufacturing Cost = 48.626+ 11.877+ 4.8626
Manufacturing Cost = 65.3664 Crores
GENERAL EXPENSES:
Administration Cost = (6% of TPC) = 0.06* 79.1803 = 4.7508 Crores
Distribution & Selling Price = (10% of TPC) = 0.1* 79.180 = 7.918 Crores
 29

Research & Development Cost = (7% of TCI) = 0.07* 63.149 = 4.42 Crores
General Expenses= Administration Cost+Distribution & Selling Price+Research
&Development Cost
General Expenses = 4.7508+7.918+4.42
General Expenses=17.089 Crores
GROSS EARNING COST:
Total Income= Selling Price * Quantity Manufactured
=104.145 Crores
Gross Earning Cost = Total Income-Total Production Cost
= 104.145 – 79.180
= 24.9647 Crores
Tax on Gross Earning Cost (50%) = 12.4823 Crores
Net Profit = Gross Earning – Tax
= 24.96-12.48
Net Profit = 12.48 Crores
𝑁𝑒𝑡 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑓𝑖𝑡
Rate of Return =
(𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐼𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡)∗100
12.4824
= *100
63.1498
=19%
BREAK EVEN POINT:
𝐷𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑟 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡+(10% 𝑈𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑒𝑠)+ 𝑅𝑎𝑤 𝑀𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙
Variable Cost = [ ]
𝑄𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦
1.0768+(0.1∗11.87704)+ 23.75409
=[ ]
3.6238

Variable cost = 2.0437 Crores

Fixed Cost = Fixed Charge + Building &Auxiliaries Cost +Land Cost
=11.87+5.1025 +1.9625
Fixed Cost=18.94205 Crores
𝐹𝑖𝑥𝑒𝑑 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡
Break Even Point = [ ]
(𝑁𝑒𝑡 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑓𝑖𝑡−𝑉𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡)
18.94205
=[ ]
(7.4824−2.0437)

= 1.1455
 30

PAYBACK PERIOD:
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝐼𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
Payback Period = [ ]
𝑁𝑒𝑡 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑓𝑖𝑡
63.1498
=[ ]
12.4824

= 5 Years and 1 Months.

 31

CHAPTER 8
CONCLUSION
Material balance, energy balance and design calculations were performed for the
production of liquid sulfur dioxide from molten sulfur. Material balance and
energy balance calculation done based on the law of conservation of mass and
energy respectively. Design calculation were performed for dryer and shell and
tube heat exchanger based on the process requirements. Cost estimation analysis
was done for the liquid sulfur dioxide production. The payback period was found
to be 5years and 1month.Hence the project the feasible
 32

REFERENCE

1. Austin G. T., “Shreve’s Chemical Process Industries” 5 th Edition, McGraw Hill

International Co.,2005.

2.Geetika, Piyali Gosh and purba Roy Choudhury, “Managerial Economics”, 1 st

Edition, TataMcGraw-Hill, New Delhi, 2008.

3. Graham Solomons T.W., Craig B. Fryhle and Scott A. Synder, “Organic

Chemistry”, 11th Edition, International Student Version, John Wiley & Sons Inc.,
New York, 2013.

4. Hougen O.A., Watson K. M. and Ragatz R. A., “Chemical Process Principles.

Part 1. Material and Energy Balances”, 2 nd Edition, John Wiley & Sons, New
York, 1956.

5. Mark W.V. And Bhatia S.C., “Chemical Process Industries” , Volume-1 and 2,
2nd Edition, CBS Publishers and Distributors, New Delhi, 2007.

6.MaxS.PetersandKlausD.TimmerhausandRonaldE.West,“PlantDesignandEcono
mics for Chemical Engineers”, McGraw Hill International editions, Fifth
edition,2003.

7. Nicholas P. Cherimisinoff., “Handbook of Chemical Processing Equipment”,

Butterworth, 2000.

