Work Environment Design

Work Environment Design

What is Designing a Work Environment?
• Changing parameters of the working conditions to encourage
productivity and reduce the probability of injuries.

Why do we need to Design a Work Environment?

1. Increase productivity
2. Reduce injuries
3. Reduce absenteeism, tardiness, and labor turnover
4. Improve morale
5. Avoid OSHA inspection, citation and fine

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 Illumination
◆ Light = radiant energy that is capable of exciting the
retina (of the eye) and producing a visual sensation
(according to the Illuminating Engineering Society)
◆ The entire electromagnetic spectrum consists of
waves of radiant energy that vary from about 1/1
billion of a millionth m to about 100 million m in
length. See handout figure 16-1.
◆ The visible spectrum ranges from about 380 to 780
nm.
◆ Light can be thought of as the aspect of radiant
energy that is visible.

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 Illumination
◆ The fundamental photometric quantity is luminous
flux, which is the rate at which light energy is emitted
from a source. The unit of luminous flux is the lumen
(lm). Luminous flux is similar to other flow rates such
as gallons per minute. Time is implied in the unit of
luminous flux. Thus, you could say that light is
flowing from a 100 watt incandescent lamp at a rate of
1740 lm.
◆ The luminous intensity of a light source is measured
in lumens emitted by the source per unit solid angle.
The unit if luminous intensity is the candela (cd). A 1
cd source emits 12.57 lm.

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 Illumination
◆ Consider a source of some luminous intensity
emitting luminous flux in all directions. Imagine the
source being placed inside (at the center of) a sphere.
◆ The amount of light striking any point on the outside
surface of the sphere is called illumination or
illuminance.
◆ It is measured in terms of luminous flux per unit area,
such as lumens per square foot (lm/ft2 = 1 footcandle
(fc) USCS) or lumens per square meter (lm/m2 = lux
(lx) SI) .
◆ 1 fc = 10.76 lx

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 Illumination
◆ The relationship of illuminance to intensity is
expressed as follows:
◆ Illuminance = intensity /d2
Where:
◆ d = distance from the source in meters
◆ Intensity measured in candlepower (cd)

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 Illumination
◆ Some light is absorbed and some is reflected (for translucent
materials, some is also transmitted), which allows humans to
"see" and object and a perception of brightness is realized.
◆ The amount of light reflected is termed luminance.
◆ The amount of light can be measured in terms of luminous flux
(lumens) or luminous intensity (candelas).
◆ When the amount of light is measured lumens and area in square
feet, the USCS unit of luminance is the foot-lambert (fL).
◆ When the amount of light is measured in candelas and the area
in square meters, the SI unit of luminance is candela per square
meter (cd/m2).

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 Illumination
◆ The ratio of the amount of light (lumenous flux) relfected by a
surface (luminance) to the amount of light striking the surface
(illuminance) is called the reflectance.
◆ The amount of reflectance is determined by the reflective
properties of the surface, which is known as reflectance.
◆ Reflectance = p * luminance / illuminance for Si units
Where:
◆ Luminance is in cd/m2 for SI
◆ Illuminance is in lx for SI
◆ Reflectance is a unitless proportion that ranges from 0 to 100 %.

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 Visibility
◆ Visibility = the clarity with which a human sees
something. Visibility involves human judgement.
There is no device that can measure visibility directly.
A human must always be involved in its
determination.
What are the 3 critical factors of visibility?
◆ Visual angle
◆ Contrast
◆ Illuminance

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 Visibility
Visual angle (arc min) = (3438) * h/d
Where:
◆ h = height of the target
◆ d = distance from the target to the eye

Contrast = (Lmax - Lmin)/L max

Where:
◆ L = luminance
◆ Note - contrast has no units
◆ Contrast is related to the difference in maximum and minimum
luminance of the target and the background.

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 Illuminance
Determining the illuminance required for an activity is a 7-step
process:
1. Identify the type of activity to be performed
2. Classify it into one of 9 categories listed in Table 6-2
3. Assign a weighting factor to the activity based on categories
4. Classify it into each of the 3 categories listed in Table 6-3
5. Assign a weighting factor to the activity based on characteristics
shown in Table 6-3.
6. Sum the weights to obtain the total weighting factor.
7. Select illuminance level based on the recommendations of Table
6-2.
Reflectance can be expressed as follows:
Reflectance = (.9) * (L target / L standard)

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 Light Sources
Now that you know the level of illuminance that you
need, you need to select the artificial light sources.
What 2 factors are important in selecting artificial light?
◆ Efficiency
◆ Color rendering

Why is efficiency important?

Efficiency is related to cost. A more efficient light source
will result in a lower energy bill.

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 Color
Variations in wavelength within the visible spectrum give
rise to the perception of color.
See handout figure 16-1 for visible colors and their
wavelengths.

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 Color
◆ The eye is not equally sensitive to all wavelengths of light.
◆ The eye is composed of two basic receptors: rods and cones.
◆ At high levels of illumination, the rods and cones both function
(photopic vision) and the eye is most sensitive to light
wavelengths around 550 nm (green).
◆ As illumination levels decrease, the cones cease to function and
the rods take over the entire job of seeing (scotopic vision) and
the eye becomes most sensitive to wavelengths around 550 nm
(blue-green).
◆ This shift in sensitivity from photopic to scotopic vision is called
the Purkinje Effect.

