CHAPTER 1

General Principles of Instrumentation

1.1. Introduction
We begin by defining a process as a system which generates information.
Examples are a chemical reactor, a jet fighter, a gas platform, a submarine, a car, a human heart,
and a weather system.
Lists of information variables which are commonly generated by processes:
Acceleration Torque Density Temperature
Velocity Volume Viscosity Heat/Light flux
Displacement Mass Composition Current
Force–Weight Flow rate pH Voltage
Pressure Level Humidity Power
We then define the observer as a person who needs this information from the process. This
could be the car driver, the plant operator or the nurse. This system works together to provide
some form of output from a specified input (information).
The main purpose of the measurement system is to link the observer to the information
generating process.
We can now refer to the information variable as a measured variable. The input to the
measurement system is the true value of the variable and the system output is the measured
value of the variable. In an ideal measurement system, the measured value would be equal to the
true value.

Fig.1.1. Purpose of measurement system.

The accuracy of the system can be defined as the closeness of the measured value to the true
value. A perfectly accurate system is a theoretical ideal and the accuracy of a real system is
quantified using measurement system error E, where
E = measured value - true value
E = system output - system input
Thus if the measured value of the flow rate of gas in a pipe is 11.0 m3/h and the true value is
11.2 m3/h, then the error E = -0.2 m3/h. If the measured value of the rotational speed of an
engine is 3140 rpm and the true value is 3133 rpm, then E = +7 rpm. Error is the main
performance indicator for a measurement system.
Instrumentation is a science of engineering of complete system designed to measure physical
quantities (variables) so as to obtain data (information), which are transmitted to display record
and control devices. Thus, Instrumentation as a system may be defined as an assembly or
arrangement or set up of various measuring instruments and other components interconnected to
indicate, compare, measure, analyze and control the electrical, thermal, hydraulic and other
non- electrical physical quantities.
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Structure of a Measurement System

The measurement system consists of several functional elements or stages. It is possible to
identify four main types of element, although in a given system one type of element may be
missing or may occur more than once. The main four types of functional elements of a
measurement system are shown in Fig.1.2 and can be defined as followed.

Fig 1.2.General Measurement System

Sensing Element:
The first element in any measuring system is the sensing element (detector). A sensor receives
energy from the object being measured, and gives an output according to a well understood
relationship with (a function of) the measurand (the physical parameter being measured, which
forms the input to the generalized measurement system)
Examples: • Thermocouple where millivolt e.m.f. depends on temperature
• Strain gauge where resistance depends on mechanical strain
• Orifice plate where pressure drop depends on flow rate.
If there is more than one sensing element in a system, the element in contact with the process is
termed the primary sensing element, the others secondary sensing elements such as, detectors
(sensors) or transducers. A transducer is defined as a device, which when actuated by one form
of energy, is capable of converting it into another form of energy.
Signal Conditioning Element:
This takes the output of the sensing element and converts it into a form more suitable for further
processing to improve the quality of the output of a measurement system in some ways, usually a
d.c. voltage, d.c. current or frequency signal.
Examples: • Deflection bridge which converts an impedance change into a voltage change
• Amplifier which increases the amplitude of the processing signal.
• Oscillator which converts an impedance change into a variable frequency voltage.
Signal Processing Element:
This takes the output of the conditioning element and converts it into a form more suitable for
presentation.
Examples:
 Analogue-to-digital converter (ADC) which converts a voltage into a digital form for
input to a computer.
 Computer which calculates the measured value of the variable from the incoming digital
data.

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Data (Output) Presentation Element:

The last part of the measurement system is the output presentation element which enables an
observer to recognize the measured value. The option element in a measuring system is the
point where the measured signal is utilized. The information regarding measurand (quantity to be
measured) is to be conveyed to the workforce handling the instrument or the system for
monitoring, controlling or analyzing purpose. The information conveyed must be in a form
understandable to the workforce. Such devices (read out or display) may be in analog or digital
format. The simplest form of display device is the common panel meter with some kind of
calibrated scale and pointer. In case, the data is to be recorded, recorders like magnetic tape or
CDs may be used. For control and analysis purpose computers may be used.
Examples of output elements:
 Simple pointer–scale indicator, alphanumeric display, Chart recorder and Visual display
unit (VDU).

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1.2. Performance Characteristics

1.2.1. Introduction
In the previous topics we saw that a measurement system consists of different types of functional
elements. The following topic discusses the characteristics that typical elements may possess and
their effect on the overall performance of the system. The performance characteristic is the input
and output relationship response (presentation) behavior of each element in an instrumentation
system.