8. Towler C.Gavin and Sinnott Ray, “Chemical Engineering Design: Principles,

Practice andEconomics of plant and process Design”, 2 nd Edition, Elsevier, 2008.
 33

INTRODUCTION

Nowadays, Natural fibers as a reinforcement has recently attracted the attention of

researchers in the field of material sciences. Because they are environmental
friendly, biodegradable, abundantly available, cheap and low density. Plant
fiberssuch as jute, hemp, cotton, flax, ramie, manila, abaca,sisal,
Pineapple,bagasseare observed to be light compare to the glass, carbon and
aramid fiber. Natural fibers are generally lignocellulosic in nature, consisting of
helically wound cellulose microfibrills in a matrix of lignin and hemicellulose.
Presently, the annual production of natural fibers in India is around 9 million tons
as compared to worldwide production of around 28 million tons. So the Natural
fibers have become important in the field of greencomposite material. A
composite is a material with the minimum of two or more distinct constituents or
phases that have different physical or chemical properties, which are constructed
into a complex architecture at micro-, meso- or macro-scale levels. The
development of composite materials has enriched modern material systems,
contributed to sustainable advances in materials science engineering and
improved the human life.Composite materials generally have higher strength- and
modulus-to-weight ratio than traditional material. This material can reduce the
weight of a system by as much as 25 to 35%. So the weight savings of the
material will directly enhance the energy savings and also help to increase the
performance.
 34

LITERATURE REVIEW

Kamachi Nuithitikl(2020) aimed at cashew nut shells (CNS) were collected

from a cashew nut processing factory to simply prepare adsorbents of Pb(II) ions.
The CNS biomass was initially washed and dried at 105 °C before grinding to a
smaller size (<2.0 mm). The ground solid was extracted with hexane to remove
cashew nut shell liquid and the remaining shells were dried at 105 °C for 24 h.
Portions of the shells were treated with aqueous solutions of H2SO4, HNO3 or
NaOH (1 M each) at 30 °C for 24 h and subsequently washed with distilled water
several times until the pH of washing water became constant, equal to the original
value (pH = 6.9).These chemical-treated adsorbents were then dried at 105 °C for
1 h and kept in a desiccator before use. Batch adsorption was carried out in 500
mL flasks. Typically, an aqueous solution of Pb(NO3)2 was prepared at the initial
Pb(II) concentration of 50 mg/L. 2 g of untreated or chemical-treated CNS was
added into the flasks. The adsorption temperature was kept constant at 30 ± 1 °C.
The adsorption process was initiated by stirring at 500 rpm and continued for 24
h. During the experiment, samples were taken and rapidly centrifuged in order to
separate the supernatant liquid from the solid adsorbent. The liquid samples were
analyzed with an atomic absorption spectrometer (AAnalyst 800, Perkin Elmer) to
determine the remaining concentrations of Pb(II). The adsorption capacities (the
amount of Pb(II) adsorbed per unit mass of CNS, qt) were calculated from the
initial concentration (C0) and remaining concentration (Ct) of Pb(II) in the
aqueous solutions.

Michael Ofem(2020) observed that coconut fruit were obtained from local shops.
the fibres were extracted from the husk using mechanical extraction method and
then dried at 36°C for 10 days (240 hours) in an incubator. The coir fibres were
chopped and sieved into sizes between 2 and 10 mm. Alkaline treatment was
carried out after sieving. The sieved fibres were placed in a stainless vessel
containing 10% solution of NaOH, stirred for 2 hours and washed thoroughly with
water to remove excess NaOH from the fibre. Coconut fibres obtained after
alkaline treatment were dipped in NaClO 1% solution under heating (60°C - 75
°C) for 1 h, this is to present strong bleaching effect fibre. Final washing was
carried out with distilled water and dried again at 60°C for 24 hours in an oven.
The cashew nuts were broken into two halves to remove the edible part. The bio-
 35

composites were fabricated using hand lay-up technique. The tensile tests showed
that the mechanical properties (modulus, strength, and elongation at break for the
tensile, compressive and bending) of composite improved significantly when
compared with the fibre.