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 Color
What is the practical application of the Purkinje Effect?
◆ Targets can be made blue-green to increase the
probability of detection at night.

Why is color important in the work environment?

◆ Color has psychological effects on people.
◆ Color can be used to reduce sharp contrasts, increase
reflectance, highlight hazards, and call attention to
features of the work environment.

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 Effects of Lighting on Performance
◆ Look at handout figure 16-9.
◆ The general conclusion from this research is that
increasing the level of illumination results in smaller
and smaller improvements in performance until it
levels off.
◆ The point where this leveling off occurs is different for
different tasks.
◆ Generally, the more difficult the task (the smaller the
detail or the lower the contrast) the higher the
illumination level needed.

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 Effects of Lighting on Performance
◆ Larger improvements in visual performance can be
achieved by changing features of the task (increasing
its size or contrast) than by increasing the
illumination level (at least over any practical range).
◆ It is rarely possible to make performance on a difficult
task (small size, low contrast) reach the same level as
that on a visually easy task simply by increasing the
illumination level.
What practical applications can we learn from these
findings?
◆ Increasing the level of illumination is only a small part
of an overall approach to improving the work
environment.

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 Noise
What is noise?
◆ Any unwanted sound. More specifically, "that auditory
stimulus or stimuli bearing no informational
relationship to the presence or completion of the
immediate task".

◆ Sound can be defined in terms of the frequencies that

determine its tone and quality, along with the
amplitudes that determine its intensity.

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 Noise Measurement
Sound pressure level (L) in decibels (dB) is given by:
L = 20 log 10 * P rms / P ref

Where:
P rms = root-mean-square sound pressure in microbars

P ref = sound pressure at the threshold of hearing of a

young person at 1000 Hz (.0002 microbars)

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 Noise Measurement
How do you measure noise when more than one source
of noise exists?
L TOT = 10 log 10 * (10 L1/10 + 10 L2/10 + …)

Where:
L TOT = total noise

L1 and L2 are two noise sources

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 Noise
Two classifications of noise:
◆ Broadband
◆ Meaningful

What is broadband noise?

◆ Broadband noise is made up of frequencies covering a
significant part of the sound spectrum.
◆ Broadband can be continuous or intermittent.
◆ Broadband can result in deafness in long term situations.
◆ In day-to-day operations, it can reduce worker efficiency and
communication and increases fatigue.

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 Noise
What is meaningful noise?
◆ Meaningful noise represents distracting information
that impacts the worker's efficiency.

What does the effect of noise depend on?

◆ The total energy that the ear has received during the
work period.
◆ Thus reducing the time of exposure to excessive
noise during the work period reduces the probability
of permanent hearing loss.

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 Performance Effects of Noise
The effects of performance are not clear-cut. Only
general conclusions can be made.
1. The level of noise required to obtain reliable
performance effects is high, over 95 dBA
2. Performance of simple, routine tasks may show no
effect and often will improve as a result of noise
3. Tasks performed continuously without rest pauses
between responses and difficult tasks that place high
demands on perceptual and/or information
processing capacity are affected.

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 Noise Control
What are 3 strategies for controlling noise?
1. Control at the source - choose equipment with low
levels of vibration, and frequencies at low levels
2. Control along the path - Isolate the noise source,
Absorb noise on all surfaces, walls and ceilings
3. Control at the receiver - hearing protection and
testing personnel

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 Temperature
What four environmental conditions influence the heat
exchange process in your body?
1. Air temperature
2. Air flow
3. Humidity
4. Temperature of the surrounding surfaces

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 Vibration
What are 3 classifications of vibration exposure?
1. Whole body - all parts at the same time
2. Whole body - transmitted by a supporting body
segment (buttock, feet, etc…)
3. Localized body - limited to a small portion of the
body (hand when holding a power tool)

The human tolerance for vibration decreases as the

exposure time increases. See Figure 6-15. The graph
shows limitations for acceleration, frequency, and
time duration.

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 Problem 1
1. A work area has a reflectivity of 60 percent, based on the color
combinations of the workstations and the immediate
environment. The seeing task of the assembly work could be
classified as difficult. What would be your recommended
illumination?
Referring to Table 6-3, a reflectance of 60% yields a weight of 0.
Assume middle-aged workers and important speed/accuracy for a
total weight of 0.
A difficult assembly or inspection task falls into Category E of
Table 6-2.
Based on a weight of 0, the recommended illumination is the
middle value of 75 foot candles.

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 Problem 2
2. What is the combined noise level of two sounds of 86
and 96 decibels?