Fig.1.3. Meaning of element characteristics.

There are two types of characteristics: Static and Dynamic.
Static Characteristics
It is concerned with static or steady-state characteristics; relationships which may occur between
the outputs (O) and the input (I) of an element when (I) is either at a constant value or changing
slowly. In static characteristics the changes of the input and output are related proportionally.
Dynamic Characteristics
If the input signal (I) to an element is changed suddenly, from one value to another, then the
output signal (O) will not instantaneously change to its new value.
For example: if the temperature input to a thermocouple is suddenly changed from 25 °C to 100
°C, sometime will elapse before the e.m.f. output completes the change from 1 mV to 4 mV. The
ways in which an element responds to sudden input changes are termed its dynamic
characteristics, and are most conveniently summarised using a transfer function G(S).
In dynamic characteristics the changes of the input and output are related non-linearly.
The performance of any instrument depends upon both static and dynamic characteristics.
Instrumentation, therefore, will only give adequately correct information if we understand the
static and dynamic characteristics of both the measurand and the instrumentation. This, in turn,
allows us to then decide if the error arising is small enough to accept. The total system response
is obtained by combining both responses.
The static and dynamic response of the cascade of blocks is simply the multiplication of all
individual blocks. As each block has its own part for the static and dynamic behaviour, the
cascade equations can be rearranged to separate the static from the dynamic parts and then by
multiplying the static set and the dynamic set we get the overall response in the static and
dynamic states.

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1.2.2. Static Characteristics:

Static characteristics of an element in instrumentation are mostly analysed by using systematic
characteristics.
Systematic Characteristics:
Systematic characteristics are those that can be exactly quantified by mathematical or graphical
means. These are distinct from statistical characteristics which cannot be exactly quantified.
Range:
The input range of an element is specified by the minimum and maximum values of I, i.e. IMIN to
IMAX. The output range is specified by the minimum and maximum values of O, i.e. OMIN to
OMAX. Thus a pressure transducer may have an input range of 0 to 104 Pa and an output range of
4 to 20 mA; a thermocouple may have an input range of 100 to 250 °C and an output range of 4
to 10 mV.
Span:
Span is the maximum variation in input or output, i.e. input span is IMAX – IMIN, and output span
is OMAX – OMIN. Thus in the above examples the pressure transducer has an input span of 104 Pa
and an output span of 16 mA as well as the thermocouple has an input span of 150 °C and an
output span of 6 mV.
Ideal straight line (linearity):
An element is said to be linear if corresponding values of I and O lie on a straight line. The ideal
straight line connects the minimum point A (IMIN, OMIN) to maximum point B (IMAX, OMAX)
(Figure 1.4) and therefore has the equation.

The ideal straight line defines the ideal characteristics of an element. Non-ideal characteristics
can then be quantified in terms of deviations from the ideal straight line.
Non-linearity:

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In many cases the straight-line relationship is not obeyed and the element is said to be non-
linear. Non-linearity can be defined in terms of a function N (I) which is the difference between
actual and ideal straight-line behaviour, i.e.
N I   OACTUAL  OIDEALL Or

Non-linearity is often quantified in terms of the maximum non-linearity and expressed as a

percentage of full-scale deflection (f.s.d.), i.e. as a percentage of spans. Thus:

Where: Ń = N (I)

Fig.1.4. Definition of non-linearity

Sensitivity:
This is the change ∆O in output O for unit change ∆I in input I, i.e. it is the ratio ∆O/∆I. In the
limit that ∆I tends to zero, the ratio ∆O/∆I tends to the derivative dO/dI, which is the rate of
change of O with respect to I. For a linear element dO/dI is equal to the slope or gradient K of
the straight line. For a non-linear element dO/dI = K + dN/dI, i.e. sensitivity is the slope or
gradient of the output versus input characteristics O(I). Fig.1.5. shows the e.m.f. versus
temperature characteristics E (T) for a typical thermocouple.

Fig.1.5. Thermocouple sensitivity

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We see that the gradient and therefore the sensitivity vary with temperature. At 100 °C it is
approximately 35 μV/°C and at 200 °C approximately 42 μV/°C.