AE Coasta (2014) aimed at cardanol–formaldehyde thermoset resin was

reinforced with raw and chemically modified fibers of bamboo (Bambusoideae).
Modified fibers were treated with alkali solutions of NaOH (5% and 10%) and
bleached with sodium hypochlorite NaClO/H2O (1:1) at 60-C–75-C. The
biocomposites were fabricated with a hand lay-up technique

M.P.Anselb(2003) observed that Hemp fibre bundles were alkalised at

concentrations between 0.8 and 8% NaOH and the change in surface morphology
was elucidated using scanning electron microscopy. Fibres were tested in tension
and the 4 and 6% NaOH treatment resulted in the highest Young’s modulus and
tensile strength of 65 GPa and 1064 MPa respectively. The Young’s modulus and
tensile strength of untreated fibres were 38 GPa and 591 MPa respectively. The
treated fibres with the highest strength were used as reinforcement for cashew nut
shell liquid matrix. Nonwoven fibre mats and unidirectional fibre composites were
manufactured by hand lay-up compression moulding. Tensile properties, porosity
and fracture surface topography of the composites were analysed.

C.Ugomadi(2013) ultimate goal is to find whether the CNS resin can be used as
composite.

CNS resin can be extracted by two methods:

Hot solvent method.

Cold solvent method.

After the seperation it is indulged with glass fibre inorder to find the results.

The result showed the ultimate compression strength of CNS resin(55Mpa) is

lower than that of polyester(68Mpa).

The tensile strenght of CNS(44Mpa)which is higher than polyester(39Mpa)

Hence,CNS can be a best alternative for synthetic fibre as they cost more high
 36

Valarmathi(2015) aimed at natural fibre composite panels are prepared using Cashew nut
shell liquid (CNSL) resin as matrix and Teak wood saw dust as reinforcing material. Three
set of samples have been made by varying the amount of resin by keeping the quantity of
Teak wood saw dust as constant, to investigate the mechanical properties of the new
composite. The resin and saw dust are mixed together. During mixing polymerization
reaction takes place and the reaction time was 4 minutes. Constant stirring is maintained
until the reaction is gets over and the mixture will be sticky kind of material. Then the
mixture is poured into a tray made up of GI sheet. Poly vinyl acetate is coated on the
galvanized iron (GI) sheet for the easy removal of composite material from the tray. The
mixture is allowed to dry in direct room temperature. After 2 days the composite panel is
separated from the tray. The hand layup process and the typical sample of composite
prepared.

Ryoko Tokoro(2007) observed that Bamboo fibers (BF) were mixed in polylactic acid
(PLA) to improve its mechanical properties: impact strength and heat resistance. Three
different types of BF were extracted from raw bamboo by either sodium hydroxide (NaOH)
treatment or steam explosion in conjunction with mechanical processing. They were
designated as ‘‘short fiber bundle,’’ ‘‘alkali-treated filament’’ and ‘‘steam-exploded
filament,’’ respectively. Composite samples were fabricated by injection molding using
PLA/BF pellets prepared by a twin-screw extruding machine. Among them, the highest
bending strength was obtained when steam-exploded filaments were put into PLA matrix.

Ander orue(2019) observed that different amounts of walnut shell flour have been added to
poly(lactic acid) polymer plasticized with 10 wt% epoxidized linseed oil to prepare
biocomposites. The novelty of this work is the preparation and characterization of
biocomposites based on alkali treated walnut shell flour and plasticized PLA matrix. Alkali
treatment removed the major part of non-cellulosic components of walnut shell improving
the thermal stability and crystallinity index. Furthermore, alkali treatment improved the
adhesion between walnut shell and plasticized PLA matrix and consequently, the tensile
strength value of composite improved around 50 %. Compounding of composites was
carried out in a HAAKE Rheomix 600 melt mixer.

Baskaran (2017) reported sisal plant fibers as reinforcement in epoxy resin to make low
cost, high strength and less weight substitute for mudguard. Fabrication of mudguard is
done with a wooden pattern that is engraved to the shape of the mudguard. Composite
plates were made for three types of ratios and one which offers best result is selected.
Among three ratios 60:40 is selected by comparing it with 65:35 and 70:30.60:40 ratio
which holds maximum tensile, flexural and impact strength. The weight of composite
mudguard is comparatively low than the weight of the conventional two-wheeler
 37

mudguard. At the same time strength and resilience of the natural fiber reinforced
mudguard is also enhanced .