Using the formula on p. 235:

LTOT = 10 log10 (10 L1/10 + 10 L2/10) =10 log10( 10 86/10 + 10 96/10)

= 96.4 dB

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 Problem 3
3. In the Dorben Company, an industrial engineer designed a
workstation where the seeing task was difficult because of the
size of the components going into the assembly. The desired
brightness was 100 foot Lamberts and the workstation was
painted a medium green having a reflectance of 50 percent.
What illumination in foot candles would be required at this
workstation to provide the desired brightness? Estimate the
required illumination if you repainted the workstation with a
light cream paint
Using the formula on p. 225 inverted:
Illumination = luminance / reflectance = 100 fL/.50 = 200 fc
With light colored cream paint with a reflectance of 75%, the
required illumination is 133 fc.

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 Problem 4
4. In the Dorben Company, an industrial engineer was assigned to
alter the work methods in the press department to meet OSHA
standards relative to permissible noise exposures. The IE found
a time weighted average sound level of 100 db. The 20 operators
in this department wore earplugs provided by Dorben with an
NRR value of 20 dB. What improvement resulted? Do you feel
that this department is now in compliance with the law? Explain.

The effective sound level experienced by the workers is = 100 + 7 -

20 = 87 dBA.

Since the OSHA limit for an 8-hour exposure is 90 dBA (Table 6-6),
this department can be considered in compliance with the law.

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 Problem 5
5 . In the Dorben Co., an all-day study revealed the following noise
sources: 0. 5 hrs., 100 dBA; I hr., less than 80 dBA; 3.5 hrs., 90
dBA; 3 hrs., 92 dBA. Is this company in compliance? What is the
dose exposure? What is the TWA noise level?

The dose exposure is calculated &am the formula on p. 237:

D = 100 X (C1/T1 + C2/T2 + .. + Cn/Tn)

D = 100 x (0.5/1 + 0 + 3.5/8 + 3/6) = 100 x (0.5 + 0.4375 + 0.5) = 144%

Since the dose exceeds 100%, the noise exposure can be

considered excessive.

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 Problem 6
6. In problem # 5, consider that the last exposure is in
press room which currently has five presses operating.
Assuming that Dorben Co. can eliminate some of the
presses and transfer production to the remaining
presses, how many presses should Dorben eliminate so
as not to exceed 100% dose exposure for the workers?
Use the formula on p. 235 in reverse to find out how
loud each individual press, when the combined noise
level is 92 dBA:
LTOT = 10 log10 (5 * 10 L/10) = 92 dB
Solving for L:
LTOT = 10 log10 (10 9.2/5) =85

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 Problem 6
6. Unfortunately, even with one press running, the
permitted time T for the press room is 16 hours. The
resulting dose stiff exceeds 100%:
D = 100 * (C1/T1 + C2/T2 + …+ Cn/Tn)

D= 100 * (0.5/1 + 0 + 3.5/8 + 3/16) = 100 x (0.5 + 0.4375 +

0. 1875) = 112.5%

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 Problems 7 & 8
7. What is the illumination on a surface 6 inches from a 2
candela source?

Illumination = intensity/d2 = 2/(0.5)2= 8 fc

8 . What is the luminance of a surface having a 50%

reflectance and 4foot candle illumination?

Luminance = Illuminance * reflectance = 4 x 0.5 = 2 fL

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 Problem 9
9. What is the contrast created by black text
(reflectance=10%) on white paper (reflectance=90%)?

Since illumination for both the black text and white

paper is the same, the formula for contrast on p. 226 can
be expressed simply in terms of reflectances (R), with
the illumination terms canceling from the denominator
and numerator.

contrast = (Rmax- Rmin)/Rmax = (0.9 - 0.1)/(0.9) =0.89

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 Problem 10
10. How much louder is an 80 dB noise than a 60 dB noise?

In terms of pressure levels, use the formula on p. 235:

L = 20 log10 Prms/Pref = 80 - 60 = 20

Log10 Prms/Pref =1

Prms/Pref =10

There is a factor of 10 difference in pressure levels.

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 Problem 11
11. What is the increase in dBs of a noise that doubles in intensity?

In term of intensity levels, use the other formula on p. 235, with

equal sound levels:

LTOT = 10 log10 (10 L/10 + 10 L/10)

LTOT = 10 log10 (2 x 10 L/10) = 10 log10 2 + 10 log10 10 L/10

LTOT= 3.01 + L

Therefore, a doubling of sound intensities results in a 3 dB

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 Problem 12
12. A supervisor is sitting at her desk illuminated by a
180 candela source 3 feet above it.
She is writing with green ink (reflectance=30%) on a
yellow note pad (reflectance =60%).
a) What is the illumination on the note pad? Is that
sufficient?
If not, what amount of illumination is need?
b) What is the contrast of the writing task?
c) What is the luminance of the notepad?

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 Problem 12
12.
a) The illumination on the note pad is = intensity/d 2 = 180/32= 20 fc

In Table 6-2, 20 fc is the lowest level in Category D, reading or

writing of large printed text with high contrast.

Handwriting with green ink and relatively poor contrast falls into
Category E, requiring 50 to 100 fc illumination.

b) The contrast is = (Rmax/Rmin)Rmax = (0.6-0.3)/0.6=0.5

c) The luminance of notepad = illuminance x reflectance = 20 x 0.6

= 12 fL

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