Repeatability:
Repeatability is considered as statistical variations in the output of a single element with time.
Suppose that the input I of a single element, e.g. a pressure transducer, is held constant, say at 0.5
bar, for several days. If a large number of readings of the output O, say 1V are taken, then the
expected value of 1.0 volt is not obtained on every occasion.
A range of values such as 0.99, 1.01, 1.00, 1.02, 0.98, etc., scattered about the expected value, is
obtained. This effect is termed a lack of repeatability in the element. Thus repeatability is the
ability of an element to give the same output for the same (constant) input, when repeatedly
applied to it. Lack of repeatability is due to random effects in the element and its environment.
The most common cause of lack of repeatability in the output O is random fluctuations with time
in the environmental inputs IM, II: if the coupling constants KM, KI are non-zero, then there will
be corresponding time variations in O. Thus random fluctuations in ambient temperature cause
corresponding time variations in the resistance of a strain gauge or the output voltage of an
amplifier. Random fluctuations in the supply voltage of a deflection bridge affect the bridge
output voltage.
By making reasonable assumptions for the probability density functions of the inputs I, IM and II
(in a measurement system random variations in the input I to a given element can be caused by
random effects in the previous element), the probability density function of the element output O
can be found.

Fig.1.6. Normal probability density function with x  o

The most likely probability density function for I, IM and II is the normal or Gaussian distribution
function as shown above. The normal probability density function is expressed as below:

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1.2.3 Dynamic Characteristics

To properly appreciate instrumentation design and its use, it is now necessary to develop insight
into the most commonly encountered types of dynamic response and to develop the
mathematical modelling basis that allows us to make concise statements about responses.
If the transfer relationship for a block follows linear laws of performance, then a generic
mathematical method of dynamic description can be used. Unfortunately, simple mathematical
methods have not been found that can describe all types of instrument responses in a simplistic
and uniform manner.
If the behaviour is nonlinear, then description with mathematical models becomes very difficult
and might be impracticable. The behaviour of nonlinear systems can, however, be studied as
segments of linear behaviour joined end to end. Here, digital computers are effectively used to
model systems of any kind provided the user is prepared to spend time setting up an adequate
model.
Now the mathematics used to describe linear dynamic systems can be introduced. This gives
valuable insight into the expected behaviour of instrumentation, and it is usually found that the
response can be approximated as linear.
Transfer function G(s) for typical system elements
First-order elements
A good example of a first-order element is provided by a temperature sensor with an electrical
output signal, e.g. a thermocouple or thermistor. The bare element (not enclosed in a sheath) is
placed inside a fluid (Fig.1.7).

Fig.1.7.Temperature sensor in fluid

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Initially at time t = 0− (just before t = 0), the sensor temperature is equal to the fluid
temperature, i.e. To = TFo . If the fluid temperature is suddenly raised at t = 0, the sensor is no
longer in a steady state, and its dynamic behavior is described by the heat balance equation as
Rate of heat inflow - rate of heat outflow = rate of change of sensor heat content
Assuming that TF > T, then the rate of heat outflow will be zero, and the rate of heat inflow (W)
in watts will be proportional to the temperature difference (TF − T).
From Newton’s law of cooling the convective heat flow (W) in watts between a sensor at T / °C
and fluid at TF /°C is given by:
W = UA (T - TF) Where: U is the overall (convection) heat transfer coefficient between fluid and sensor in W/m2 °C
A is the heat transfer area in m2
The increase of heat content of the sensor is MC [T −To] joules.
Where: M is the sensor mass in kg and
C is the specific heat of the sensor material in J/ kg °C.
Thus, assuming M and C are constants:
Rate of increase of sensor heat content = MC T  To
d
dt
Defining ΔT = T − To) and ΔTF = TF − TFo) to be the deviations in temperatures from initial
steady-state conditions, the differential equation describing the sensor temperature changes is
dT MC dT
UATF  T   MC or TF   T
dt UA dt
This is a linear differential equation in which dΔT/dt and ΔT are multiplied by constant
coefficients and the equation is first order because dΔT/dt is the highest derivative present.
Note! The quantity MC/UA has the dimensions of time:
kg x J x kg 1 x o C 1 J
  sec onds
W x m 1 x oC 1 x m 2 W
and is referred to as the time constant τ for the system. So that
dT
TF    T
dt
The differential equation is now linear first-order differential equation and describes the
dynamics of the sensor.
Second-order elements
The elastic sensor shown in Fig.1.8, which converts a force input F into a displacement output x,
is a good example of a second-order element.