Talikoti (2015) studied the reinforcement material for thermoset type polymer named
Bisphenol. Walnut shell powder was added with 5wt% to the epoxy resin to prepare
composite test specimens. The hand layup method was used for making the composite.
Composite test specimens were prepared as per ASTM standards. composite samples
made by adding 5wt% of walnut shell powder to pure epoxy the load carrying capacity
was increased. In case of the tensile test, load carrying capacity was increased from
4.74kN to 5.29kN. In flexural test the load carrying capacity was increased from 0.14kN
to 0.17kN and in compression test load carrying capacity was increased from 6.8kN to
13.32kN. It was found that for pure epoxy the load carrying capacity was lower
compared to the composite

Hammid Essabir(2016) aimed at developing a biocomposite using polypropylene (PP)

as the matrix andArgan nut shell (ANS) as reinforcement. Also,styrene-(ethylene-
butene)-styrene triblock copolymer grafted with maleic anhydride (SEBS-g-MA) was
used as a coupling agent. The samples were prepared by using extrusion compounding
followed by injection molding to determine the effect of filler and coupling agent
content on the morphological, thermal, mechanical, andhygroscopic properties of the
biocomposites. SEM micrographs revealed thatgood ANS dispersion/distribution into PP
was achieved with an important reduction of fiber pull-out, micro-spaces, and voids with
coupling agent addition. This led to substantial improvement intension, torsion, and
water absorptionreduction due to improved interfacial adhesion

George Thomas(2017) In this study borassus and tamarind fruit fibers were extracted and
their physical and mechanical properties such as diameter, density, tensile strength and
interfacial adhesion strength (IAS) were experimentally determined. To study the effect of
alkali treatment, both the fruit fibers were treated with 5% vol. sodium hydroxide solution for
0.5 h, 1 h, 2 h, and 4 h durations. Morphological studies of untreated and alkali treated fibers
by using scanning electron microscope (SEM) revealed the presence of the surface impurities
on the untreated fiber whereas the same were absent on the treated fibers. Fourier transform
infrared spectrometry (FTIR) and X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis also confirmed the
elimination of amorphous hemicellulose of the fibers on treatment. Borassus fruit fine fibers
and tamarind fruit fibers treated for 2 h exhibited better mechanical properties and improved
IAS with Cashew Nut Shell Liquid (CNSL)-Epoxy matrix.

O.Sameul(2012) observed that the morphology and mechanical properties of coconut

shell reinforced polyethylene composite have been evaluated to establish the possibility
 38

of using it as a new material for engineering applications. Coconut shell reinforced

composite was prepared by compacting low density polyethylene matrix with 5% - 25%
volume fraction coconut shell particles and the effect of the particles on the mechanical
properties of the composite produced was investigated. The result shows that the
hardness of the composite increases with increase in coconut shell content though the
tensile strength, modulus of elasticity, impact energy and ductility of the composite
decreases with increase in the particle content. Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) of
the composites (with 0% - 25% particles) surfaces indicates poor interfacial interaction
between the coconut shell particle and the low density polyethylene matrix

Darsan et al., (2018)Focuses on the short PALF fiber composite that was prepared by
injection molding method with the addition of Polylactic acid (PLA).Mechanical test,
Water absorption test characterization was performed on PALF reinforced PLA
composite with different fiber loading with treated and untreated PALF fiber. From this
analysis the tensile modulus with treated fiber gives highest percentage of 51.66
compare to untreated fiber. Similarly they also observe the impact and flexural strength
for both treated and untreated fiber composite material.

WassamonSujaritjun (2013) Experimented the Mechanical properties of the reinforced

PLA composite. This paper is focused on the tensile properties of natural fiber reinforced
polylactic acid composites. The untreated and treated natural fibers were compounded
with PLA matrix by twin screw extruder. The dumbbell-shaped testing specimens of
untreated and treated natural fibers were fabricated by injection molding. The stiffness of
composites significantly increased with increasing of fiber content as the results of
addition of high stiffness materials. It can be seen that tensile modulus of untreated
bamboo fiber composite was higher than glass fiber and coconut fiber composites.
39