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Fig.1.8. Mass–spring–damper model of elastic force sensor

The diagram is a conceptual model of the element, which incorporates a mass m in kg, a spring
of stiffness k in N/m, and a damper of constant λ in N s/m. The system is initially at rest at a time
t = 0, so that the initial velocity vo = 0 m/s and the initial acceleration yo = 0 m/s2. The initial
input force Fo is balanced by the spring force at the initial displacement xo, i.e.
Fo = kxo
If the input force is suddenly increased at t = 0, then the element is no longer in a steady state and
its dynamic behavior is described by Newton’s second law, as:
Resultant force mass xacceleration, i.e.
F − kx − λv = my and F = my + λv + kx
Defining ΔF and Δx to be the deviations in F and x from initial steady-state conditions:
ΔF = F – Fo, Δx = x − xo Δv = v, Δy = y
Thus, the differential equation now becomes:
mΔy + λΔv + kxo + kΔx = Fo + ΔF
Using equation, Fo = kxo, which reduces to:
m d 2 x  dx 1
mΔy + λΔv + kΔx = ΔF and finally 2
  x  F
k dt k dt k
This is a second-order linear differential equation in which Δx and its derivatives are multiplied
by constant coefficients and the highest derivative present is d2Δx/dt2.
1.3. Measurement Errors:
No electronic instrument is perfectly accurate; all have some error or inaccuracy. It is important
to understand how these errors are specified and how they combine to create even greater faults
in measurement systems.
An error is the lack of accuracy which may be defined as a difference between the measured
values (AM) and the standard quantity (true value) of the unknown quantity (AS). This error is
mainly known as the absolute (uncertainty) error A of measurements.
Mathematically: A  AM  AS
The absolute error does not indicate the accuracy of measurements precisely. The quality of
measurement is thus, indicated preferably in terms of relative error  r  . The relative error is the

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ratio of absolute error A to the true (standard) value of the quantity to be measured.
A
Mathematically:  r 
AS
Note! No measurement can be carried out with a complete accuracy. Thus, a study of errors is
necessary in the study of measuring process. A study of errors is the first step in finding ways to
reduce them and such a study also allows in determining the accuracy of measurement results.
Measurement results are mostly stated as a numerical value, a unit and a level of uncertainty,
which is caused by the errors.
There are three general categories of errors in any measurement process, namely Gross Errors,
Systematic Errors and Random Errors.
Gross Errors: are human errors, which are caused by misuse of equipment, the proper use of
incorrect or inadequate equipment, or the misrepresentations of data obtained. Learning how to
use a piece of equipment properly may eliminate many human errors. The technician should
know the magnitudes, units and significance of the data obtained or the data will be of no use.
The best way to acquire these skills is:
 Reading the operation manual thoroughly before any instrument is used.
 Following through a course or test in conjunction with a lab experience.
The more an instrument or equipment is used, the more familiar the technician becomes with it.
Systematic Errors: are equipment errors that result from mechanical weakness of an instrument.
Worn bearings on meter movement and nonlinear sweeps on oscilloscopes are the fault of the
instrument, not the technician. With an adequate understanding of these problems, the technician
can diagnose the situation correctly and repair or replace the defective equipment. In some cases,
recalibration or compensation for error may be a solution.
Random Errors: are errors whose cause cannot be directly established because they appear to be
accidental variations in the electrical parameters of the measuring system or the device under
test. A high-quality technician acknowledges their existence and compensate for them by
statistical methods. Random errors can be minimized by statistical means (taking a number of
readings and obtaining a mean value).
The aim is to normalize random errors. One way to handle the random errors is to calculate the
probable error and express the values as the average plus or minus this error.
To do this we find the standard deviation  S  and probable error  pE  though the following
steps.

1. Calculate the arithmetic error x of the number of reading taken as:
1   2   3  ......  n n
 
n n
2. Find the deviation(d) from the mean (difference of the quantity being measured from the
mean: as d     Example: d1  1   , d 2   2   .........and so on

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Deviation from the mean may have a positive or negative value, but the algebraic sum
of all the deviations is always zero.
3. Determine the average deviation as:

da 
d1  d 2  ...... d n
.
d
n n
The result of the average deviation gives the indication of the precision of the instrument
used in carrying out measurements. Low average deviation shows the better precision of the
measuring instrument.
4. Calculate the standard deviation  s  . The standard deviation of an infinite number of
data is the square root of the sum all the individual deviation squared, divided by the
number of readings

S 
d1  d 2  .....dn 2
2 2


d . 2

n n
In practice the possible number of observation if infinite and the standard deviation of a
finite number of data is given by dividing (n-1).

S 
d1  d 2  .....d n 2
2 2


d 2

n 1 n 1
5. Determine the final probable error  pE  as : p E   S ; where   o.6745
Thus, the final probable error p E  0.6745 S

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